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,Theteaching of reading
A collection undertaken by
the International Reading Association
on behalf of Unesco
Edited by Ralph C.Staiger
1973
Unesc Paris
Published by the
United Nations Educational, Scientfie
and Cultural Organization,
7 Place de Fontenoy,75700Paris
and
Ginn &Company (aXerox Education Company),
Lexington, Massachusetts 02173
(United States of America)
Printed by Corbaz S.A.,Montreux
ISBN 92-3-101027-1(Unesco)
ISBN 0-663-26464-2
(Ginn)
LC NO.73-8-2569
O Unesco 1973
Printed in Switzerland
Preface
As part of its programme to help educators and teachers profit by experience gained
in other countries, Unesco initiated in 1965
a series of source books devoted to the main
subjects on the curriculum.
The teaching of reading and writing in
schools has become a subject of great concern
to educationistsin all areas ofthe world,both
developed and developing. To those involved
in the movement for curriculum reform,it is
increasingly evident that effective reading is
basic to progress in learning in other subjects.
Moreover, experience has shown that in
order to develop good readers various types
of training must be provided throughout
primary school in a carefully integrated
seqpential programme of learning activities.
In 1956, Unesco published a study by
William S. Gray entitled The Teaching of
Reading and Writing1 devoted essentiallyto literacy work with adults,within the framework
of what was then known as Fundamental
Education, and largely based on an extensive preliminary study of the methods then
prevailing, and of their effectiveness. Given
the importance of this core subject in the
school curriculum,the Secretariat of Unesco
decided onthepreparation ofa sourcebook on
the teaching of reading to children addressed
mainly to primary-school teacher trainers,
'
Contents
General introduction 9
Editors note 11
1 Reading in todays world 13
Ralph C. Staiger,University of Delaware, Newark,Del. (United States of America)
2 Learning toread 21
Dina Feitelson,The Hebrew University,Jerusalem (Israel)
3 W a y s of teaching 39
6 Retardation 103
Eve J. Malmquist, TeachersCollege,University of Linkping,Linkping (Sweden)
General introduction
10
Editor's note
This book was developed for many people:thosewho areresponsiblefor the improvement of reading ability of children. Parents
and teachers have an awesome responsibility
for developing the language and concepts of
their children, but many others are also
indirectly responsible;they provide facilities,
materials, encouragement and guidance,and
are known by many titles in their schools and
ministries. Teacher educators also have a
particular responsibility for the teaching of
reading, not only a basic school subject but
one that also touches upon almost every other
subject;the better their understanding of the
art of reading is, the more rewarding their
efforts are likely to be.
Although many persons contributed to
this handbook,a singlethread can be observed
to run through its fabric:the fact that reading,
in order to be taught adequately, should be
considered a complex,intellectualtask rather
than just a matter of' the pronunciation of
words. Reading impinges upon many disciplines in its use,its study,its teaching and its
enjoyment. T o view reading only as a tool
would be a serious oversimplification. The
contributors to this book develop,from their
own vantage points,the many ways in which
reading may be considered.
The book's origin m a y be traced to a
12
Ralph C. Staiger
paragraph definitions of reading are of necessity inadequate and that a true definition must
incorporate all of the definitional approaches.
Onlyin such a manner will the brief definition. .. have the proper semantic structure
(ibid,p. 174).
The tentative summary definition finally
stated was,
Reading is a terin used to refer to an interaction
by which meaning encoded in visual stimuli by an
author becomes meaning in the mind of the reader.
The interaction always includes three facets:(1) material to be read;(2)knowledge possessed by the reader;
and (3) physiological and intellectual activities. The
variability apparent when the interaction is viewed
at different points in time is a result ofthe variability
possible in each of the several facets.
Humans are set apart from other creatures by their ability to use language for
communication. This ability has become the
focus of attention for many observers and
scientists, and a growing body of knowledge
about various aspects of language in communication has appeared.The study of language
cuts across many fields,each of which has an
interest in communication because it is either
central to its concerns or because it impinges
upon the central problems of the field. An
educational psychologist, for instance, is
interested in how humans learn language; an
anthropologist looks upon language as an
important aspect of the culture of a given
group; a physiologist is concerned with the
flinction of the body which makes speech
possible.
It is apparent that a study of reading
must be concerned with many aspects of
language. In a survey of the development of
linguistic science,Fries (1963) delineated the
various characteristics of human language
which have emerged during its history. Some
of the assumptions about language which
Iiavebecome acceptableand which have direct
15
Ralph C. Staiger
17
Ralph C. Staiger
graduate does not expect to engage in practical work. The Western notion of using an
education is in conflict with the ancient
Eastern attitudes, and change is very slow.
If the learner expects his education to be an
end in itself,he will not use it as the beginning
of a new life. When the emphasis in instruction is solely on the memorization of ancient
texts, the recall of lectures and textbook
passages, and discourse with the instructor
about a given content, talk is the result.
Brembeck (1962,p. 284-5) has discussed the
problem directly:
N o w the problem is not the talk.It is, rather,the
inability to move from talk to action. This inability
must be understood within the cultural setting of
colonial people only recently set free to develop their
own lands.When a foreign power has for generations
carried on the vital functionsof government,reaching
down and influencing the lives of the masses,the art
of decision making and action taking is lost,atrophied
through lack of use. Talk is the only action available
to people. It hally becomes a substitute for action,
an end in itself.
19
Ralph C.Staiger
REFERENCES
Center for Educational Research and Development, United States Office of Education. (Project
no. 8-0737.)
GRAY, William S. 1956 (rev. ed. 1969). The teaching
20
TINKER,
Miles A.;MCCULLOUGH,
Constance.2nd ed.
1962. Teaching elementary reading. N e w York,
N.Y.,
Appleton-Century-Crofts.615 p.
WALL,
W.D.1958. Some reflectionson education in
the developingcountriesand in Europe. The school
review (Chicago), vol. LXVI, p. 56-60.
Learning to read
Dina Feitelson
1.
In the writing of this chapter I have drawn extensively on the work of John B. Carroll,Jeanne Chall,
Eleanor J. Gibson, Marion D. Jenkinson, John
Mountford and Robert C.Calfee with Richard L.
Venezky; my indebtedness to their penetrating
analysis of the field of reading goes much beyond
the references cited. I am grateful to Hanna Abels
for her help in the research which preceded the
writing of this chapter and to Richard L. Venezky
for reading the manuscript. His good counsel and
helpful comments were freely given and much
appreciated.
21
Dina Feitelson
22
Learning to read
23
Dina Feitelson
Learning to read
Dina Feitelson
26
1.
Learning to read
factors within the author influence the published material he produces,there can be little
doubt that such a factor does exist and that it
defies attempts to be compressed into one of
the previous classes. In Jenkinsons (1969,p.
44)words:Thetone ofthe writer, his attitude
towards both his subject and towards the
reader, a11 apparently affect the level of
comprehension.Undoubtedly, the extent to
which the author himself has been able to
think through his problem in all its ramifications and arrive at a clearly formulated and
precise statement will have a decisive effect in
this respect.
Interpretation related to the reader. W e
can now return to the reader himself in an
attempt to clarify the skills he puts to use
when he sets about interpreting the graphic
symbols he has been able to identify.
At the early stages of learning to read,
meaning seems to be derived word by word.
Even at thisrelativelysimple stage it is difficult
to know whether the meaning ofaword comes
to the mind of the reader as a by-product of
his being able to sound it correctly or that,
on the contrary, at some stage during his
attempts at identification the meaning of a
word is suddenly understood and only then
is the reader able to pronounce it.1 Most
experienced teachers might maintain that in
fact both processes function simultaneously
with some words being derived by the one
and some by the other,by the same beginning
reader during the course of the same single
lesson.
Still, one will have to bear in mind that
other factors are at play. One can assume,for
instance,that in a writing system with high
symbol-sound correspondences a beginning
reader will understand many words as a
1.
27
Dina Feitelson
4.
5.
6.
7.
Learning to read
Dina Feitelson
Raymonds fatheris aprofessor attheuniversity near the private nursery school which
Raymond attended.Faculty families consider
this nursery school as the best in the neighbourhood and it has a long waiting list.
Teacher-pupil ratio is extremely favourable,
and the curriculum is well planned and manysided.Raymond entered nursery school at the
beginning of the academic year when he was
4% years old.H e adjusted to schoolwell,took
part in all activities and quickly learned to
label his work by himself-RAYMOND-as
well as to recognize also the written names of
his closest friends. At the time teachers
usually used capital letters in writing childrens names and the labels needed for work
in class.
About the middle of the school year,
Raymonds school was asked to participate
in an experimental project of the universivy
near by aimed at teaching reading at an early
age.From then on all children participated in
daily group sessions in which reading was
taught from booklets provided by the project.
The booklets were structured on linguistic
principles, and were mimeographed in lowercase letters only. Childrens names and other
new labels also were written from then on
only in lower-case letters, but many of the
previous labels and books remained in use.
Raymond learned to write his name in the
new way-raymond-but
did not make any
effort to learn to recognize the names of his
friends also. Children were moved from group
to group by reading achievement,and teachers, parents and visiting adults showed keen
interest in their rate of progress. Surprisingly,
Raymond, who was considered one of the
brightest children in his class and was also
30
Learning to read
Dina Feitelson
Learning to read
same age, and will live in the same neighbourhood. They thus have in common many
of their previous life experiences, which in
turn will have influenced their scope ofknowledge,use of language,range of interests,etc.
In short,the children will be a rather homogeneous group in terms of the skills needed
for acquiring the rudiments o reading.
W e have then on the one hand a fairly
homogeneous group, in which, moreover, all
the members are faced with the same identical
task. It seems that successful teaching of
beginning to read by way of individualized
instruction has so far been reported fairly
often from schools functioning under particularly favourablecircumstances.This should
not come as a surprise when one realizes that
such a way of teaching clearly requires quite
small classes,a spacious room,an abundance
of materials to work with for each child, a
great variety of different kinds of reading
materials and a very well trained and able
teacher. While there can be little doubt that
in the long run all educational systems strive
for such an ideal set of conditions,not many
can boast of them at present. Furthermore,
one would seriously have to raise the question
as to whether, when faced with an identical
task which has to be taughtto a homogeneous
group,a method of individualized instruction
is the best way to use onesresources.Instead,
acting under the assumption that in many
school systems teachers with minimal training
will have to teach beginning reading to large
groups of children, it would seem wiser to
devise teaching practices in such a way as to
help the teacher to overcome individualdifferences in his classroom.
