Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control

TOPIC 11
HIGH SPEED FLIGHT
(PART 1)

SR-71 Blackbird

Prepared by Mohammad Anuar Yusof

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Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control

11.

Introduction
Sound waves consist of a succession of weak pressure disturbances which propagate through a
medium. Sound is created in the human brain in response to sensory inputs from the inner ear
which is sensitive to variations in pressure. Sound is a series of longitudinal or compression waves
that can travel through solid, liquid and gaseous bodies, but not through a vacuum as it exists in
outer space. (Refer figure 1)

Figure 1: Sound wave propagation

Sound travels faster in liquids and non-porous solids than it does in air. It travels about 4.3 times
as fast in water (1,484 m/s), and nearly 15 times as fast in iron (5,120 m/s), as in air at 20 degrees
Celsius.
11.1 Compressibility Effects
In subsonic aerodynamics, the theory of
lift is based upon the forces generated on
a body and a moving gas (air) in which it is
immersed. At low speed or below the
speed of sound, air can be considered
incompressible in that, at a fixed altitude,
its density remains nearly constant while
its pressure varies. This can be illustrated
when the fluid passes through the venturi
and as it enters the restriction, its velocity
increases and the pressure decreases.
(Refer figure 2)
Figure 2: Effect of Subsonic airflow through a Venturi

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Theory of Flight and Control

At high or supersonic speeds, the change
in air pressure and density is significant.
As air enters a venturi at supersonic
speed, the airflow slows down and
therefore must compress to pass through
the restriction. When a fluid compresses,
its pressure and density increases with
corresponding decrease in velocity. This
study demonstrates that air is considered
compressible when at supersonic speed.
(Refer figure 3)
Figure 3: Effect of Supersonic airflow through a Venturi
11.2 Speed of Sound
The speed of sound depends on the type of medium and the temperature of the medium. At
standard atmospheric condition, the speed of sound at sea level altitude and temperature at
15C (59F) is 761 M.P.H. or 661 knots, 1116.4 ft. per sec. or 340.197 meter per sec. (Refer figure
4)
ALTITUDE
METER
FEET
0
0
305
1000
610
2000
3000
914
4000
1,219
5000
1,524
6000
1,829
7000
2,134
8000
2,438
9000
2,743
10,000
3,048
15,000
4,572
20,000
6,096
25,000
7.620
30,000
9,144
10,668 35,000
10,973 *36,089
12,192 40,000
13,716 45,000
15,240 50,000
16,764 55,000
18,288 60,000
19,812 65,000
21,336 70,000
22,860 75,000
24,384 80,000

TEMPERATURE
C
F
15
59
13
55.43
11
51.87
9.1
48.30
7.1
44.74
5.1
41.17
3.1
37.60
1.1
34.04
-0.8
30.47
-2.8
26.90
-4.8
23.34
-14.7
5.51
-24.6
-12.32
-34.5
-30.15
-44.4
-47.98
-54.3
-65.82
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70
-56.5
-69.70

M.P.H.
761
758
756
753
750
748
745
742
740
737
734
721
707
692
678
663
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
660
660

SPEED OF SOUND
FT/SEC. KNOTS
1116.4
661
1111.7
659
1108.8
657
1104.4
654
1100.0
652
1097.1
650
1092.7
647
1088.3
645
1085.3
643
1080.9
640
1077.4
638
1057.4
626
1036.9
614
1016.1
602
994.8
589
973.1
576
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574
968.1
574

M/SEC.
340.197
338.856
337.963
336.621
335.280
334.386
333.045
331.704
330.810
329.468
328.127
322.316
316.057
309.352
303.093
296.388
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046
295.046

Figure 4: Speed of Sound vs Temperature and Altitude Table

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From the table in figure 4, we can deduce that as air temperature decreases the speed of sound
decreases.
The speed of sound varies with temperature. Under standard temperature conditions of 15 C,
the speed of sound at sea level is 661 knots. At 40,000 feet, where the temperature is 56.5C,
the speed of sound decreases to 574 knots. In high-speed flight and/or high-altitude flight, the
measurement of speed is expressed in terms of a Mach number (M), a dimensionless number
which is the ratio of the true airspeed of the aircraft to the speed of sound in the same
atmospheric conditions.
Mach number (M) =

