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    Fourier

    Загружено:

    Nilesh Patil
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    12 FOURIER SERIES 12.1 DEFINITION OF FOURIER SERIES We will be discussing the expansion of real-valued functions in terms of the functions 1,cosx,sinx,cos2x,sin2x,... . We must first evaluate some important definite integrals of trigonometric functions. I2.1A. THEOREM. qd) Q) J Sinkesinnsds=0 @) ff sintmcac=a ry ff sosbrsinncde=0 (kn=0.12..) 6 PROOF: All these results may be easily derived from appropriate trigonometric idemtities. For example, cos (kx + nx) =coskx cosnx—sinkx sinnx, cos (kx —anx) = cos kx cos nx +sin kx sins. Adding, we have coskx cosnx= $[cos(k-+n)x+e0s(k—n)x]} ass ase | rove sens Suppose kn. Integrating from — to # we obtain Jf coskxcosnxde= zf cost tn)xdet TJ cose =n)xdx 1 sin(k+n) sin(k—n)x 2 ken This proves (1). The proof of (2)-(5) is left to the reader. 12.1B. Suppose we have a real-valued function f on [~ m,7] that can be expressed =z Ze (qcoskx+bsinkx) (—" (cif cosbeconmede +, sinkveosneds) Using 12.1A, we see that only one of the integrals on the right is not zero—namely, the ime J soxkscouneas for k=n. Hence, [conc and so, for n=1,2,..., EL S)cosneas. 8) Note that if we put n=0 in (3), we obtain (2). That is why we use ay/2 in (1) instead of dag. It may be similarly shown that , FS feosinncas. @ Thus if a function f is representable in the form (1), we would expect the coefficients to bbe found from (2), (3), (4). This leads us to the following definition, 12.1. DEFINITION OF FouRER seRES | 357 12.1C. periition, If f= £{—-,], then the Fourier series for f is the series oe + D (aqcoskx+bsinkx) (—7 (cost sneoskrat+sinkx f” s(Osinkr a) if So} “if SO) Using the identity (39) of Section 8.4 we then have sl= bf" HD, (s—9 ae $+ (conkscohe sini a ih $+ cork a cs where* sin(n +4)r 9 Fsin(t/2) eee) @ (The function D, is called the Dirichlet kernel.) ‘we have as sls f Se =WD, (wd 8) It is now convenient to extend f to all of (~ 00, 20) by requiring that fut2n)=f(u). 4 This defines f(u) uniquely for all values of w except [in case f(—2)#f(m)] for u= 3x, 25n,... . For these exceptional values of u we can define /(u) in any manner without affecting anything concerning integrals of f. Functions satisfying (4) are called periodic functions (of period 2). Since D, is also a periodic function of period 2, itis ‘easy to show from (3) that sels) Ef" Se) Dy(u) de (See exercise | of this section.) Thus sO= Ef” Hx wD, (wd ahr —u)D, (u) du Lp ie aE freon, nae! (He0-90, (oa Since D,(~1)= D,(i) for all, we have =F [LF O+I 9], 6) * For 1=0, #28, #4,... we interpret D,(¢) as n+ so that D, will be continuous on (~ ce, ce) 360 | rounter series In the special case f=1 we have ay=2, ag=6,=0 (k> 1). Hence, s,(x)=1 for all n. From (5) we then have 2 (oxide 6 Going back to an arbitrary f€ ©[— m,n], we multiply (6) by f(x) and subtract from (5) to obtain al + x= seomsey=2 f [ee wh D, oat. 4 ‘We have thus shown that $F ete stem [that is, the Fourier series for f at x will converge to f(x) if and only if Jin [se)-s0]= fn 2 [PO , where D, is as in (2). 1228. If fe £{—x,7}, then fe &[—7,7] (why?), so that f has a Fourier series. Since each function coskt, sinkt is in €%—,9}, it follows from 11.9C that 5,€ £%{—a7], where 5, is the nth partial sum of the Fourier series for f defined in (1) of 12.2. In addition to asking whether (5,(x)}#qy converges to f(x) at individual points x, it makes sense (and is very fruitful) 10 inquire if the sequenée of £%{—,x] functions (s,), converges to fin the metric of €—,]. That is, does, fim sy -fl=0? We will see in Section 12.4 that the answer is “yes” for all f€ £°|—#,2]. 