In the initial teaching method used in the
Viennese school district in Austria (population 2 million), symbols and the sounds they
33
Dina Feitelson
that in many respects this stage is very different from later stages in the development of
reading skills.Once the child is able to decode
every symbolor symbolcombinationhe meets
inprint,rates offurtherprogressdiffer widely.
At these later stages an individualized programme, more than any other, may prove of
value inunfolding to the fullest extent thevarious skills necessary for meaningful reading.
Learning to read
Dina Feitelson
Learning to read
Dina Feitelson
REFERENCES
N e w York,N.Y., McGraw-Hill.
BOND,Guy;DYKSTRA,Robert. 1967.The co-operative
research program in first grade readinginstruction.
Reading research quarterly (Newark, Del.), vol.
II,summer,p. 5-142.
CARROLL,
J. B. 1960. Language development in
children.In: Encyclopedia of educational research.
3rd ed. N e w York,N.Y., Macmillan.
-.
1964.The analysis of reading instruction: perspectives from psychology and linguistics. In:
National Society for the Study of Education,
Theories of learning and instruction, p. 336-53.
Chicago, Ill., The University of Chicago Press.
(Sixty-third yearbook,pt 1.)
CHALL,
J. 1967. Learning to read: the great debate.
McGraw-Hill.372 p,
N e w York,N.Y.,
DAWS,
Allison. 1948. Social class influences upon
learning. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University
Press. 100 p.
DURKIN,
D.1966. Children who readearly.N e w York,
N.Y.,
TeachersCollege Press. 174 p.
FEITELSON,
D. 1965. Structuring the teaching of
reading according to major features of the language and its script. In: Elementary English, p.
31-8. Champaign,111.
JENKINSON, M.D.1969. Basic elements of reading
comprehension.In:R.C.Staiger and O.Andersen
(eds.), Reading: a human right anda human problem.
38
W a y s of teaching
Marion D.Jenkinson
Much has been written about the teaching of reading. No area of the school curriculum has received as much attention or
created an equal amount of controversy.
Through the centuries there have been many
shifts in the methods of teaching reading and
there have been specialpleas for specifictypes
of training. It is, however,within this century
that the need for a reading programme that
continues throughout the school life of children has been recognized. Such a programme
is necessary so that those who achieve a
functional level of literacy do not lapse into
semi-literacy.Maintaining literacy has been
recognized to be importantin terms ofachieving higher levels of academic proficiency, but
continuous development in reading is now
also seen as essential for continuing employment in a technological society.
Though the specifics of teaching reading
at the initial level will vary according to the
language and the type of alphabet,the establishment of relationship of correspondence
between the sound and the symbol usually
receives the main emphasis at this point. Yet
it is essential that even at the beginning stage
the reader realizes that the mere ability to say
a word is not sufficient. H e must be able to
understand the meaning that is presented to
him through the symbols.The emphasisin the
readingprogrammewillshiftonce competence
inrecognizingwords has been established.The
reading programme will then emphasize
skills which ensure the understanding of all
types of material at successive levels of difficulty.
Reading,however,must not be separated
from other facetsoflanguage acquisition.The
pervasive influence of general language development must be recognized at all points in
planning the reading programme. Reading
performance is undoubtedly improved if
those activities designed to foster reading
growth are linked with other language activities. There are links between comprehension
in listening and comprehension in reading.A
variety ofwriting activities can also reinforce
those skills which have been learned in
reading.
Moreover,reading is not a subject.Since
it has no specific content it cannot be taught
separately as are most other subjects on the
curriculum. It is part of every other subject
and has frequently been regarded as a tool
facilitating many other types of learning. But
this is not entirely true either,since reading is
also an experience; it can enlarge the understanding, develop concepts and extend an
individual's experience vicariously. In most
schools reading becomes the principal key
39
Marion D.Jenkinson
Ways of teaching
Marion D.Jenkinson
At this level,the words used in the material frequently go beyond the listening vocabulary of the reader. It is therefore essential
that the recognition of words in reading is
constantly put to functional use in other
language situations. Frequent checks may
have to be made, and ways of breaking down
words either by syllablesor into their structural parts need to be expanded. Emphasis must
also be placed upon the way in which the
context gives many clues to meaning. The
effective use of dictionaries in order to check
meanings not obtainablein context also needs
1.
See Chapter 2.
Ways of teaching
43
Marion D.Jenkinson
Ways of teaching
Advanced stage
Marion D.Jenkinson
46
W a y s of teaching
47
Marion D.Jenkinson
aware of these wider aspects of comprehension he rarely develops his full potential.
Teaching comprehension
Ways of teaching
Marion D.Jenkinson
Ways of teaching
The intimate relationship between reading and writing is also frequently ignored.
Activities which teachers designate as writing
often cannot be accomplished without adequate achievement in reading. Learning to
write a paragraph becomes more meaningful if
the paragraphs of other writers are examined.
Such an activity may be linked with an
examinationofhow themain ideaispresented,
and the ways in which details are included.
Similarly, a scrutiny of the ways in which
different authors organize their ideas may be
linked with essay writing. Outlining, notetaking, summarizing and prcis writing, if
based on material read, reflect reading and
writing abilities equally,while at a much lower
level efficient word recognition may be
mirrored in spelling accuracy.
The doze procedure of measuring reading has recently received much attention. A
doze test is constructed by omitting every
nthword through a passage and substituting
in their places blanks of a standard length.
The reader then attempts to anticipate meaning from the context and to supply accurately
the words deleted from the message. The
term doze is derived from the psychological
notion of closure,the tendency to fill in a gap
to make a well-structuredwhole. Though only
one word is permitted, in some instances
synonyms may also be scored.This technique
is notmere guessing;onthecontrary,thereader
is being asked to use his cognitivepowers to the
fullest. He is forced to use context clues of
every type as well as his knowledgeof vocabulary,of languagepatterns and of previous experience. H e is being asked to comprehend so
thoroughlythathe canmake logicalconnective
deductions between the ideas presented.
Though the doze procedure is usually
used to measure reading comprehension, the
Marion D.Jenkinson
W a y s of teaching
Teachers ofmathematics frequently complain that students who have been able to
master the fundamentals of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are
unable to do problems concerned with these
fundamental processes. It is rarely recognized
that the problem is primarily one of inability
to read effectively in this subject. Some of the
new approachesinmathematics emphasizethe
language of mathematics not only in terms of
its special symbolization but also because it
has a distinctive syntax.
The vocabulary of mathematics is more
compact and exacting than in any other
subject area. There is a precision of meaning, a succinctness of sentence structure and
sequence of thought which must be understood. Reading rate is necessarily slow and
before full comprehension can be obtained
there may have to be several re-readings.
Marion D.Jenkinson
Science
W a y s of teaching
Rate of comprehension
The explosive expansion of knowledge
duringthelasttwo decadeshas been paralleled
by a deluge of printed materials. This has led
to many demands for ways of accelerating
the reading process in order to cover more of
the material. Though this area is still subject
to great controversy,certain statementsappear
to be valid.
The term rate of comprehension is
perhaps more accurate than the one which has
received the greatest usage, rateof reading.
There is little value in skimming quickly over
words and pages if little or no understanding
ensues. Furthermore, there is obviously a
connexion between an individuals rate of
thinking and the speed with which he can
comprehend;thisappearsto vary considerably
between individuals. Several studies have
shown,however, that adults who are mature
readers tend to read too slowly.
Authorities are agreed that an efficient,
accomplished reader will reveal flexibility and
Marion D.Jenkinson
Oral reading
Though it is possible to learn to read
without articulating words orally,pronunciation of words enables the teacher to check on
the accuracy of word recognition during the
early stages, and may also serve to reinforce
the learning ofthe beginning reader.Once the
essentials of word recognition have been
mastered it is essential that pupils make the
transition to silent reading,for this allows the
individual to read independently at his own
rate.
56
Ways of teaching
thought units;to transmit the meaning directly;to be accurate in reading,e.g. not to omit
or substitute or transpose or repeat words;
to interpret thoughts and feelings; to match
voice and manner to the thoughts and feelings
of others;to sense audience reaction;to coiitrolbreathing,bodily movements and mannerisms;to adjust expression to changes in the
mood of characters or the mood of materials;
to assume the character for oral reading of
dramatic materials or stories; to make
gestures where they are purposeful, natural
and meaningful;and to make necessary vocal
adjustments to bring out the rhythm and
feeling in prose and poetry.
Although it is usual for silent reading to
precede oral, there are occasions when oral
reading at sight is desirable.Sight reading can
be an invaluable tool for diagnosing reading
difficulties,particularly in word recognition.
Omissions, substitutions, lack of knowledge
of sound-symbol relations, insertion of
words, faulty enunciation, can all be noted,
as well as the lack of comprehension which
may be revealed by awkward phrasing,wrong
emphasis and quality of expression.
Thus,though oralreadingno longerholds
the prime position which it held in the nineteenth century, functional oral reading still
has a place in the curriculum.
Teaching adults
57
Marion D.Jenkinson
58
Ways of teaching
AUTHORS NOTE
59
Ralph C.Staiger
Most children are surrounded by symbols. For example, the ubiquitous petrol station is seen by millions of children,and recognizing its trade mark is sometimes the first
readingthat a child experiences.Road signs,
directions, and the meaning of red and green
traffic lights can enlarge the readingvocabulary of a curious child who travels by automobile or bus with someoneinterested enough
to answer his questions. Some will be nonverbal symbols and others will be words.
Perhaps religious symbols or the labels on
food packages will help initiate him into the
mysteries ofreading. Certainly it is not necessary for the child to attend school for him to
take this important step towards reading.
Yet, translating symbols into meaning is
not the only readingexperience a pre-school
child can have. H e often learns about the
content and structure of what he will eventually read through listening to folk tales,
legends, recordings or by watching cinema
or television. Many of his learnings are
probably subconscious,but they are important for his future reading development.
Language understandings are built in
many ways, and in many situations. Most
children learn them informally and haphazardly,but attemptshave been made to formalize these learnings using various media.
Sesame Street,a television programme designed for pre-school children and produced by
the ChildrensTelevision Workshop, has been
used quite successfully in the United States.
62
1.
Ralph C.Staiger
1.
Saint-Germain,Paris-G@).
2. Phonemic-pronunciation approaches.3
These are ofmost use in languageswhich have
irregular sound-symbol relationships,and in
which principles and rules of pronunciation
are taughtfor thepurpose of aidingthe learner
when he encounters new words.In most cases,
these are manuals used as an adjunct to other
reading materials,to provide practice in using
phonemic rules which are reasonably regular.