True Speed of Aircraft

Local Speed of Sound

Example: (Refer to figure 2)

1. If an aircraft is flying at 700 m.p.h. at sea level (s.t.p.) its M number is:
True Speed of Aircraft
M = Local Speed of Sound

700
761

= 0.92

2. If it is flying at 700 m.p.h. at 35,000 feet (s.t.p.) its M number is:

M=

True Speed of Aircraft

Local Speed of Sound

700
663

= 1.06

An aircraft traveling at the speed of sound is traveling at Mach 1.0. It is important that the pilot
knows the speed of the aircraft in relation to the local speed of sound, and as we have seen his
airspeed indicator only indicates AIRSPEED. The aircraft's speed in relation to the speed of sound
is related to AIRSPEED and ALTITUDE and is indicated by a Mach meter.
11.3 Speed Ranges
Aircraft speed ranges are defined approximately as follows:
1. Subsonic flight is flight at an airspeed in which all air flowing over the aircraft is moving at a
speed below the speed of sound. The subsonic speed range extends from 0 to approx. Mach
0.75, depending on the aircraft.
2. Transonic flight is flight at an airspeed in which some air flowing over the aircraft is moving at
a speed below the speed of sound and the other portion of the air is moving at a speed
greater than the speed of sound. The transonic speed range extends from Mach 0.75 to Mach
1.25.
3. Supersonic flight is flight at an airspeed in which all air flowing over the aircraft is moving at a
speed higher than the speed of sound. The supersonic speed range extends from Mach 1.30
to Mach 5.00.
4. Hypersonic speeds are speeds higher than Mach 5. Research is underway using various
concepts such as the Hypersonic Waverider, however, hypersonic flight conditions have not
yet been achieved.
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11.4 Critical Mach Number or Mach Crit
The speed of an aircraft in which air flow over any part of the aircraft or structure first reaches
(but does not exceed) Mach 1.0 is termed as critical Mach number or Mach Crit. Thus, critical
Mach number is the boundary between subsonic and transonic flight and is largely dependent on
the wing and airfoil design. The higher the Mach Crit. number the better the design of the airfoil.
Critical Mach number is an important point in transonic flight. When shock waves form on the
aircraft, airflow separation followed by buffet and aircraft control difficulties can occur. Shock
waves, buffet, and airflow separation take place above critical Mach number. A jet aircraft
typically is most efficient when cruising at or near its critical Mach number. At speeds 510
percent above the critical Mach number, compressibility effects begin. Drag begins to rise sharply.
Associated with the drag rise are buffet, trim and stability changes, and a decrease in control
surface effectiveness. This is the point of drag divergence.
11.5

Moving Object in Air

When an object such as an airplane moves through the air, it increases the frequency of the
pressure or sound waves ahead of it, due to its velocity. This is the Doppler Effect, where the pitch
of the sound is heard as higher when the object is moving toward you and the pitch is lower, as
the object moves away. The moving object will send out pressure waves in all directions at the
speed of sound. These pressure waves warn the air that the object is coming, and the air is
prepared to move out of the way.

Figure 5: Shock Wave propagation.

If the object is moving through the air at the speed of sound then the pressure or sound waves
being sent out ahead of it do not move forward ahead of the object but build up or accumulate in
front to form a continuous wave or shock wave. The air in front now has no warning that the
object is coming and hence the sudden change in pressure and velocity. (Refer figure 5)

Malaysian Institute of Aviation Technology

Theory of Flight and Control

If the object can now accelerate through this shock wave (or sound barrier), then it will be trailing
the sound waves behind as it moves faster than the speed of sound. The shock wave changes to
the shape of a cone, called Mach Cone that contains all emitted sound waves (i.e. pressure
disturbances) within. An observer on the ground would see a supersonic aircraft passing in
complete silence and thereafter he would hear and feel the sonic boom as soon as the shock
waves of the cone reach him. (Refer figure 6)
This so--called Mach cone is variable since its shape and angle depend on the speed and shape of
the object travelling at supersonic speed. As a general rule it can be stated that the faster the
object travels the smaller or sharper will be the Mach angle at the tip of the cone, the blunter the
object the larger the angle or the blunter the cone.