12.2C. As a final problem we ask: For what x is it true that the Fourier series of FEL[—#,2] is (C,1) summable to f(x)? That is, for what x€[—,#] is it true that Jim s=f0) (C1), or, equivalently, lim o,(x)= f(x) where Sox) +512) + *** + 5.18) ——E—r or = n(x) Using (5) of 12.2 we have en er? and so a 12.2 FORMULATION OF CONVERGENCE PROBLEMS | 361 where rect | KZ Pel= amy Sisnaes Meo (Hectic) 2) acl 2inkeeaen & S sin “dee Yawer—ng. and so, by exercise 8 of Section 8.4, Sines De SoS . Thus from (2), sin?(m/2 Ky (StS © {In particular, note that K,(1)>0 for all 1] In the special case f=1, then sy(x)=5,(x) = ++ =5,_\(0)= 1. Hence, from (1) we have 1=2 [Koa ® Going back to an arbitrary fE {—m,7}, we multiply (4) by f(x) and subtract from (1). We then have acre? f [ey peo] aoa. , We have thus shown that Le S accoskr+bsinkx=f(x) (C1) Fea if and only if lim, [o,(x)~S(x)]= im a A(x) ]K, (Namo, where K, is as in (3) Exercises 122 1. I fee[—n,a] and if S(u+2m)=f(u) (—o0. According to 12.2C, to prove the theorem it is sufficient to find NEI such that lo, F(x) = : [ee ncn Om). @) b Since f is continuous at x we can find 6 with 0<8<_ such that LO)-FON 6, then K,()< Thus 1 2nsin? (6/2) 2S" L(+ 9+SE-9- FOO] 2//e ee | K, (a 7 a IF Sella Q) where sone S lansker sink) (-aesee) and the 4,,b, are the Fourier coefficients of f. pRoor: For any T, let J 3S o- Too Pa Then Vad =||f—Tyl and so we must prove that J is a minimum when 7,=s,. We 12.4 THE £2 THEORY OF FOURIER SERIES | 365, have BL PEL ie gle ® If 7, is as in (1), then bf mm ab [pe S[k f sereontars ah f° soaked) and so m BL remain 3 (Aaa Bas) ® Also, “r= 2f" ToT, (oa £f [ae 3, ecoie+ nin] = Bier oot > (eos sin] We can compute the integral on the right by use of 12.2. This yields Lf" romans 3S (a+ 82) 6) ze a ‘Substituting (4) and (5) into (3) we obtain 1 J J P-2Ae0-2.3 (Asay Bibi) +248+ S (42+ 82) ae Pa fet Adding and subtracting Tt Earn and doing some algebra, we have Jai fn =f r[F+ Sern + {2(40- ay+3 [ea +(8,-40')} © The quantity in braces cannot be negative, and so J will be a minimum if we let Ao= o/2Ag= ay (K= 1yoo.5)Be= be (k= Tyoo.sn), That is, J will be a minimum T,=5,, which is what we wished to show. The following corollary is very important. 12.4B, COROLLARY (BESSEL'S INEQUALITY). If fEE{—m,7] has Fourier coefficients 366 | FOURIER SERIES ayeby, then % Ss tanyel fp. Tt LM fr a In particular, the series 37_, (a?+63) converges. PROOE: If we set Ag= dp/2, Aq dy, By= by in (6) of 124A, we obtai ler Let a 4% 3 (a2 b2 JEL was fs -[F Sie] @ The integral on the left is nonnegative, and hence, the right-hand side is nonnegative. It follows that S (ate bc (7 p. Tt Dares fF @) Since the right side of (3) is independent of n, we may let n—rco and obtain (1). We next show that if fe £ metric for {—2,]. That is, =}, then the Fourier series of f converges to f in the 12.4C. THEOREM. If fE£%{—-,n], then tim, lis. qa where a =F + D (qeoskt+hsinkt) (46167) me proor: By 11.9K, given ¢>0 there exists a continuous function f* such that Js*(—2)=fCq), and such that W-Sth<5- 2) By 12.3C we know that (of}%, converges uniformly on [~ 7,11] to f*, where spt tt oes and the sf are the partial sums of the Fourier series for f*.This uniform convergence implies that sim lot. and so, for some N EJ, llote-S*h) 4) But 12.4 THE € THEORY OF FoUMIER sexes | 367 is a trigonometric polynomial of degree n. Hence, by 12.4A, NI Sylla N), which implies (1), and the proof is complete. ‘We emphasize that theorem 12.4C deals with convergence in the metric of £°{— 7,7]. From (1) it does not necessarily follow that lim, _..s,(x)= f(x) for any particular x. Here are two important consequences of 12.4C. 124D. conottary. If the Fourier coefficients a, (k=0,1,2, ...) and by (k= 1,2, FEL= 2,2] are all 0, then f= of PROOF: Since all the a and 6, are equal to 0, it follows that s corollary then follows immediately from 12.4C. 0 for every n€ I. The 124E. conoutary. If f and g are two functions in £? Fourier coefficients, then f= 3.4 ym] that have the same PROOF: Under these hypotheses, f—g is in €2{— 7,2] and the Fourier coefficients of, J=g are all 0. Apply 12.4D. In 124B we showed that if a (k=0,1,...) and 6, (k=1,2,...) are the Fourier coefficients of fe £%{—a,7, then ae Tt 3S (aeei j, it follows from (2) and 12.1A that 2" s(teositdr=a, Hence, from (3) we have . 