1.2.

Some mathematical considerations

This paragraph reviews some concepts and mathematical relationships

absolutely indispensably for a substantial approach of the electromagnetic field
theory. These are going to be briefly presented, assuming they are also known form
previously studied disciplines (algebra, vector analysis, differential and integral
computation, special mathematics).

Three-orthogonal coordinate systems

A three-orthogonal coordinate system is a reference system defined by three
surface families (marked in a well-defined order by the scalar quantities u1 , u 2 and
u3 called coordinated) which intersect orthogonally. Next, we recall the expressions
for the line elements dl1 , dl2 and dl3 (their unit tangents being e1 , e 2 and e 3 ), area
elements dA1 = ds2 ds3 , dA2 = ds3 ds1 and dA3 = ds1 ds2 and volume elements
dv = ds1 ds2 ds3 corresponding to the Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical
coordinate systems.
For Cartesian coordinate system:

u1 = x , u 2 = y , u3 = z , e1 = e x = i , e 2 = e y = j , e 3 = e z = k ,

dl1 = dx , dl2 = dy , dl3 = dz ,

dA1 = dy dz , dA2 = dz dx , dA3 = dx dy , dv = dx dy dz .
For cylindrical coordinate system:

u1 = z , u 2 = r , u3 = , e1 = e z , e 2 = e r , e 3 = e ,
dl1 = dz , dl2 = dr , dl3 = r d ,

dA1 = r dr d , dA2 = r dz d , dA3 = dz dr , dv = r dz dr d .

For spherical coordinate system:

u1 = r , u 2 = , u3 = , e1 = e r , e 2 = e , e 3 = e ,

dA1 = r 2 sin d d , dA2 = r sin dr d , dA3 = r dr d ,

dv = r 2 sin dr d d .

Dot (scalar) product, cross (vector) product

Let two vectors, denoted a and b , having the absolute value a and
respectively, b , which define the surface ( ) , and let be the angle between a and
b , with [rad].
By dot product of vectors a and b one understands the vector

a b = a b cos .
By cross product of vectors a and b one understands the vector

a b = (a b sin ) n ,
having the absolute value a b sin , the unit vector n being perpendicular on the
surface ( ) and having the orientation given by the corkscrew rule (corresponding to
the rotation in this plane of vector a in order to superpose it over vector b following
the shortest path).

The following properties are underlined a b = b a and a b = b a .

A few definitions related to vector fields

Let a vector field m v . A field line of this vector field is an oriented spatial
curve, having the property that, in any of its points, the vector

m v = mv1 e1 + mv 2 e 2 + mv3 e 3
is tangent to it and it is oriented the same way the curve is (see
1.2.1). mv1 , mv 2 and mv3 are the scalar components of the vector m v .

u3
mv

e3

Figure

0 e
2
u1
Figure 1.2.1
The field line spectrum is a field line assembly from a certain area in the
space. The flux tube is a tubular surface defined by the totality of the field lines
which pass through all the points belonging to a small closed contour (see the
hachured area from Figure 1.2.1).

Integrals
Line integral of a vector field
Let consider a vector field m v and an open space curve (C ) arbitrary oriented
by the unit tangent vector t . One realizes a discretization of the curve domain (C ) in
elementary line sub-domains (centered respectively on points Pk where the vector
field has the value m v, k ) of lengths lk and there are defined the elementary vectors
l k using the relation l k = lk t (see Figure 1.2.2).

m v ,k

(Pk )
l k

Figure 1.2.2

(C )

One computes the sum

sum which becomes limit for Max { lk } 0

m v, k l k ,

k =1

(equivalent to n ). If the limit exists, then

c =

lim

m v ,k l k = m v dl = mv dl cos = mv ,tg dl = mv , tg Lg (C )

Max { lk 0} k =1

(C )

(C )

is

(C )

called the line integral of the vector field m v along the oriented curve (C ) . With
~

mv, tg was denoted the average value of the scalar tangential component of the vector

field m v along the curve (C ) , and Lg (C ) is the length of

curve (C ) .

Surface integral of a vector field

Let consider a vector field m v and an open surface (S ) arbitrary oriented by
the normal unit vector n . One realizes a discretization of the surface domain (S ) in
elementary sub-domains (centered respectively on points Pk , where the vector field
has the value m v, k ) of areas Ak and there are defined the elementary vectors A k
by relation A k = Ak n (see Figure 1.2.2). One computes the sum
sum which becomes limit for Max{ Ak } 0 (equivalent to n ).