1.
2.
3.
65
Ralph C. Staiger
3. Phonemics-reading approaches.1 In
these,practice in the grapheme-phoneme, or
letter-sound relationship is provided in the
materials themselves, although it is expected
that other books will be read; the children
practise the skills which they have learned
immediately,and in a controlled selection.
4. Lirzguistics-phonemics alq>roaches.2
These have been developed in response to the
scientific study of language,and for the most
part reflectthe linguistsconceptofreading as
decoding of an alphabetic representation of
speech sounds;some of the linguisticmaterials have proven to be little different from
those in the Basic Phonemic Approaches
described above. Programmed instruction
techniques have been used in some of the
newly developed materials. Another linguisticprogramme has been developed for bilingual children,and includeslistening,speaking,
writing and speaking activities as well as
reading, and focuses on the acquisition of
patterns through drill.
5.Totallanguage arts approaches.3 These
include emphasis on several or all of the
components of the language arts, reading,
writing, listening and speaking, and are
usually marketed in a package.
6. Language-experience approaches.4
These provide a whole-wordmethod in keepingwith the experimentalbackground,the language patterns and the self-image of each
individual child.
2.
3.
N.Y.10016).
4.
5.
Jugend, organized by Dr Richard Bamberger, with headquarters in Vienna. In a yearlong study of the effect of paperback book
clubs in the classrooms of five cities in the
United States (Studebaker, 1970), Scholastic
Magazines and Book Services found evidence
that children bought, read and profited from
membership in their various clubs. An interesting but important sidelight is that a little
less than two minutes per book read was all
the investmentof time required ofteachers in
order to supervise orders and the distribution
of the books ordered.
Easy reading books of many kinds are
very desirable for the beginning reader and
for the person who is having difficulties leaming to read. Some publishers have provided:
series ofbooks designed to serve thisfunction.
Their vocabularies are simple and controlled
for difficulty,
their content of high interest to
children, their format attractive and their
price reasonable because of the high volume
of potential sales.
Collections of books and pamphlets also
make available reading matter at reasonable
cost. Some collections are organized according to topic-literature, science, adventure,
etc.-while others provide a number of books
which might be of interest to children at a
certain age level. The advantage of unit cost
reduction because of classroom sales works
to the advantage of readers and school
treasuries alike.
Workbooks and exercise manuals which
provide skills practice are known in many
guises. The simplestis the copybook in which
the pupil writes what is provided in the textbook or on the chalkboard;the most complex
are combinations of audio-visual aids, tape
recordings and electronic devices which can
provide feedback to the pupil, so that he
67
Ralph C.Staiger
and evaluativevalue,as well as that ofproviding practice. These are sometimes in book
forms at various difficulty levels, and are
sometimes provided in kits which contain not
only a diagnostic test but also skill practice
exercises of high interest, available in fourpage booklets to be used according to the
general reading ability of the pupil, as well
as his specific needs.
Professional materials for teachers are
often available from ministries of education
and teacher-traininginstitutions. New developments are constantly being described in the
publications of professional and teachers
associations.New information about reading
can often be found in the publications of the
International Reading Association and its
amiates in various nations.
REFERENCES
AUKERMAN,
Robert C.1971.Approaches to beginning
reading. N e w York,N.Y., Wiley.
COMPAYR, Gabriel de. 1886. The history ofpedagogy.
Boston, Mass., D.C.Heath. 592 p.
DURKIN,
Dolores. 1966. Children who read early: 2
longitudinal studies. N e w York, N.Y., Teachers
68
Evaluating progress
Miles A. Tinker
Miles A. Tinker
is to develop functional literacy so that a citizen will be able to meet independently the
reading demands made upon him during his
active lifetime.To attain functionalliteracy in
reading,the duration and quality of the training provided must be adapted to the needs of
citizenship of ones country. These vary from
country to country;however, in general one
should read well enough to keep informed
regarding social,political and economicproblems,to attaingreatereconomicindependence,
and to participate intelligently in the activities
of the community.
Goals for a short-term period, on the
other hand,deal with progress in the day-byday or week-by-weekinstruction in particular
skills such as vocabulary word-recognition
skills and reading by phrases rather than
word-by-word.Here the problem of measurement is more difficult, for the teacher must
depend largely upon informal testing and
observation. Informal tests, usually devised
by the teacher,are not standardized,i.e.there
are no norms.Although this is true,the informal, teacher-made tests are appropriate
because they are organized to check how well
a specific skill or unit of instruction has been
learned.
The short-timegoal is especially important, for the teacher is attempting to find out
how effective his teaching has been. H e will
discover strengths and weaknesses of individual pupils in mastering what has just been
taught. Where weaknesses are found, individual instruction can remedy the situation.
The method of measurement used at any
given time will depend upon what is to be
evaluated;that is, one method may be more
useful for measuring skill in some aspect of
word recognition,another for understanding
word meanings and still another for evaluat-
Evaluating progress
71
Miles A. Tinker
Teacher ...........................................
Pupil name ...............................................
.
.
.
Date record began ...............................................
Intelligence test
Mental age
School ....................................................................
Grade ........................ Birthdat
Age of pupil ..........
Chronological
age
Intelligence
quotient
Date
1. ..............................................................................................................................................
2. ................................................................................................................................. ...........
Standardized reading tests
Test
Date given
Score
Grade
equivalent
1, ...................................................................................................................................................
2.i..." ...............................................................................................................................................
Evaluation derived from standardized test results
Informal evaluations
for giving a standardized test should be followed exactly as given in the manual. Otherwise the norms or standards of achievement
cited in the manual are useless.
72
Evaluating progress
Kinds of measurement
Standardized reading tests
Miles A. Tinker
74
Evaluating progress
Miles A. Tinker
Abilities to be measured
76
The pupil is to check the correct word.Another kind of vocabulary test is to have the pupil
find the word which is the opposite of the key
word and write its number in the parenthesis
at the right.A n example:
front
(1) near (2)back (3) place (4)above ()
Evaluating progress
score possible on the test. The average difficulty of test items is related to the validity
of the test as a whole.
Validity
77
Miles A. Tinker
2112
=1 + r12
Evaluating progress
79
Miles A.Tinker
TABLE
1. Centile ranks for speed-of-readingscores
Scores
(1)
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
(2)
1
1
1
1
2
2
4
3
4
5
6
6
Centile
rank
Scores
(3)
(4)
(5)
(1)
90
89
88
87
86
84
82
78
75
71
66
60
100.0
98.9
97.8
96.7
95.6
93.3
91.1
86.7
83.3
78.9
73.3
66.7
100
99
98
97
96
93
91
87
83
79
73
67
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
54
4
6
45
41
35
20
13
8
4
2
2
1
15
7
5
4
11
10
9
2
O
-1
Centile
rank
(5)
60.0
50.0
45.6
38.9
22.2
60
50
46
39
22
14.4
14
9
4
2
2
1
8.9
4.4
2.2
2.2
1.1
N = 90
Appleton-Century-Crofts,1958.
Grade norms
Many tests use grade norms which were
computed when the test was standardized.
Some samples of test pages and grade norms
are given in appendixes to this chapter.
Evaluating progress
TABLE
2. Roswell-Chal1Diagnostic Reading Test (Table III)
AVERAGE
NUMBEROF ERRORS
ON ROSWELL-CHALL
SUBTESTS
BY
READING
LEVELSOF 148 PUPILS
Readine Grade Levels*
I
Per Ccnt of
1.0N&93,
2.0N5916
3.0N3=921
4.0Nk9,6
5.0-
6.0-
5.9
6.9
N=31
N=IZ
7.07.9
N=10
8.08.9f
N=l
Av~lmqefor It-
Wrong
Cambincd on Subtcst
Group for Combined
N-148
Group
2.7
2.2
1.6
.8
.6
.3
.4
2.5
13
........ 6.5
4.8
2.7
1.2
1.3
.4
.8
.2
2.9
29
.3
.2
3.7
37
Consonant Combinations
(Total Items: 10)
.......
9.0
6.4
3.4
2.3
.9
................
9.0
6.0
2.9
1.7
1.0
.4
.5
.2
3.6
36
7.8
5.4
1.7
1.1.
.1
.5
.2
4.6
38
5.5
3.9
2.0
1.7
.8
.5
.2
3.4
42
ShortVowcls (wordsonly)
Ruleof Silent e
I
1
1. Copyright
oral testi.
Rule of silent e
I.
III.
s p a c h b
Consonant combinations
ch fl th st tr
Vowel combinations
IV.
pin dia
pine dime
pail harm
gain cart
meal leaf
Syllabication
V.
daytime invented
expansion departmental
Miles A. Tinker
Test administration
Preparation for administering
Evaluating progress
Keys are provided for scoring a standardized test. Scoring should be objective, accurate and checked by re-scoring.Directionsfor
scoring each test item are given in the manual
and should be followed precisely.
Scores for individualpupils are entered in
an outline which provides for the raw or
original score and the corresponding centile
or grade score,whichever is provided in the
norms in the manual. Most standardized tests
provide an outline page for the teacher to
enter the scores of all those taking the test.
The teacher is now ready to interpret the
scores of the class.
The class average is easily obtained by
adding the raw scores and then dividing by
the number of pupils in the class;the median
-that is, the middle score-can be obtained
by putting the scoresin rank order from smallest to highest. In large classes, this median
will be close to the average score.In addition,
the teacher will want to note the position of
the individual scores of the pupils to see how
far a scoreis below or above the median. Ifthe
norms are in centiles, the median centile
score is 50.Ifnorms are in grades,the teacher
can note the location of a pupil as below,
Miles A. Tinker
Evaluating progress
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Miles A.Tinker
Evaluating progress
REFERENCES
AUSTIN,
M.C.;BUSH,C.L.;HUEBNER,
M.H.1961.
Reading evaluation. New York, .N.Y., Ronald
Press.256 p.
BOND, G.L.;TINKER,
M.A. 1967.Readiizgdificulties.
2nd ed. N e w York, N.Y.,Appleton-CenturyCrofts. 564 p.
87
Miles A.Tinker
JOHNSON,
BOND-CLYMER-HOYT
Copyright, 1955, by
LYONS i CARNAHAN
CHICAGO
Name
Date
School
Grade
Teacher
seesaw
many
now
water
airplane
basket
not
wagon
r-
Direckansfor the test: Before handing out tests, see that every
child has a pencil and an eraser. As the tests are distributed, tell
thechildren:Kee~,yourbookletcloseduntilI
tell youto openit.