4 2K Neosjtdt Cj This shows that the a, are the Fourier cosine coefficients of f. It may be shown similarly that the 6, are the Fourier sine coefficients of f, and this will complete the proof. Exercises 12.4 Lise et ym] and a Ft D (acoske+ by sink), ket fm prove that Ae SL Pa T+ E (aes. (This is called Parseval’s equality.) (Hint: Apply 12.4C to (2) of 12.4B.) 2. Apply the result of exercise 1 to 4A, 9167). Deduce that 1 zt 3. Apply Parseval’s equality to the function after 12.1C to show that 125 CONVERGENCE OF FounmeR sens | 369 4, Is the series cosm (-26x<0) Nn the Fourier series for some function in £3[— m,n]? 5. Is the series EME (rence) the Fourier series for some function in ©{—a,a1? 6. (a) Ife e{—a,m] and I~ B+ S (acoskr+b,sinkt), prow tint fm e=0 i Oy “ (b) Prove that (+) holds even if we assume only that © {—,7]. 12.5 CONVERGENGE OF FOURIER SERIES We have not yet established anything about the convergence at @ point x of the Fourier series of a function f € €[— ,1]. The conditions sufficient for convergence that we will give involve the existence of the left- and right-hand limits lim, (0) and lim,,-f(0) and the existence of generalized right-and left-hand derivatives of f at x, which we now proceeed to define. 125A. For any real-valued function f on R! the definition of lim,...f(0) and lim,_,._f(0) was given in 4.1F, We recall from 6.9E the notations f(x-+) and f(x—) defined as Seet)= fim JD; (e-)= im FO. provided the one-sided limits in question exist. [Thus f is continuous as x if and only if f(x+) and f(x) both exist and are equal to f(x).] 12.5B. DEFINITION. If xR! and if f is a real-valued function such that f(x +) exists, we define f'(x), the generalized right-hand derivative of f at x, as 7 F(O-F(R+) Es) ie, provided the limit exists. Similarly, f(x), the generalized left-hand derivative of fat x, is defined as S(-H(e~) im —— For example, suppose S(Qalte (>1), s()=17, S(Q=32 (0K). Chapter 4 Compactness 4.1 Compact Spaces and their Properties Tho basic intuitive idow of @ compact subset of a (matric) space is that itis a generalidation of a finite set. Most professional mathematicians Subscribe to this view but no author of a book would like to put print. But you have it hore! Lack for instances where thie crade fon helps us conjecture results We first introduce the concept of an indexed family of subsets of a ect. A thorough knowledge of this will be needed to understand open Let X be any nonempty set. Let I be another nonempty set. A family of subsets of X indexed by the index sct J is a map I — P(X) of T into the power set of X, that in, the wet of all subscts of X. We Seat Cie deumpu ot re F by ay or wicks wu wotatite. ‘Tiben the faanily is denoted by {A, : i € J}. (Compare this with the case of sequences. A sequenes in X is'm fanction from N to X and in prectics, wwe deniote Ht by (un) ete.) Let us look at some examples Example 41.1. Let X —R? and 1 ~ (0,20). For any r € I, we let = ((2,y) © R?: 2? 