Ak

m v ,k

(Pk )

Figure 1.2.3

If this limit exists, then

(S )

m v, k Ak ,

k =1

s =
=

lim

m v,k Ak = m v dA = mv dA cos =

Max{Ak 0} k =1

(C )

(S )

mv, nm dl = mv, nm Aria(S )

(S )

is called the surface integral of the vector field m v along oriented surface (S ). With
~

mv, nm was denoted the average value of the scalar normal component of the vector

field m v along the surface (S ), and Aria (S ) is the aria of the

surface (S ).

Volume integral of a scalar field

Let consider a scalar field ms and a volume domain (V ) . One realizes a
discretization of the volume domain (V ) in elementary sub-domains (centered
respectively on points Pk , where the vector field has the value ms , k ), of volumes

vk (see Figure 1.2.4). One computes the sum

ms, k vk , sum which becomes a

k =1

limit for Max{ vk } 0 (equivalent to n ). If the limit exists, then

v =

lim

m s ,k v k =

Max{vk 0} k =1

(Pk )

ms dv = ms Vol (V )

(V )

m s ,k
vk

Figure 1.2.4

is called the volume integral of the scalar field ms on domain (V ) . With ms was
denoted the mean value of the scalar field ms on volume Vol (V ) .
Remarks

1. In order to define the integrals using line vectors and surface vectors
associated to some closed curves ( ) , respectively to some closed surfaces ( ) , the
computation is similar to the one presented above for open curves and, respectively,
for open surfaces.
2. Whenever we deal with a closed surface ( ) , by convention we choose the
orientation of the normal unit vector n towards the exterior of that surface.
3. The results of the integrals presented above are scalars affected by sign,
which represent some global quantities associated to line, surface and volume
domains, quantities which give information about the average behavior of the
integrands-local quantities on the domains on which these integrals were computed.
4. In time-varying state the integrands are local quantities depending on point
and time, while the integrals are global quantities which depend only on time.
5. The orientation of a curve by optional choice of the sense for the unit vector
t , respectively the orientation of a surface by optional choice of the sense of the unit
vector n , represents the choice of a reference sense for the line integral computation,
respectively for the surface integral computation. The significance of the sign of the
integral is that the real sense of the global quantity coincides (if the integral is
positive) or does not coincide (if the integral is negative) with the reference sense
arbitrary chosen for the orientation of the line element vector l , respectively area
element vector A .
6. For numerical computation, the integrals are being approximated by the
sums from which they are derived, and the finer the discretization is, the closer the
results are to the exact solutions.

Space differential operators

The differential operators represent extremely important mathematical
instruments when characterizing the local behavior of scalar and vector fields.

From these, only six are going to be presented, three of them referring to
continuity domains and three to discontinuity surfaces.
The divergence is a differential operator applicable to vectors and it has as a
result a scalar.
The curl is a differential operator applicable to vectors and it has as a result a
vector.

The gradient is a differential operator applicable to scalars and it has as a

result a vector.
We present the expressions of these operators for continuity domains, in
Cartesian coordinates. If

m v = m v ( x, y, z , t ) = mvx ( x, y, z , t ) i + mvy ( x, y, z , t ) j + mvz ( x, y, z , t ) k ,

and

m s = m s ( x, y , z , t ) ,
then

div m v =

mvx ( x, y, z , t ) mvy ( x, y, z , t ) mvz ( x, y, z , t )

,
+
+
x
y
z

i
j
k

curl m v =
x
y
z
mvx ( x , y , z ,t ) mvy ( x , y , z ,t ) mvz ( x , y , z ,t )

grad ms ( x, y, z , t ) =

ms ( x, y, z , t )
ms ( x, y, z , t )
ms ( x, y, z , t )
i +
j+
k.
x
y
z

There are a lot of field problems referring to discontinuity domains.

Let a surface which separates two media with different properties (denoted by
(1) and (2) in Figure 1.2.5), and let n12 be its normal unit vector in the point in which

(2 )

mv

m s(2 )

n12

m s(1)

(2)
(1)

(1)

mv

Figure 1.2.5
we wish to use the differential operators (oriented from medium (1) towards medium
(1)

(2 )

(2)) and let m v and m v , respectively ms(1) and ms(2 ) , the values of the local
quantities m v and, respectively, ms in the nearby neighborhood of the separation
surface between the two media. One defines the following surface operators:
the surface divergence
(1)
(2 )
div s m v = n12 m v m v ,

the surface curl

(2 )
(1)
rot s m v = n12 m v m v ,

the surface gradient

grad s ms = n12 ms(2 ) ms(1) .

Remarks
1. To zero divergence vector fields correspond closed field lines.
2. To zero curl vectors fields correspond open field lines.