Tell the children to write their names on the first line of the
booklet. Have them frll in other spaces as desired.
Find the picture of the airplane. Hold up a copy of the test
and point to the proper location.
W h i c h word tells about the picture? Pause long enough foc
aU children to read the exercise, then call on some child to answer.
Yes,airplane is the word that tells about the picture. The
words are sccsaw, many, airplane, basket. D r a w a line around
the word airplane to show that it tells about the picture. Check
to be sure that all children understand and have circled the word
airplane.
N o w look at the words next to the picture of the girl. Hold up
test and point to the words.
Which word tells about this picture? Pause and call on some
child.
Yes, jumps is the word that tells about this picture. The
words are li&, jumps. slop, came. What should w e do to the
word that tells about the picture? Call on someone.
Yes,wedraw alinearoundit.Everyonedrawalinearoundthe
word jumps to show that it tells about the picture.
N o w look at the words ncxt to the picture of the wagon.
Point.
Find the word that tells about the picture and draw a line
around it. Wait until all children have attempted the item.
Which word did you choose? Call on someone.
Yes,wagon is the word that tells about the picture.The words
are now, wafer,noi. wagon. Did you ail draw a line around
wagon? Check to see that all children have circled the correa
words for the second and third examples.
N o w do this last one by younelf. Point. Wait for all children
to attempt the item.
Which word did you choose? Call on someone.
Yes,box is the correct word. The words are box,did,take,blue.
You drew a line around the word bax to show that it tells about
the picture.
Keep your booklet closed and watch while I show you what to
do next. On the inside of the booklet there are more pictures and
words. For each picture, draw a line around the one word that
tells about the picture. D o this one first. Point to item at top
left.
Then 60 o n to the one underneath it, thcn the one underneath
that, and so on down the page. Point and mn h g e r down left
column.
Then go down the other side. R u n finger down right column.
Do the same o n all the pages. Demonstrate for the rest of
the pages.
I cannot tell you any of the words, so do the best you can by
yourself. D o not spend too much time on any one picture. B e sure
to erase if you wish to change an answer. Are there any ques.
tions? Open your booklets and bcgin.
While the children are working, the examiner should go about
the room seeing that the children are following the directions
correctly. Encourage the children. If they question an item, tell
thcm to read it carefully and do the best they can. D o not tell
them any words or interpret pictures for them.
Allow ten minutes; then say, Stop. Everyone stop. Close your
booklet.
Form LV-A,page 1
Miles A.Tinker
fast
like
come
mouth
next
tried
machine
trunk
early
plenty
rooster
band
plans
catch
goat
read
road
had
behind
shall
should
truck
three
hardly
knocked
picked
smelled
, m a p . pay
II each
at
took
-..: . .
sand
stuffed
V
L
+
l
!
!
5
A
l
Pen
90
Form LV-A,page 3
Evaluating progress
I
DEVELOPMENTAL READING TESTS
-BOND-CLYMER-HOYT
Copyright, 1955, by
LYONS &CARNAHAN
Date
Name
Grade
Teacher
School
I It is
CHICAGO
a-.
lhousel
Elml
E
l
F
p
q
F
l pGqpiF-ZqpG-1
Directians for the test: Before handing out tesfs, see that every
child has a pencil and an eraser. A s the tests are distributed, tell
the children: Keep your booklet closed until I tell you to open
it. Tell the children to write their names on the first line of the
booklet. Have them fill in other spaces as desired.
This page has some stories on it. Look at the firststory. Hold
up a copy of the test and point to the proper location.
I will read it out loud while you read it to yourselves. It says.
W e play with it. It is a.N o w read the words in tho
boxes. R u n fingerunder the line of boxes.
Which word finishes the story? Pause u n a all children have
read the choices; then call on a child to answer.
Yes, it is ball, because we play with a hall. The words are
ball, house, jumps, runs. Make an X on bull because that is the
best word to finkh the story.
N o w look at the next story. Point.
Read this story to yourself. Pause.
Which word finishesthe story? Call on someone.
Yes. it is cake because cake is good to eat. The words are
pony, cnme, cake, game. What should w e do to the word in the
box that finishesthe storyl Call on someone.
Yes, everyone put an X on coke.
N o w lets look at the next story. Point.
This story has two parts to answer. Read the story and
remember to answer the two parts.Pause.
Which word finishesNo. 11 Point to No. 1. Call on someone.
Yes, it is a boat because Billy has a boat. The words arc
here, boll, bunt, said. Make an X on boat because it finishes
No. 1. N o w look at No. 2. Point to No. 2.
Which word finishesNo. 27 Call on someone.
Form LG-A,page 1
91
Miles A. Tinker
2.The tent is in a
IGzqGGGq~~l
[WW
IpGiqEGq
l
qp
lltoysl p
j
[-lpXi/
2. His favorite program is
pi-/-
92
about
Form LG-A,page 3
Evaluating progress
Grade
School
Put X on Daddy.
Directions for the test: Before handing out tests, see that every
child has a pencil and an eraser. As the tests are distributed,tell
the children: Keep your booklet closed until I tell you to open
it. Tell the children to write their names on the first line of the
booklet.Have them ill in other spaces as desired.
This page has some pictures and stories on it. Look at the
fist story. Hold up a copy of the test and point to the proper
location There are some pictures. Under the pictures it tells
you to do something. Read the first story to yourself and find
out whar it tells you to do. Paure until all children have
read it.
W h a t does it tell you to do? Call on some child to answer.
Thats right. It says, PutX on Daddy. Take your pencil and
put a big X right on Daddy, just as the story tells you to do.
Check to see that all children have marked clearly the correct
picture.
N o w look at the next story. Peint.
What does this story tell you to do? Pause, then call on
some Child. Yes, it says, Draw a line from the wagon to the
duck. Find the wagon and the duck. Draw a line from the wagon
to the duck, just as the story tells you to do. Check to see that
all children have marked the examples correctly.
CHICAGO
Teacher
Form LS-A,page 1
93
Miles A.Tinker
Form LS-A,page 3
94
Evaluating progress
LV-A,LG-A,LS-A
LV-A
LG-A
Ls-A
ST SCORE
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
I(EADING GRAD
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.4
1.4
1.5
1.5
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4.0
4.2
ST SCORE
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
54
READING GRAI
1.1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.1,
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.8
4.0
4.2
4.4
0
1
2
3
4
5.
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
READING GRAl
1.2
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.5
3.7
3.9
4.4
4.8
1 paint 2 metal
3 animal
1 angry
2 big
3 hurt
4 little
Lurgemeans-
1 answer'
1. Adogis an2.
A robin is a-
3 animal
2 elephant
1 crow
2 bird
3 bug
i:
i:
i:
I
'
II
"<
4 excuse
4 flower
I
* _
.
_
1 find
2 carry
3 thii
4 lose
5 fall ......
1 hurry
2 large
3 little
4 like
5 help
3
1
5
::. .
::. .::. .::. .:i .
.
4. Small means-
3. To bring is to-
..
i:
4 rim
3 take
2 give
1 help
I- li
. . . . :: ::
5 lie. ...........II.....
.
::
..........
1
4 fruit
.
.
.
..
. ...
....
....
....
.
.:.
. ..
..
.
.
.
:
. . .::. .:.: ..
i:
1
To full is to
1 pay
2 lift
3 touch
4 drop
5 face ...
..........
1
.
. .2 . .3 . .4. .s.
6. To bake is to1 break
2 lose
3 cook
4 speak
5 copy.. ......:...:... ... .............. ... ...
,
2
3
4
5
7:Adollur
is1 copper
2 money
3 business
4 healthy
5 clothingli. . .ii . .II . .II. .il.
1 . 2
J
I
8. A voice is used to
1 clamp
2,speak
3 point
4 write
5 mark. .fi . . .II . .II . .il . .ii.
6.
li
//
9. Apotato is a-
1 song
1 horse
3 maze
2 boat
5 postman. ./i
4 table
3 vegetable
2 planet
5 meat ....i:
4 ranch
. . .. .....i i.
. .. .
.
1
'
II......
II !I
2 3
l
11.
To chopmeans-
1 roll
2 note
1 trouble
1 fuel
-1
A hull is a-
3 serious 4 prepare
2 journey
2 water
5 presents ..../I
4 writing
3 fun
2 travel
stop
3 fight
2 road
4 rOOm
3 tooth
-1
2 measure
3 happen
2 water
3 food
4 stay
5 accompany. .:i
4 birds
5 flowers..II.
'
1 image
2 civil
3 bitter
23.
24.
26..
[i I/
!i !i
//
4
5
[/ /i.
4 obtain
5 weddiig
. il
II II II :I
. . . . .
l
Z
J
l
!i
i!
I! !:i .
i;
22..
holidays
.
..
..
..
........ .. ......
.
field. .....................
... .,.. . . . . . .
1 ride
/f
5 throw. .... i/
4 forget
1 horn
i/ /f fi
17.
13.
5 cut ........
4 chide
3 come
:
: :: ......
. ...
::. .
::
.
.:. . . .
..:
..........
:i
1
1
1
4
s
i;
i;
::
::
./'
121
1.
Reproduced by special permission of the publisher from the Durrell-Sullivan Reading Capacity and Achievement Test, copyright
0194344,Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
96
Evaluating progress
:i
i:
i:
i:
'
i . .a. .a. 4 s
.
:
..
..
..
..
. ::. .:.
.
.
.
.
..
..
..
..
. .
. . ...
.
./
511)
Mary and John go to camp as soon as school closes in the summer. They go
on the train and stay until it is time for school to open again in the fall. They
have a happy time at camp because there are many other boys and girls there
too. They ride, swim, and play games together every day.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Which word tells what kind of a time the children have at camp ?
1 lonesome
2 sad
3 joyous
4 funny
5 weary ....
1
2
5
:: :: ::
..
:
. . . ... :
:.
:
.............
:
:. . . . :
: .
......
5 in an airplane. .ri
:
: :
:
....
....
....
:i
4 on a car
i:
:i
s
:
:
:
:
.
.
ii
i:
:
.
.
.
...:
.
....
/i
....
:
:. .:
:
.
.
i;
.
. ii: i
:: :: :
:
: :
:
:
:
....
....
:
: :
:
:
:
.
:
.
..
:i
97
Miles A. Tinker
'EMLNT
IN SCORE IN THE
'rErr
Gridc
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
I9
al
21
22
23
7
.
4
25
7
.