4 y? = 72) be the circle of radius r with centre fa the origin. Hore the family is (C, © [0,20)) Example 4.1.2. Lat X= Ran [= Qt, the set of positive rational uimbers, For any re Q, we let Jj denote tho interval (r,r}. Here the family is (4,7 © Q*) Let a tamily (Aci € 1) of subsets of X indexed by I be given. Let ACI bea subset. Then the family (A, : i € A} is called a subfamily of the given family (Av =4 © 2) The subset Usen Ay of X defined by Uien = {4 © X cx © Ay for some iin AY 81 smumerate ete eerie Wy {Ce re [La whe ame eg leg) € REN soy? EIN cee enact gina taastiseee atta de tn reine htc At iene ‘deal vo bape in X) TEST monaco se Peer stance) CT te he A a te ame Gat ere we REAL See sel tiation tone Sint) eg Ca Went dew ha me eet eines iw ne ROSIE aver twee oonbeipensp om i a den at tere (0, retin Fe ey tama Simin erent Korat tly Pe hr) 0 ats at) © Gia a ea aise dA Spates op mera sth pp gets Mhetcntote inl nese Fp Moser tect Fig 1 tt tr aah 14 ee toe af 0th (8), he a mete sn chy edirdon oy ot Saas, tei masta) Ten RAE AUN OURAN) Cer) Laren eater eu) HOC ree ‘te gh cer] ab ite eae 1 e448 Sot hf ig tn a a 1 (tim) sme ees yan zanen. [Misa taecoea ferme ono he mth egy ra open oa Sow ‘incr ures Pred eb e428 Than ional x6 Mn) anion ort Soa crch fan na weR) wana Das [Be 418 Seth sonar opm cme an NIC) ‘Goeronn wh minor tet B= (nN aang AAA et CX a ated te rem 44.8 ane Dr Thee 8) Le) de Sie ea a Th wy ope me of ae ‘chant mae Dd as ah at Tet i pe oe (2h unt cts ty a a 7 (hoon i 7 dna tae me ey Sr ier ot ‘We bece 7 eeu, Now te [ok vet) coe corer amt.) ee be Hemuut mat ptmemu uty othe @ay-UerU(Gy v0 seeps ok Ferien at a a eneteeree emia “Ue ve th dom et alas Bake be i Renee rues Sire Hacer sna ENO ‘tinned = mh ht in oi oe Ser tgnnvace semen Peete eee Sean ements tenes eree an Mee eae ee Sema eae a ea nett SPST Dt i, eto a al a Taiyer morte ala atlspanar Pas Ae Perera oer ds tenis a= Phal twa! Sire. and (U4 1 an opens ha te cts et SS pref he Time nna erect e Sete et nse cm wan el cpt tsk 2 4418 sh en gM) emma “Thee L116 yom i of me la a Soo (onay se Be aoa his hog {Biege'2j Zo) Sie Onn) cle mere SIR Ee em Sf) Ta A Pew Ut Canc tt cod Soe Citi) tee me wae eo By) Soo he aint beanbentia se Moyes Perea’ ‘3 a 1 Tt rn rn geen Sent gh Fl gn th bat se A. te cnet sl ee) eX GS Feces Cc et ln Naa ee x. 1.9, Ci = 0.20) ih te end om Neha eu nemo en sha Be 6280 Aan Rit ek ny 1 So rane 5 pearl phr md te Eigen One tonnes nota no sam ws ee teerieae nine Tae Gents ec © BM} an dleses)= vi tim wea tha te tae sb tr ee] on mh at ene Bey 12 ua dl Sen) yt) Baas Soe ha iC a) et me {asaya wpe ft sg trans wed cate nr ofa welciiepietim ps Creat chm ome PSO a a cgD dy fade tas FDC Se pa na i wy Sage 08 WY Aly’ Pg 6: Gp fa Bai 1.38 oft ae Residencia ara a Fir guaran ordinate vad at ie gras 20 Syn peo ae 441 CONMLCRSDCES AND TR mROPCHTIES Legros = RAAF Mos om nine hci th ene ut one Soleo eae Sore eeoer ESr oko ees Silieeccia oes et eta nd Wr tn) ‘cs uh ta) € Uy ig Hn an 8 Ey Si atom mn ewe ti A A= RM ane ri2a Baie aeah or wih aS imctie) 5 ine talon enter “Da © Beh) © Be (0) nt moe Since i ee agua $4.98 Natal pe pn ta in ‘There tM erd Ther) Ae omt Giccend eens a 2h fe ning weap atl a mines oan ing smd deg pp Eel an a fo {2 Rn" tp ss) 4 conniwvors FENTON ON COMPACT SPICES 9) Bt nab Seen eee a Sit tie 6) =) a 44.8. Waker ap nS ca 42 Continuous Functions on Compact Spaces ord enter wn yur ees ne ma Po na eg Ea = . Use Pina) = ee Aste yt mimayd force Och a denen = apes) 8 Hee hla Sees Etec edt Ginseng Salman "63.2, tte tp ah tly mn Te erg ad fr rs sm mae eee ce {hrm re out et came ee el (fon Sten Seer L238 a mpc iw meh ‘Seen ator ps ‘orem 4314 (Emmett of Cpt Mat Spe Fretnanc mt eh uae “Xa yh ea (Gl Bue ite se ee pt {8 Been ar omc nn 462 QUARACTERIZATION OF COMPACT METIC SPACES 7 re (2) = (yet (9 bem, > he ty ei Seat ta ee Enh cutusiednnicinedaoe ie i} ant pin Sn fc > a rah Tena, ¢ er oop weh 1 hm Th tender [anne robe etre "oct EB Hf ike As ws ip eine PS ee Bes 890 Bas an Inds eu © Fy eh he B en) a, a gt) Sena sors 2 a) 4 Canty Sac mpi emerge ae Moos edie tet eBay wine Bom oth Si i ae dept Gh (en) ne X w= fy | WEN) ethene Wc etn ay a su hat tt 8h i Tinted Sah a Tung rand @etonty bard 2S Gps i beanopn meraX Ra re he resnee® | Be) a bee a Fae (>) Te 424 tte [othe cafebiniee anette emma Renate eles costae staan ia fil lre | eX) Chou ny #1 Xb chowe nemesis Laan Wee he esa re e Tim (Vp hae st bec a Xi comp o 2 48, oie ad ai a amr eh ie ecomer ntent ear 4316 Ne es mond yk ete erg ‘Sti it pa ms te ste ee yw ean a ta tie oe Ce Tem eee pedeier> ew aah aaah et, ase at See) me an hw Chapter 5 Connectedness We say that a (metric) space is connected if it is a ‘single piece.’ This is a very difficult notion to be formulated precisely, If we look at R \ {0}, we would think of it consisting of two pieces, namely, one of positive aumbers and the other of negative numbers, Similarly, if we consider an ‘Mipse or a parabola, it is in a single space while a hyperbola has two listinct pieces. I we remove a single point from a circle, it still remains is a.single piece. We start with a definition which is unintuitive but with ‘amples and further exploration see that it captures our intuitiv 3.1 Connected Spaces Definition 5.1.1. A (metric) space X ix said to be connected if the only vets which are both open and closed in X are @ and the full space X, vhen X is a metric space, A subset A of a (metric) space X’ is sald to be connected if A is a connected space when considered as a (metric) space with the induced or subspace) topology. More explicitly, this amounts to saying that A, 4) is connected, where é is the restriction of the metric don X to A Bx. 5.1.2. R is connected (Ex. 2.2.12) wl ‘eal numbers is not connected. le R*, the subset of nonzero 8x. 5.2.3. Show that a (metric) space X is not connected iff there exist wo disjoint proper non-empty subsets 4 and B such that A and B are »oth open and closed in X and X = AU B. In such a case, we say that he pair (A,B) is a disconnection of X. ix. 5.1.4. Let X bea set such that |X| > 2 with discrete metric. Show hat X is not connected. 5x. 5.1.5. When is a finite subset of a metrie space connected? ‘The following, result is the most important characterization of o sted spaces worem 5.1.6, A topological space X is connected Uf every continu: action f: X — {21} as a constant function. A subset A of X, endowed with the subspace topology, is connec every continuous function f: A — {+1} ts a constant function vof, Let X be a connected space and f:X — {+1} a continuc rection. We wane to show that f is a constant function. If jf ism istaunt, then it is onto. Let A f-'Q) and B = f-'(-1). Tr and 8 are disjoint non-empty subsets of X such that 4 and & th open and closed subsets of X and X = AU B.(Why?}. This i stradiction. Therefore f is constant, Conversely, let us assume that X is not connected. ‘Therefore th ‘st two disjoint proper non-empty subsets A and B in XN such that dB are both open and closed in X and X = AUB. Now we defin up fi: X — {+1} as _fi rea nar= fh, fre B en f: X — {+1} npletes the proof. a continuous non-constant function. (Why?) T oposition 5.1.7. The mterval [a,b| CR ts connected. cof. If we assume the intermediate value theorem from real analy: can give a short and elegant proof. If J is an interval and if f: J 1} is an onto continuous function, then there exist x,y € J such tk c) = -1 and fiy) = 1. By the intermediate value theorem, the sts = between ¢ and y such that f(z) = 0, a contradiction to c umption that f takes only the values +1, Hence no such f exists a ice J is connected. In stead, we may adapt the argument used to prove the imtermedie ue theorem to show directly that any interval [a,4) is connected a luce the general result form this. Assume that [a,6] is not connected. We then can write [a,6] = UU ere tf and W are nonempty proper open subsets of [a,b] with OV = thout loss of generality assume that @ © L/. We intend to show th = [a, 6] so that V = 0. Consider E := {x € (a,b) : la.z] CU}. Since a € 0 and U reexists ane > Osuch that lace) CU. Hence lae/2l co 0 _ 8 CHAPTER 5. CONNECTEDNES > LUB axiom there exists a real number ¢ © Rw mwacsccd. ‘We claim that ¢ € &. For each n € N, c—1/nis not an upper boun E. We can therefore find x, € E such that ¢—1/n <_<. Clear! 