Figure 6: Mach Cone

11.6 Shock Waves on High Speed Airfoils
When an airfoil travels through the air below the wings critical Mach number all airflow is
subsonic (see A). Once the critical Mach number is reached, the local flow air passing over the
wings greatest camber reaches sonic speed (see B). As the airfoil exceeds the critical Mach
number an incipient shock wave begins to form and when the wave becomes perpendicular i.e.
90 to the airflow, the shock wave is called normal shock wave (see C). As more of the airflow
passing over the wing reaches supersonic speed, the normal shock wave moves aft and induced
separation begins to occur. A second normal shock wave also begins to form on the lower camber
(see D). When almost all of the airflow is supersonic, both shock waves continue to move aft and
attached to the trailing edge (see E). Once the airfoil moves through the air above Mach 1, a bow
wave begins to form ahead of the wing (see F). (Refer figure 7)
Shock waves are not only generated on wings. Any curved surface of the fuselage or auxiliary
structure that accelerates the flow of air to supersonic speed, for example the cockpit canopy, can
also form a shock wave.
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Figure 7: Propagation of Shockwave on Airfoil

11.7 Type of Waves Form
The shock waves form on an object depends upon the airflow and the shape of the object causing
the flow change. There are three types of wave forms; Normal Shock Waves, Oblique Shock
Waves and Expansion waves.
11.7.1 Normal Shock Waves
When an aircraft is flying below the speed of sound in the transonic range, some of the air flowing
over the airfoil accelerates until it is supersonic. At this point a shock wave forms perpendicular
(i.e at 90) to the airflow and it is termed as a normal shock wave. The flow immediately behind
this wave is subsonic. A supersonic airstream passing through a normal shock wave experiences
these changes: (Refer figure 8)
The airstream is slowed to subsonic which
is always reciprocal value of the speed in
front of the shock wave.
Example: Mach 1.25 becomes Mach 0.8;
Mach 1.38 becomes Mach 0.72.
The airflow immediately behind the shock
wave does not change direction.
The static pressure and density of the
airstream behind the wave is greatly
increased.
The energy of the airstream (indicated by
total pressuredynamic plus static) is
greatly reduced.
Figure 8: Normal Shockwave

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As a result of this loss of energy of the airstream, the air passing through the shock wave can
become turbulent and may separate from the wing surface. Shock wave induced turbulence and
separation can create transonic buffeting, serious drag and control problems.
11.7.2 Oblique Shock Waves
An airplane that is designed to fly supersonic will have very sharp edged surfaces, in order to
have the least amount of drag. When a supersonic airflow strikes a sharp--edged or pointed
object the air is deflected and forms an oblique (or slanted) shock wave. When the air passes
through an oblique shock wave, it is slowed down but is still supersonic. Other changes
encountered by the airstream are: (Refer figure 9)
The direction of flow changes to follow the surface of the object.
The static pressure behind the shock wave increases.
The density of the airstream behind the shock wave increases.
Some of the energy is converted into heat (i.e. aerodynamic heating) and wasted.
When a sharp--edged double wedge moves through the air at supersonic speed the air is forced
to turn, and oblique shock waves form at the leading and trailing edges. At the center of the
airfoil the surface drops away from the airstream and an expansion wave forms.

Figure 9: Oblique Shock Wave

11.7.3 Expansion Wave
In high-speed aerodynamics, it was stated that air at supersonic speed acts like a compressible
fluid. For this reason, supersonic air, when given the opportunity, wants to expand outward.
When supersonic air is flowing over the top of a wing, and the wing surface turns away from the
direction of flow, the air will expand and follow the new direction. At the point where the
direction of flow changes, an expansion wave will occur. (Refer figure 9)
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When supersonic air flows through the expansion wave the airstream accelerates and the air
behind the expansion wave has a higher supersonic velocity. Other changes encountered by the
airflow are:
The direction of flow changes to follow the surface.
The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave decreases.
The density of the air behind the wave decreases.
There is no change in total energy in the airstream.
There is no sound as there is when air passes through a shock wave.
An expansion wave is not a shock wave.