6
27
28
21)
3
30
1
22
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
40
47
48
49
5n
51
62
53
54
3.5
6
57
58
59
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.9
3.0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.9
4.0
4.1
42
48
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
5.0
5.0
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.G
5.0
I6.1
5.8
5.9
6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
7.l*'
7-6
7-7
7-8
2.5
2.6
7
8
74
7-10
84
2.0
2.1
2.1 ,
2.2
2.2
2.3
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.5
2.6
9-3
94
9-5
26
27
2.8
2.9
3.1
3.2
3.4
3.5
3.7
3.8
4.0
4.1
4.3
4.4
*.ti
4.7
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.4
5.5
5.0
5.8
28
5.9
11-5
+7
9-8
29
?4
6.1
6.2
9-9
31
32
6.3
6.5
11-8
11-0
11-10
12-1
12-2
12-t
12-7
12-8
12-9
30
31
32
3.4
3.4
33
12-11
134
13-2
134
13-6
1 M
13-8
13-10
39
7-10
7-11
9
10
11
&o
&o
12
8-2
8-3
84
14
15
16
17
I8
8-6
8-7
8-8
8-8
8-9
&I1
9-0
9-1
9-3
%)-Il
9 41
13
19
m
21
22
23
24
25
:u
104
10-1
10-3
34
35
10-4
37
10-5
10-5
10-7
104
10%
10-11
11-0
11-1
11-1
11-3
114
11-5
11-7
11-8
11-0
11-10
124
12-2
12-3
124
12-6
12-8
I
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
'
0.6
G.8
7.0*
7.1
7.2
7.4
7.5
7.7
7.8
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.8
8.9
9.1
9.2
0.4
9.5
9.7
55
9.8
58
57
58
0.9
10.1
10.2
10.4
*Eat
8-2
84
8-6
8-8
8-9
9-0
9-1
94
9-5
9-8
9-9
10-0
10-1
104
10-7
10-8
10-11
114
20
21
22
23
24
25
11-1
11-4
27
28
13-11
14-0
14-3
144
144
1P7
169
lPl0
154
15-1
16-2
154
16-5
16-7
El
-I
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
I9
29
34
35
3G
37
40
41
42
43
4%
45
46
47
48
40
50
51
52
53
64
55
58
57
Gs
59
2.8
2.7
2.7
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.9
3.0
3.0
3.1
3.2
3
.
2
3.3
3.3
60
ti1
63
63
64
7-5
7-5
7-6
7-6
7-7
7-8
7-8
7-10
7-10
7-1 1
7-1 1
8-0
84
8-2
8-2
8-3
8-3
84
S4
65
G6
67
F8
GO
10
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
i8
79
Eo
81
82
81
87
89
6.7
0.7
6.8
9-1
9-3
93
94
95
9
.
i
m
91
92
9-5
97
93
99
1W
0-8
9-8
9-9
101
9%
9-11
9-11
1
w
104
10-1
10-1
103
104
104
5.8
5.0
6.0
6.0
6.1
6.1
6.2
8.6
0.6
es
94
94
9-5
5.8
86
8-9
9-3
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.7
6.5
8-9
8-11
8-11
Y 4
9-1
3.0
"9
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.4
4.5
4.5
4.6
4.0
4.7
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.9
5.0
5.5
85
3.5
3.0
3.8
3.8
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3
5.4
5.4
8.3
3.5
3.7
5.1
63
6.3
6.4
0.5
8-7
8-7
8-5
8-8
3.0
5.0
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
6.9
7.0*
7.0
7.1
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.4
7.5
7
_.5.
-6 .b
'.I
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.9
8.0
8.1
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.4
Agc
C"T
__
10-5
10-7
10-7
10-8
10-9
10-9
10-11
10-11
11-0
114
11-1
11-3
11-3
114
11-4
11-5
11-7
11-7
11-8
11-8
11-9
11-10
11-10
12-0
12-1
12-1
12-2
12-2
12-3
12-3
124
12-6
12-7
12-7
12-8
12-8
12%
12-10
12-10
12-11
13-0
13-0
13-1
13-2
13-2
13-4
13-5
13-5
13-6
13-7
13-7
13-8
13%
13-10
13-10
lent. bcv
this DO
1 Theaie which hirbccn assigned tornsnradeig the median ageof children hzving tlwxiven grzdc placement. Thescape equivalentr
barcdon 1
large, unzclecrcd srmplinz of children taken from rhc Unircd Srircr is 2 whole, the dita having bcen eollccred origindly by the Office of Education.
98
17-20
I.
Reproduced by special permission of the publisher from the Murphy-Durrell Diagnostic Reading Readiness Analysis Test
copyright 0 1901-65,Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
Miles A. Tinker
~~
TEST 2. VISUAL
1
14
m b o s y
w u v y n
15
e a r m f
c o a e d
16
v m h u c
w u n m v
17
g i k t y
m b n d u
18
v w u m n
g y j i q
19
c e o a r
e i j l t
20
f t h k l
e o c g a
8
21
t l h b k
o a e c g
22
s c z m f
r o n m u
~
10
h k l t f
11
hIrtf1
12
g p y q h
13
s x o m z
Evaluating progress
36
at
ill
all
ball
fall
2s
mice
race
ice
nice
37
no
nip
nose
on
in
imp
speak
stick
spice
speck
peck
38
drip
drops
rap
prop
&op
39
jump
name
man
run
saw
must
--
was
alone
war
waste
absent abide
abuse
along
41
32
tis
sat
jot
40
31
as
just
jest
it
sit
site
clasp
clear
clean
class
cleat
42
33
dark
clock
black
lack
block
barn
bar
bun
done
whirl
wound-
fondle
forage
forget
foolish
forbid
44
35
frost
fast
world
word
43
34
burn
would
firm
kst
trust
terrace terrier
terrific tremble testify
101
Miles A. Tinker
TEST
1.
SCORE
80-84
77-79
75-76
73-74
70-72
69
67-68
45-66
64
62-63
61
GO
58-59
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
102
PERCENTILE
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
gr
90
89
88
87
86
85
84
83
82
81
80
79
78
77
76
75
74
73
72
71
70
69
68
66
65
64
TEST
2.
AUDITORY
PERSCORE CENTILE
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
G
5
4
3
2
1
63
62
61
a,
59
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
38
37
36
35
34
33
33
32
31
a*
SCORE
49-52
47-48
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
PERCENTILE
99
98
97
VISUAL
PERSCORE CENTILE
13
12
11
72
71
71
96
io
ro
95.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
9
8
7
6
5
5
4
3
3
93
gr
89
87
84
80
77
73
69
65
61
57
53
49
45
42
38
36
33
30
28
26
24
22
20
19
78
16
15
Id
Retardation
Eve J. Malmquist
Eve J. Malmquist
104
Degrees of retardation
Retardation
Eve J. Malmquist
106
Retardation
107
Eve J. Malmquist
Possible causation
Multifactorial view
Retardation
Eve.J. Malmquist
110
Retardation
Eve J. Malmquist
Retardation
Eve J. Malmquist
114
Retardation
Eve J. Malmquist
Johansson (1965) has carried out a longitudinal study with the purpose of identifying
the factors that constitute school readiness
and of noting the relationship of school
readinessto physicaland mental development,
age, sex, home background and school
environment.
A childs home background was found
to be significantly related to his ability to
meet the demands put forward by the school
on beginners. Parentsattitudes to schooland
their own formal education were reported to
influence the development of childrens
school readiness more than socio-economic
factors such as level of income, size of
dwelling, size of family and frequency of
social welfare assistance.
The term socialhandicap,with bearing
on a certain environmental factor, was
defined in this study as a significant correla-
Retardation
tion between environmeiit and school readiness, with intelligence kept constant. This
social handicap, in respect of general school
readiness, the ability of the child to benefit
from the primary instruction in reading,his
school motivation and his social and emotional adjustment to school activities, was
reported to be considerable.
In a study of the effects of remedial
education in various respects, Collins (1961)
found that the remedial cases in his sample
generally came from underprivileged homes.
Economic conditions were reported to be
inferior in 20 per cent of cases; 43 per cent
were rated somewhat higher as regards
economic aspects of home life;but there was
little cultural stimulation, according to the
investigator. Material and cultural home
conditions were judged to be good in only
7 per cent of cases (cf. D e Boer, 1970;Durr,
1970;Johnson and Kress, 1970).
Description of groups of children, disadvantaged as regurds socio-economic strata.
117
Eve J. Malmquist
Retardation
Children with genuine and severe disabilities in reading need intensive study as
well as special remedial teaching and treatment, which is difficult to provide in an
ordinary classroom situation.
It is highly desirable that remedial
teaching of this kind be conducted by a
teacher with special training. Yet, in many
countries remedial reading specialists are
very rare, if they do exist at all. In such
situations a classroom teacher has to undertake a specialistsduties and do her best in
carrying out therapeuticreading programmes,
arranged within the regular classroom or in
other localities in the school. She should
try to arrange learning situations involving
only one child os a small group of those
children who are backward readers in the
sense that their reading skills are definitely
below their potential learning capacity.
The remedialreading teacher is supposed
to have better opportunities than an ordinary
classroom teacher to use a diagnostic
approach and to provide learning steps,
methods and procedures suited to the
individual learner.
The intent should be to emphasize the
kinds of materials the individual child enjoys,
to stimulate his interest in reading so that he
can reach out to books with eagerness,
119
Eve J. Malmquist
Retardation
121
Eve J. Malmquist
122
S o m e further guidelinesfor
remedial reading
Retardation
REFERENCES
AUSTJN,
M. 1968. Professional training of reading
personnel in innovation and change in reading
instruction. In: National Society for the Study of
Education, Innovation and change in ieadiiig
instruction, p. 357-96. Chicago, Ill., University
of Chicago Press. (Sixty-seventh yearbook, pt
Il.)
BENTON,A.L. 1959. Right-left discrimination arid
finger localization; development and pathology.
N e w York, N.Y., Harper. 185 p.
BLOOM,Benjamin S. 1964. Stability arid cRnnge irr
123
Eve J. Malmquist
Edinburgh, Oliver &Boyd for the University of
Birmingham, Institute of Education. 154 p.
(Birmingham University. Institute of Education,
Educational monographs,4.)
CRITCHLEY, M . 1968. Correlated disturbances: etiologic,associated and secondary.In: A.H.Keeney
and V. T.Keeney, Dyslexia: diagnosis and treatment of reading disorders,p. 38-41. St Louis, MO.,
Kimpton.