1z_ =c. Since x, € E,2_ € U. Since U is closed in [a,b] (with resper the subspace topology) and c € [a,#], we see that c= lima, € ww [a,c} = Ula,e — 1/n) C Ula, ay]. As each of fa, 2q] C U we see the ¢) CU. This along with the fact that ¢ ¢ U allows us to concluc at fave] CU and hence ce E. We now show that c= 6. This will complete the proof. Since c € i dU is open there exists an (relatively) open subset containing ¢ lying i Ifc 2. Ther sa continuous function from J onto {£1}. Hence J is not connected ‘To prove the converse, let J be any nonempty interval. Let x,y © J ithout loss of generality, assume that x < y. Since J is an interval vl] € J. By Proposition 5.1.7, [z,y] is a connected set: Thus, J hat 2 property that any two of its points lie in a connected set. Hence J sonnected by Ex. 5.1.9 c »rollary 5.1.19 (Intermediate Value Theorem). Let f: [a,b] — « continuous function. Assume that y ts a point between f(a) and f(6) is, either f(a) < y < f(b) or f(b) < y < f(a) holds. Then ther sts x € [a,b] such that f(z) = y cof. This admits an elementary proof in real analysis. However, we >w the role of connectedness using some of our recent results. By Proposition 5.1.7, the interval [a,6] is connected. Since f is con uous on [a,b], the image f({a.6)) is connected by Theorem 5.1.10. Any snected subset of B is an interval (Theorem 5.1.18) and hence f((a,6)} an interval, say, J. Now f(a), f(t) € J. By the definition of an inter- , the point y © J, that is, y © f{la,b]). Therefore we conclude that re exists x € [a, 6] such that f(#) = y. & +» 5.1.20. Let A be a nonempty connected subset of R. Assume that ry point of A is rational. What can you conclude? + 5.1.21, Find all continuous functions f: R — R which take irra- aal values only at rational points and not at irrational points. We now give two neat applications of the intermediate value theorem. eorem 5.1.22 (Existence of n-th roots). Let a € (0,00) and NN. Then there exists a unique x € [0,00) such that x" = a. ‘of The case when a = 0 is clear. So we assume that a > 0. Consider the continuous function f: (0,00) — [0,0c) given by f(#) By Archimedean property of R, there exists WN such that NV > a. have 0 = f(0) N > a. So, applying the mediate value theorem to the restriction of f to the interval (0, N], see that there exists x © (0,.M| such that 2” =a. ‘Uniqueness is easy and left to the reader. a corem 5.1.23. Any polynomial with reat coefficients and of odd de- + has a real root. That is, if p(x) = an2" +aq—12"! +----+ aye +ao, 2a, €R for0 = {lz,y) : 2 € X} is a connected subset of X = Y; similarly, the subset {2} * ¥ = {(2,y) = © Y'} is a connected subset of X x ¥ for every point x in X. ¥ ppey Figure 5.2: Connectedness of the product Now the point (<, 93) lies in both ects X = {yg} and (2) = ¥. The ro aisictions of / to either of thees sete aie continuous and hence constants. We sce that S(z0, 40) = S(£,yo)) for all © X and similacly, S(x,y) (eyo) for all ye ¥. In particular, fey) = (2, ¥o) = ft20,mu). (See Figure 5.2 on page 113.) a Ex. 9.1.32. Show that the annulus {x © R71 < {jell < 2) is con- nected. #1nt: Continuous image of a connected set is connected. 