__ .1970.Thedyslexic child.London,Thomas.156p.
DEBOER,Dorothy L.(ed.). 1970.Reading diagnosis
and evaluation. In: Proceeclings of the thirteenth
Annual Convention (1968) of the International
Reading Association,vol. 13, pt 4.Newark,Del.,
International Reading Association. 138 p.
DEHJXSCH,
K.et al.1966.Predicting readingfailure; a
preliminary study of reading, writing and spelling
clisabilities in preschool children.New York,N.Y.,
Harper. 144 p.
DEHIRSCH,K.;JANSKY, J. 1968.Early prediction of
reading disability. In: A.H.Keeney and V.T.
Keeney,Dyslexia: diagnosis and treatmentof reading disorders,p. 21-31. St Louis, Mo., Kimpton.
DELACATO, C.H.1959. Treatment and prevention of
readingproblems; theneuro-psychologicalapproach.
Springfield,Ill., Thomas. 122 p.
.1963. The diagnosis and treatment of speech and
reading problems. Springfield,Ill., Thomas. 188 p.
, 1966. Neurological organization and reading.
Springfield,Ill.,Thomas. 189 p.
DURR,
W.1970. Reading dificirlties: diagnosis, correction and remediation. Newark, Del.,International Reading Association.276 p.
DYK~TRA,
R. 1966. Auditory discrimination abilities
and beginning reading achievement. Reading
research quarterly (Newark,Del.), vol. 1, autumn,
p. 5-34.
FARR,
R. 1969. Reading: what can be measured?
Newark,Del.,InternationalReading Association.
299 p.
FELDMAN,
S. 1961.Visual perception skills of children
and their relationship to reading. Dissertation
abstract (Ann Arbor, Mich.), vol. 22, no. 4,
October,p. 1084-5.
GATES,
A.I. 1969,The tides of time.In: J. A.Figure1
(ed.), Reading and realism. Proceedings of the
thirteenth Annual Convention (1968) of the International Reading Association, vol, 13, pt 1, p.
12-20. Newark, Del., International Reading
Association.
124
-_
Retardation
primary stage). Falkping,Sweden, Utbildningsfrlaget Liber. 133 p. (Forskningsrapporter frn
Statens Frsksskola Linkping,no. 13/Research
reports from the National School for Educational
Research,no. 13.)
PRESTON,
R.C.1962.Readingachievementof German
and American children.School and society (New
York), vol. X C , October,p. 350-4.
RABINOVITCH, R. D . 1968a. Reading problems in
children: definitions and classifications. In: A.H.
Keeney and V. T.Keeney,Dyslexia: diagnosis and
treatment of reading disorders, p. 1-10. St Louis,
Mo., Kimpton.
-.
19683.Acquired dyslexia and related neurologic
lesions. In: A. H. Keeney and V. T. Keeney,
Dyslexia: diagnosis and treatment of reading disorders,p. 110-14. St Louis, Mo.,Kimpton.
Reading Association.
1968.The next decade.In:National Society for
the Study of Education,Innovation and change in
reading instrriction, p. 397-430. Chicago, Ill.,
University of Chicago Press. (Sixty-seventhyearbook, pt II.)
ROSEN,
C. 1966. An experimental study of visual
perceptual training and reading achievement in
first grade. Perceptual and motor slcill (Missoula,
Mont.), no.22, June,p. 979-86.
ROSEN,
C.;
OHNMACHT,
F. 1968.Perception,readiness
and reading achievement in first grade. In: H.
Newark,Del.,
International Reading Association.
WEINSTRAUB,
S. 1967. What research says to the
teacher. The reading teacher (Newark, Del.),vol.
20, p. 551-8.
WHIPPLE, G. 1967. A perspective on reading for
childrenwithout.In:Vistas in reading.Proceedings
of the eleventh Annual Convention (1966) of the
International Reading Association, vol. 11, pt 1,
p. 337-8. Newark, Del., International Reading
Association.
125
127
H.Alan Robinson
An instructional philosophy
Since there are so many needs facing
all nations in the general preparation of
classroom teachers, one might raise the
question whether this chapter is necessary
and/or timely.The responses to such a question, taken from questionnaire returns, a
review of the relevantliterature,and personal
interviews, are largely affirmative. Several
educators in developing countries join in the
consensus but feel that they are not at all
ready to undertake such training. One
questionnaire respondent said, Forthose of
us working in a developing country, such
services you have asked about must remain
luxuries.
The greatest number of educators in
those countries polled are very much in
agreement about the need. They state that
there is a need for more concentration on
methods of teaching reading and writing
adapted to the needs of a variety of types of
learners. Chinna Chacko of India speaks for
her country and others when she says, The
teaching ofreading is unknown in this part of
the world. Most other sources show that
when reading skills are taught, little is done
beyond the first year or two of school.
A few educators suggest that there is
richnessin the concept of languageteaching
where all language skills are taught in a unit.
These educators do not like the idea of
separating the teaching of reading or writing
as a separate subject,as they call it. These
128
are
distantand abstractReading and writing
must be immediately nleaningful to learners
whether they are 6 or GO. The content, what
people read and write about, cannot be
separatedfrom the reading or writing act,
Many educatorswho know thatreading
and writing skills must be immediately
129
H.Alan Robinson
relevant content and if necessary use methods which
may represent radical deviations from the traditional.
Teacher attitudes
130
H.Alan Robinson
132
IIO nations
that have certification requirements which
meet the minimum standards recommended
by the International Reading Association.
Of the nations responding to the questionnaire,none reported that one separate course
in reading was required under any circumstances for the certification of teachers.
A few provinces in Canada have such a
requirement, and this is true of less than
15 per cent of the states in the United States.
Several of the nations reporting (Canada,
Denmark, Israel, New Zealand, Norway,
and the Philippines) require either a separate
course in reading or a course in language
skills of elementary-school teachers who
wish to be certified.Unfortunately, even such
requirements result in very inadequate preparation for the classroom teacher 'in the
ieaching of reading and writing. Some
nations, or parts of nations, are now moving
H.Alan Robinson
vision adds another extremely useful dimension. In addition? a taped television lesson
done by a master teacher gives everyone in
theaudience anideal seatfor the performance.
There is no one way to help all pupils
learn to read and write. Approaches to
instruction must differ according to the needs
and learning styles of the children in the
classroom. Allen (1969) found that the best
ways to teach reading and writing to native
Samoans included, not readers imported
from other places, but teacher-constructed
stories, manuals and workbooks based on
the village life and recorded legends of
Samoa. As teachers developed materials
they became very sure that there was no one
way ofteaching?and astheygrewtoknowmore
about the pupils, they were able to adjust
instruction to the needs ofparticular children.
Although Feitelson (1969) reported earlier on some fine in-serviceactivity in Need
for Nurture schools in Israel, she feels that
in-service work is certainly not enough. She
suggested that the most hopeful approach for
breaching cultural gaps between teachers and
pupils is a well-planned pre-service programme with theory and intensive field
experience. It would seem that if we are to
develop more expert classroom teachers of
reading and writing, the pre-service programme must be the first, very powerful step,
in a never-ending continuum which also includeson-the-jobin-serviceactivitiesforteachers throughout their total teaching careers.
Reading specialists:teachersand clinicians
H.Alan Robinson
H.Alan Robinson
138
H.Alan Robinson
ing ofpositive attitudes towards each individual learner; the expected goal should be
success for each pupil. A teacher should be
prepared to guide the learner towards this
success by being aware of his weaknesses and
strengths in reading and writing. The teacher
should have $enough knowledge about the
skills and the learning styles of individual
pupils to assist the learner to capitalize on
his strengths and eliminate his weaknesses.
The minimum standards for classroom
teachers of reading and reading specialists
set by the International Reading Association
are far from being met in all nations. There
are,however,many in-serviceactivities which
appear to be directed towards helping more
educators become kno,wledgeable irr- the
teaching of reading. Many of the in-service
programmes are directed towards assisting
teachers to help pupils with reading problems
due to lack of educational opportunity,
insufficienteducation or ineffectiveeducation.
Pre-serviceeducation in the teaching of
reading and writing is in the greatest need of
development. Too many learners across the
world are not being adequately guided towards
the kind of literacy which is needed in our
present societies.All nations have the obligation of training teachers and other instructional personnel, as quickly as possible, to
become effective in the teaching of reading
and writing. In-service programmes should
be developed to help instructionalpersonnel
already at work in classrooms, school
buildings and throughout the world. But our
greatest,vital need is to prepare new teachers
and other instructional personnel who will be
knowledgeable about instruction in reading
and writing, who will adjust methodology to
individual differences,and who will shape the
curriculum to meet the needs of their pupils.
j
CARR,
William G. 1969. Introduction to the 1970
theme of WCOTP. Echo (Washington), JulyOctober,p. 7.
DOBINSON, Charles H. 1963. SchooZing, 1963-1970.
London,Harrap. 181 p.
DOUGLASS,
Malcolm P. 1969. Beginning reading in
Norway. The reading teacher (Newark, Del.), vol.
23, October,p. 20-2.
FEITELSON, Dina. 1969. Training teachers of disadvantaged children. In: R.C. Staiger and O.
Andersen (eds.), Reading: a human right and a
human problem. Proceedings of the secoiid World
Congress on Reading, Copenhagen,1968,p. 141-6.
Newark,Del.,InternationalReading Association.
GATES, Arthur I. 1966. Characteristics of successful
teaching. In: Alan Robinson (ed.), Reading:
seventy-fiveyears of progresr, p. 15-16. Chicago,
Ill., University of Chicago Press. (Supplementary
educationalmonograph,no. 96.)
INTERNATIONAL READING
ASSOCLUION.
1965. Mini-
-.
141
Omar Skander
51
143
Omar Skander
144
The main element to be taken into consideration is the attitude of society. While the
community sincerely wishes to support the
school-its school-and wants it to prosper,
it leaves everything to the school, and
145
Omar Skander
146
147
Omar Skander
148
O m a r Skander
Omar-Skander
152
Thestrategicalframework.The strategical
framework comprises the planning team, a
research field (sample), a procedure and
indicators for checking results.
The planning team should be multidisciplinary, and include educationists, psychologists,psychosociologists,and specialists
in audio-visuallanguage methods,In addition
to this central core there are the practising
teachers themselves. Their role is generally a
double one. They are the partners of the
153
Omar Skander
in Algeria
The experiment carried out in Algeria
between 1964 and 1966 will illustrate what
has just been said. At the beginning of the
experiment, the Algerian school was beginning its third year as a national school after
154
The programme embarked upon was intended,from the beginning,to cover the complete course of study of the language, from
the first stage in the use of the languageto the
last,when the pupil enters the world ofculture
by means of the written word. Thus, the research field extends over the first ten years of
theeducationalsystem(the sixyearsofthecompulsory elementary course and thefouryears of
the complementaryorlowersecondary course).
Preliminary condtiorzs.Itwill be sufficient
to enumerate these prerequisites,pointing out
that they are specific conditions which liad
to be taken into account in the course of
research.
Omar Skander
156
157
Omar Skander
Malik va sa place
Le cartable de Zina est sur la table
Omar Skander
n;
a - ma - va
maman
vlo -+v
- lo
.
Da
3 ma
man
A
PUPILS
CLASSES
Semi-urban
A
F
Rural
407
584
163
132
141
149
13
STAFF
Primary teachers
Men
Women
UncertSficatedteachers
3
1
Men
Women
Teachersassistants
2
Men
Women
-1 -1
1
2
2
-2 -
3
1
TABLE
2.Test results (percentages) by zone
Urban
PT UT TA
Arabic
French
12 9 14
23 12 15
Semi-urban
PT UT TA
Rural
PT UT TA
- 17
- 22
- - 11
13
16
- 19
27 41 39
31 30 33
- 32
- 40
16
27
- - 38
- 36 31
- 51
71
57
- - 51
- 45 63
Arabic
French
PT = Primary teachers.
UT = Uncertificated teachers.
TA = Teachers assistants.
- 38
Omar Skander
Omar Skander
I. General principles
1. Importanceof reading and writing
2. The aim in teaching reading and writing: comprehension and use of a language
3. The ability to read and write
4.Expressing oneself prior to reading or writing
5. In teaching reading and writing, we niust: (a)
teach the child mechanical skills; (b) use words
familiar to the child; and (c) give him a feeling
of enjoyment
II. Reading consists of both comprehension and
recognition
1. Let us observe people who are reading
2.How the learning process is carried out: in the
case of (a) courses that start from the letter and
then tackle the sentence;(b) those that start from
the sentence and then tackle the letter
3. The problem of comprehension
4.The problem of recognition: (a) visual mechanisms; (b) hearing mechanisms; (c) pronunciation mechanisms; (d) writing mechanisms
5. Conclusion
III. Our method
1. Our principles:(a) the childrensinterest must be
164
B.Procedure
I.During the global recognition period
1. The first step is the global learning of words: (a)
the cut-outfigureisshown;(b) the corresponding
word is pronounced;(c) the key-wordis shown;
(d) the word is traced (writing)
2. The children then start to read sentences: (a)
Lessons A-B-C-D;
(b) splitting up and putting
together familiar sentences;(c) the building of
new sentences
3. The global reading of simple texts
II. The transition period and discovery of thesyllable
1. Presentation of the initial text: (a) the teacher
explains the text;(b) the teacher reads the text;
(c) reading by the pupils
2. Global study of the new words
3. Identification of new syllables or sounds:(a) the
cut-outcard process;(b) the slate process;(c) the
La Marinire process
Aim
Dangers to be avoided
How to proceed?
4.Analytical recognition exercises
5. Searching for words
6.Reading of simple sentences
III. Study of techniques
1. Discovery of the letter
2. Study of sounds
3. Inverse syllables
4.Dictation of syllables
IV.Fluent reading
1. The silentreadingmethod
2. The copyingmethod
V.Revision
1. Before introducingeach new sound: (a) reading;
(b) dictation of sounds;(c) dictation of words
2. After study of two or three sounds: (a) reading;
(b) dictation;(c) searching for words; (d) fluent
reading
3. Reading games:(a) cards bearing written orders;
(b) words to be completed;(c) texts with missing
words
VI.The reading book
I. Group material
1. Flannelboard and cut-outfigures
2. Global word cards
3. Wall cards
4. Key-word cards
5. Set of movable letters
II. Individual material
1. Global word cards
2. Set of movable letters
3. Reading and writing work book
4. Rapid reading book
5. Cardboard composing stick
Omar Skander
R E F ER ENC ES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The teaching of reading and writing
BOREL-MAISONNY,
Suzanne. 1960. Langage oral et
h i t . Neuchtel,Delachaux &Niestl. 268 p.
BOUQUET, Georges. 1961.L'apprentissage de la lecture.
Paris, Bourrelier. 176 p. (Coll. Camets de pda-
gogie pratique.)
BUREAU
INTERNATIONAL D'EDUCATION.
1949. L'enseignement de la lecture. Paris,Unesco,Genve,BIE.
CHASSAGNY,
Claude. 1954. L'apprentissage de la lec-
THABAULT,
Francis. 1953. L'enfant et la langue crite.
Paris,Delagrave.230 p.
UNESCO.
1965. The art of writing. An exhibition in
jiiftvpanels. Preface by W.J. Sandberg and Ren
Gtiemble. Text by Marcel Cohen. Paris,Unesco.
51 p. illus.
France.192 p. (Coll.Paideia.)
DOBBELAERE, G. 1961. Pdugogie de I 'expression.
Paris, Presses d'le de France. 216 p. (Coll.
Aurores.)
FREINET, Clestin. 1947.Mthode naturelle de lecture.
Cannes,ditions de l'Cole Moderne Franaise.
61 p. (Brochures d'ducation nouvelle populaire,
no. 30.)
GRAY,
William S. 1956 (rev. ed. 1969). n e teaching of
reading and writing. A n internationalsurvey. Paris,
Unesco. 325 p. (Monographs on fundamental
education,X.)
HAW, Andr. 1964.Lectureet communication.L'ducation nationale (Paris), no. 9,fvrier,p. 2-4, 23.
WAMAIDE,
Amlie. 1946. L a mthode Decroly. 4c d.
Neuchtel, Paris, Delachaux & Niestl. 261 p.
(Actualits pdagogiques et psychologiques.)
166
There is a great scarcity of reading materials available for reading instruction in most
countries.In many countries,there is just one
level of reader for each class, and even these
are not available to each student. Many of
these books are based upon a very narrow
conception of reading and are not adequate
for teaching reading in its most modern and
advanced sense.
The quality of the reading textbooks currently available often leaves much to be
desired.Many reflect a lack ofcare in production details such as layout,design,illustrations
and type size. The presentation is far from
satisfactory.In most cases,the vocabulary is
not repeated often enough to aid recognition.
Thelanguageis formaland is considered a new
language by the children. The content of the
booksisnotwellorganized,andtoomuchinformation is likelyto be crammedinto onelesson.
Materials to help childrenlearn by themselves in overcrowded classrooms are also a
great necessity.
167
The task involved inproducinggood textbooks and reading materials is so great and
exacting that it usually requires much teamwork. The knowledge, skill, effort and time
needed are so great that one individual can
rarely do all the work himself.In many countries,temporary or permanent teams are being
set up for the preparation, production and
revision of reading materials.
Common practice for an agency is to
appoint a leader and authorizehim to appoint
a team of qualified members. Sometimes a
small team is set up permanently, and from
time to time new members are brought in for
consultation purposes. In addition,groups of
teachers may be called in for reviewing and
testing the materials.
asset to the team members,as well as willingness to keep an open mind. Willing ears also
help the team to improve the materials as well
as to collect the necessary materials.
Planning the project
TABLE
1. Proposed statistics,by class level
-
Primer
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
88
82
120
152
Number of pages per book
176
200
Number of running words (counting seven-eighths
28,095
1,558 10,206 15,711 20,300
490
text pages, one-eighthpictures)
50
22
126
171
200
Number of words per full page
231
36
24
18
16
14
Size of type
36
4'
4
4
4
4
4
Length of line (inches)
8
9
18
19
20
21
Number of lines per full page
5
10
11
5
8
Average number of words per line
9
24-87 125-400 375-500 450-600 525-875 800-1,000
Number of words per story
Number ofnew basic words per book (not counting
255
508
702
118
59
393
learned variants)
177
1,333
2,035
432
825
Number of different words per book
59
1:13
1:40
1:40
1:40
1:40
1:8
Ratio of new words to running words
1.2
2.5
3.1
4.4
5.1
Number of new words per page (average)
3.7
Desirable minimum number of repetitions of new
5
5
5
5
5
5
words per story
Desirable minimum number of recurrences of new
5
5
5
5
5
5
words in later stories in book
Number of stories per book:
S
21
8
24
24
28
Short
1
1
1
1
Long
4-7
4-7
3-4
3-4
3-5
4-5
Number of pages per short story
10
12
14
16
Number of pages long final story
1,795
2,450
3,232
Number of words in long story
1,260
5
7
7
7
3
3
Number of units per book
3-5
3-5
2-3
2-3
3-4
3-4
Number of stories per unit
51
21
6
46
28
8
3
105
22
8
7
4
2
2
2
82
7s
24
6
5
3
117
25
8
7
5
10
2
2
176
139
29
8
7
6
15
2
2
208
2
2
2 - ss
120
152
story I
Story II
P a g e s 1 2 3 4 5
Story III
2
1
etc.
173
174
*)
above and below the line,
175
177
another, the team can administer tests, conduct interviewsand take extensive notes ofthe
conversatioii in informal situations.
To understand the vocabulary demands
of the curriculum at successive levels the
author needs to sample childrens textbooks
in social studies, health, science, etc.,to see
what children are required to read in those
fields according to different standards. It is
both inefficient and impossible to introduce
all technical words in science and other
subjects, and this is not the responsibility
of the language text. The teacher must deal
with that situation,
The language
The characteristics of the language in
which the books are to be written are another
consideration. What experiences with the
language should the child acquire through the
medium of the readers? What distinctions in
vocabulary should be sampled? For example,
English has many prepositions to suggest
relationships whereas Hindi has relativelyfew
(or it has what are called post positions),
depending upon context to designate which of
several meanings a given preposition has. On
the other hand, Hindi or Nepali has special
words to designate the relationships within
the family, whereas English must resort to
descriptive terms to designate which grandfather, which uncle, which cousin of which
sex is meant.
The variation in verb form may include
separate forms for different sexes,degrees of
respect (to elders, officials, royalty), number,
person and tense. Which of these should be
taught first? H o w many are common enough
to be included in the primary series? What
forms do the nouns take? Are there different
leavesthis planning until the readers are completed he may find that the contents and the
teaching activitiesactually militate against the
desired attitudes. If he plans ahead, he will
see to it that suggestions are made to the
teacher to read aloud well-selected literature
for children,that materials for the books will
be chosen partly for their literary quality and
depth ofmeaning,that supplementaryreading
material will be published or,if already available,recommended,so that children will use
their reading skills and develop the habit of
reading for various purposes.