52. PATH CONNECTED SPACES 15 Bx, 5.1.49. Let Ac X. What does it mean to say that the character- ion x4 continuous? fun Ex. 5.1.44. Give an example of a sequence (A,.) of connected subset of R? such that Anos C Ay for'n EN, but Onan is not connected. mpty open subset of Kis homeomorphic Ex. 5.1.45. Show that no non to an open subset of R* Bx. 6.1.40. The notation iy as in Ex. 21.19. Show that the maximal beets of (Q, dp) are singletons. Al connected gubsets of Q with the standard jected What are the maxi 5.2 Path Connected spaces ‘ion 5.2.1. Let X be a (metric) space. A path in X is a contin- uous map -y: [0.1] — X. in X. If y(0) = x and >(1) = y, then + is said to be a path joining the points x and y or simply a path from z to y. See Figure 5.3, We also say that x is path connected to 4 Defin x Figure 5.3: Path between x and y Ex. 5.2.2. If x ix path connected to y, then y is path connected to x. Mint: Define o(t) := 7(1 — 2) for t< [0,1]. Then show that o connects y to. (The path & is called the reverse path of 7.) st connect (—1,0) and (1,0) Ex. 5.2.3. Give at least two paths in R? and pass through (0.1) how that if x is path-connected to y and y is path connected Path-connected to = prove the following. Let y%: [0,1] + X, i= 1,2, be Ex. 5.2. to zin X, then x More precisely ne CHAPTER 5. CONNECTEDNESS (2) = 72(0) and as: [0,1] = X such that 74(0) = 71(0). ra(1/2) sme interval, your train sa(L) = 72(1). Hint: Ifyou think of (0, 1] as the oy Should cover the distance between 74(0) and 7 (1) along the railway track 7;(0, 1) within half the time and yz should take aver from there. To wit. consider mn (2t) te (0, 1/2) mata) fre 1/2,1) te) Definition 5.2.5. A (metric) space X 1s said to be path connected it for any pair of points x and y in X, there exists a path 7: [0.1] + X such that 7(0) = 7 and 4(1) = y. Bx, 5.2.6. Show that any interval in Ris path connected. Example 5.2.7. The space IR" is path connected. Any two points can be Joined by a line segment: 7(t):=2 +4(u~). for 0< t= 1. We call path ya linear path, Ex. 5.2.8. Show that any convex set in an NLS is path-connected, Hence conclude that any open or closed ball in an NLS is connected. Ex. 5.2.9. For every r > 0, show that the circle Gy = ((a,u) € R? 2? > y? =r} is path connected, Ex. 5.2.10. Show that the set ((2,y) © IR? + > 0 and 2? — y? = 1) is path connected. Show that the hyperbola {(x,4) € R? + 2? —y# = 1} is not path connected. Ex. 5.2.11, Show that the parabola ((2.u) € Ry? = 2} is path connected, how that the union of the two parabolas {(2,39) © R? = 7} In path connected. Ex. 5.2.12. oF =r) and (x,y) @ RP: Ex. 5.2.18. The union of the parabolas {(2,¥) € R® : y? = 2) and {(z.y) © R?: y? = —2) is path connected. Lemma 5.2.14. A (metric) space is path connected iff there exists a point a © X which ts path.connected to any 2 © X Proof. Let x.y € X be arbitrary. Let a (respectively, 3) be path joining a to x (respectively toy). Let @ be the reverse path joining # 00m. (See Ex. 5.2.2.) ‘Thon there existe a path joining = to y by Ex. 62.4. Thus any pair of points ie path connected and hence X ia path connected. us CHAPTER 5. CONNECTEDNESS us (@,b) © R? with a? +6? = 1, Therefore we can find ¢ < (0,2) such inf. This proves our claim. age of (0, 27] uncer the continuous map that a = cost and b In particular, POS® is th volt) :=costutsinty, (0 <¢ <2) Note that 7p isa path that connects any two points on it. Given any two points 2.4.2 # y of S". we show that it lies on a great circle. If y # —r, then © and y are linearly independent (why?) and hence x and y span a two dimen- sional vector cubspace P of R™+!. See Figure 5.4, Clearly, 2.y © P15" and P hence are connected by the path +p. (Note that 7p need not be of the form 2 yp = coste + sinty, unless x.y = 0. Can you find an explicit expression for yr that involves only # and y? ‘You have to recall Gram-Schmidt. process!) Figure 5.4: Groat circle an sphere If y = —2, since m > 1, we can find a vector v which is of unit norm and such that a-u = 0. Then i.e form an orthonormal basis of the vectar subspace P spanned by x,v. If we let y(t) := contr + sin te, 2 and y are path connected via then ye(0) = 2 and yp(a) = y. ‘Thu fan easier proof would run as follows: As seen in Ex- is the union of two hemisphers and their intersection empty, Now the hemi-spheres are homcomorphic the convex set 80, 1) and hence are path-connected (by Ex. 5.2.8 and Ex. 5.2.16). Path- connectedness of S" follows from Ex. 5.2.17. Ex, 5.2.19. Give a third proof of path-connectedniess af S™ as fol lows: ‘The sphere S" is the continuous image of the path-connected space Ret! y (0) Ex. 5.2.20. Show that the annulus {2 © R? ; 1 < |\xl| < 2} is path connected. How about {2 © R?: 1 < |jx|| <2}? Proposition 5.2.21. Let a (metric) space X be path connected. Then X is connected. Proof. Since thie is a very useful result, we shall give a proof, However, it is an easy exercise and the reader should do it on his own, Let fs X — {+} be continuous. Fix a © X. Let x © X be arbitrary. Since .X is path-connected, there exists a path y: [0,1] — X such that +0) = and (1) = 2. The funetion f o>: [0,1] — {+} is continuous on the connected set [0,1] by Proposition 5.1.7 and hence must be a. 5.2. PATH CONNECTED SPACES 9 constant. In particular, f(a) = fo ¥(0) = Fert) = f(z). Since « eX is arbitrary, we have shown that f is a constant function. Therefore, X is connected, D Romark 5.2.22. The converse of the last exercise is not true. We give two examples, each is a slight modification of the other. Example 5.2.23 (Topologist’s Sine Curve-1), Let isy: [0,1] X be a path joining (0,0) to (1,0). We write 7(t) = (rule). 72(¢)). Since B is closed in X, the inverse image 7~1(B) is closed, 0 7 *(B). Let to be the least upper bound of this closed and bounded set. Obviously, tp € y~!(B). Note that 0 < to <1. We claim that 72 is not continuous at to. For any 5 > 0, with fo +5 <1, we must have (to +6) > 0. (Why?) Hence there exists n O}U {(x,0):-1 <2 <0} = AUB (ray.) Clearly each of A and B is connected, Also, the point (0,0) is a limit point of the set A and hence Ay = AU {(0,0)} A is connected. Since B and Ay have a point in common their union X is connected. 5.2. PATH CONNECTED SPACES 121 ment and also provides a large elas of path-connected spaces. Proposition 5.2.26. Let U be an open connected subset of R". Then U is path connected. Proof Assume that U #0 and let a € U. Consider the set A consisting of those points x of U which can be path-connected to a in U, that is, there exists a path in U joining x and a, Since a is path connected to itself by a constant path 7(t) = a for t € [0,1], we see that a€ A, We plan to show that it is bath open and closed in U and hence A = U ‘We show that A is closed in U. Let x € U be a limit point of A. ‘Then there exists a sequence (xy) im A stich that aq —+ x, Since x € U and U is open, there exists r > 0 such that B(x,r) CU. Since tq — 2, for the r as above, there exists VN such that x, € B(x,r) forn > N. Now zw € A and hence 2 is path connected to a. Also, since B(:r,r) is path connected (being a convex set), there exists a path joining 2w tox, We therefore conclude that there exists a path joining @ to, In other words, x € A. Therefore A is closed. ‘We show that A is open in U. Let 2 € A. Since x €U and U is open, there exists r > 0 such that B(x,r) CU. Since a is connected to 2 and = is connected to any point y € B(x,r) (thanks to the convexity of B(z,r)), it follows that a is connected to any y € B(x,r). ‘That is to say that B(z,r) CA. Hence we conclude that A is open. Since U is connected and A is a nonempty set which is both open and closed, we conclude that A= U. That U is path-connected follows form Lemma 5.2.14. oD Ex. 5.2.27. By going through the argument above, we realize that we could prove the result in a more general setting. Let X be a connected (metric) space. Assume that each point of X has an open set U such that 2 € U and U is path-connected. Then X is path connected. EX, 5.2.28. Let A be a connected subset in R" and ¢ > 0, Show that the ¢-neighbourhood of A defined by U,(A) := {2 € RB": dala)

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