181
In preparing the manuscript for production every care should be taken to see that it
is in the right order from all angles.First,the
preparation of an absolutely neat, clear and
legible typescript is essential.The manuscript
should then be marked throughout on the
basis of the approved specimen page; the
markings should be such that no room is left
for any doubt or confusion on the part of the
printer. To ensure this,all elements such as
headlines,headings, subheadings,type sizes,
paragraphs, quotes,brackets,folios,punctuation, capitals, small capitals, etc., should be
marked carefully. Language, spelling, footnotes, illustrations, captions, tables, etc.
should be thoroughly checked.The main idea
is to maintain accuracy,consistency and uniformity throughout the book.
Following are a few suggestions that may
help the writer prepare the production copies:
1. The typing should be double spaced and
on one side of the paper only.
183
22
Number of
~
illustrations
~
a
Colour(s)
~
s
Number of
Stitching
copies
36pt
88
82 + 6
55
Two.
500,OOO
Centre
Cover page
in four colours.
Evaluation of materials
16. Does the series utilize the basic vocabulary in the language,starting with forms
which children hear and use?
17. Does it present the common sentence
structures, grammatical structures and
word inflections,beginning with simple,
common forms and proceeding to the
complex?
18. Does it use the punctuation required by
the contents?
19. Does it present words containing letters
easy to write,and then proceed to more
difficult forms?
20. Are new words presented gradually and
repeated often enough to assist new
learning?
21. Are words of multiple meaning presented,with only one meaning given at
a time?
22. When one of two common words might
have been appropriate in the text has the
choice clearly contributedeither to repetition of something learned or to the
development of a new learning?
23. D o sentences, paragraphs, and stories
increase in length and complexity as to
the language,interest and reading ability
ofthe majority ofchildrenofthe different
levels concerned?
24. Is the language in early books informal
and natural without being undesirable?
25. Have the authors avoided introducing
easily confused word forms in the same
lesson until each has been well established in previous lessons?
26. Have the authors introduced the different
44.
45.
46.
187
REFERENCES
KLARE,
George R. 1964. Measurement of readability.
Ames,Iowa, Iowa State University Press. 328 p.
MCCULLOUGH,
C. 1965. Preparation of textbooks in
188
10
Research in reading
Albert J. Harris and Eve J. Malmquist
190
Research in reading
Spelling
Because the phonetic system of each language and the regularity or irregularity with
which that system is represented in writing
have a great bearing on the ease or difficulty
of learning to spell in that language and the
method or methods ofstudy most appropriate
to it, it is probably not safe to generalizefrom
research in English-speaking countries to
desirable practice in the teaching of spelling
in other countries.Excellent summariesof the
research on the spelling of English have
appeared in the various editions of the
Encyclopedia of Educational Research, particularly the one by Thomas Horn in the fourth
edition (Eberl, 1969).
Handwriting
they will produce better results than the present procedures. Here, research provides a
methodology that canprevent costly mistakes.
Large industries usually find it profitable to
spend up to 2 per cent of their total outlay of
funds on research. At present, no country in
the world spends more than a small fraction
of 1 per cent of its educational funds on
research. It is no wonder that educational
progress takes place very slowly,in comparison with industrial progress.
Value of educational research
for developing countries
192
Reading readiness
Since the early 1930s there has been continuing interest in reading readiness, which
may be defined as the composite of characteristics that influence the ease or difficulty with
which a child learns to read.One of the most
important questions in this area is :what is the
best age at which to begin teaching most
children to read? Some countries (the
U.S.S.R.and the Scandinavian countries,
for instance) do so when children are
7years old;the age of 6is most typical in the
United States and many other countries,while
5-year-oldsand even some 4-year-oldsare
given reading instruction in most of Scotland
and England. This is a question to which no
definitive answer has been found.Gates (1937)
sensibly pointed out that ease or difficulty of
learning to read is influenced by many factors
other than the child's age or abilities, such
as the size of the class,the child's knowledge
of the language,the degree of excellence of
the teaching, the pace of the instruction,
etc.
There is substantialevidence that regardless of what language or what method of
instruction is used,some children failto make
satisfactory progress in reading. Among the
factors that have been identified as having a
relationship to success in beginning reading
are visual perception (Barrett,1965), auditory
perception (Dykstra, 1966), ability to copy
visual designs (Koppitz,1964), and ability to
discriminate between letters of the alphabet
or other graphemes of the language, and to
identify them by name (Bond and Dykstra,
1967). Black children growing up in poor
neighbourhoods in the United States do quite
poorly on auditory discrimination tests
(Deutsch, 1964). Linguists explain this diffi-
Research in reading
culty as due to disparities between the standard English spoken by teachers and used in
the tests and the dialect spoken in Negro
neighbourhoods; they say that the children
tend to ignoresoundsthat are not pronounced
in their own dialect (Baratz and Shuy,1969).
Immaturity in speech has been emphasized as
a major source oflack ofreading readiness by
D e Hirsch (1967) in the United States,Ingram
and Reid (1956) and Ingram (1969) in Scotland, and Gjessing (1967) in Norway, all of
whom have presented evidence linking delay
in learning to talk with laterfailure in learning
to read.
On the whole, the age of the child when
he is allowed into a beginning reading programme seems less significant than the stage
of readiness that he has reached. Thus,large
numbers of 5-year-oldscan succeed in beginning reading, and small numbers of 7-yearolds fail.
While it seems eminently wise to base
important educational decisions on sound
research where such research is available,
harm can be done by basing policy on a
limited research study before checking to fnd
out how broadly the results apply. A study
of the relationship of mental maturity to success in beginning reading (Morphett and
Washburne, 1931) was widely quoted over a
period of more than twenty years.They found
that children who began reading instruction
with mental ages below 6 years had little
chance of passing, and success was most frequent for children with mental ages above
6%. Relevant facts were that the community
in which the study was conducted was a
wealthy suburban community, most of the
children were well above average in mental
ability,the materials used were fairly difficult,
and the passing standard was quite high.
Research in reading
other tests are obtained, and these correlations are analysed by elaborate statistical
procedures to discover the common and
unique factors that may be present. Davis
(1944) did a pioneering study of this sort,as
a result of which he concluded that the most
significant factors were memory for word
meanings and reasoning in reading. In a more
refined restudy of this question Davis (1968)
found evidence of eight distinguishable factors: recalling word meaning; drawing inferences about the meaning of a word from
context; finding answers to questions answered directly or in paraphrase; weaving
together ideas in the content; drawing infer?
ences from the content;recognizing a writers
purpose, attitude,tone and mood;identifying
a writers techniques; and following the
structure of a passage. H e concluded: Systematic and carefully planned learning exercises that are appropriate in level of difficulty
for each pupil should be provided. ...
It may be noted that there is great similarity between the conclusions reached by
Thorndike on the basis of qualitative analysis
of responses to oral questions and those
reached by Davis after very elaborate testing
and statistical analysis.
The methodology of beginning reading
instruction
Research in reading
197
Research in reading
example of many instances in which conclusions have been generalized far beyond the
boundaries that were justified by a research
study.
There are some issues in psychology and
education in which conflicting results have
accumulated. For example, studies of the
significance of visual defects in causing reading disabilities have come out with widely
differing results. Until such a conflict is
resolved by better and more conclusive
research,one may ask: What are the practical
consequences of assuming that one or the
other answer is correct? What happens if I
test the eyes of some children unnecessarily?
What happens if I omit eye tests altogether?
Hardly anyone would argue for abolishing
testing the vision of children and correcting
defects that are found, even if poor vision
may not be a major cause of reading disability.
A lack of standard measuring procedures
is sometimes responsible for conflicting
results. Thus, the percentage of reading disabilitiesfound depends on how one measures
reading disability. Since some vision studies
have used only the inadequate Snellen chart
test, some have used stereoscopic screening
tests,and some have employed detailed visual
examinations by eye specialists,unanimity in
results can hardly be expected. Many of the
controversial issues in reading research result
from varying definitions of technical terms
and from use ofa variety oftesting techniques
which are supposed to measure the same
characteristics but which do not agree with
one another very well.
200
Research in reading
The improvement of the educational systems in developing countries must take place
at a faster rate than in countries which have
This requires:
Research in reading
204
Research in reading
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Joan C.;SHW, R. W.1969. Teaching black
children to read. Washington, D.C.,
Center for
Applied Linguistics. 219 p.
DURRELL,
Donald D.1969. Durrell listening-reading
series. N e w York,N.Y.,
Harcourt,Brace.
DYKSTRA,
Robert. 1966. Auditory discrimination
abilitiesand beginning reading achievement.Reading research quarterly (Newark, Del.), vol. 1,
BARRETT,
Thomas C.1965. The relationship between
measures of pre-readingvisual discriminationand
first grade reading achievement: a review of the
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BIGLMEIER,
F.1964. Erfahrungen mit programmierten
Instructionen bei Leseschwachen Kindern. Miinchen.
BOND,Guy L.;DYKSTRA,
Robert. 1967.The Cooperative Research Program in first-grade reading
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Del.), vol. 2, summer,p. 5-141.
BUSWELL,
Guy T.1922. Fundamental reading habits:
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CAMPBELL,
Donald T.;STANLEY,Julian C. 1963.
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Chicago,Ill.,Rand, McNally.
CHALL,
Jeanne. 1967. Learning to read: the great
debate. N e w York,N.Y., McGraw-Hill.372 p.
CRITCHLEY,
Macdonald.1964.Developmentaldyslexia.
London,Heinemann Medical Books. 116 p.
DALE,
Edgar. 1965. Vocabulary measurement: techniques and major findings. Elementary English
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DAVIS, Frederick B. 1944. Fundamental factors of
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DEHIRSH,
K.et al. 1967. Predicting reading failure:
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Robert L.(ed.). 1969. Encyclopedia of educational research. 4th ed. N e w York, N.Y., Macmillan; London,Collier-Macmillan.1,522 p.
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D . B. 1963. The psychology of mastering
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FEITELSON,
Dina. 1965. Structuring the teaching of
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Arthur I. 1937.The necessary mental age for
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207
11
One answer is clear. Reading is and will continue to be an important learning skill. W e
must do the best possible job of providing
this skill to future world populations.
Ralph C.Staiger
210
211
Ralph C.Staiger
212
213