CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The complex of the nerve tissue that controls the activities of the body. It is
part of the Nervous System consisting of Brain and Spinal Cord. It is so named
because it integrates information it receives from and coordinates and influences
the activities of and it contains the majority of the Nervous System. It contained
within the dorsal body cavity with the brain housed in the cranial cavity and is
protected by the skull (a framework of the bone enclosing the brain of a vertebrate)
and the spinal cord in the spinal canal (a cavity that runs successively through each
of the vertebrae & contains the spinal cord) and is protected by the vertebrae. And
both are enclosed in the meninges (the 3 membranes (Dura mater, arachnoid, & pia
mater) that the line skull and vertebral canal & enclose the brain & spinal cord).
Rostral to the Spinal cord lies the Brain. The brain makes up the largest portion of
the CNS, and is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the NS. The
brain is the major functional unit of the CNS & the major processing unit of the NS.
Brain is located in the head, usually close to the primary sensory organs for such
senses as vision, hearing, balance, taste and smell. The cerebral cortex (largest
part) is estimated to contain 15-33 billion neurons, each connected by synapses (a
junction between 2 nerve cell) to several thousand other neurons (a specialized cell
transmitting nerve impulses or a nerve cell). These neurons communicate with one
another by means of long protoplasmic fibers called axons (the long threadlike part
of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other
cells).
The functions of the brain is to exert centralized (bring together in one place)
control over the other organs of the body. The brain acts on the rest of the body
both by generating patterns of muscle activity and by driving the secretion of
chemicals called hormones. This centralized control allows rapid and coordinated
responses to changes in the environment. Some basic types of responsiveness such
as reflexes can be mediated by the spinal cord or peripheral ganglia, but
sophisticated purposeful control of behavior based on complex sensory input
requires the information integrating capabilities of a centralized brain.
The brain depend on the ability of neurons to transmit electrochemical signals to
other cells, and their ability to respond appropriately to electrochemical signals
received from other cells. The electrical properties of neurons are controlled by a
wide variety of biochemical and metabolic processes, most notably the interactions
between neurotransmitters and receptors that take place at synapses.
The brain does not simply grow, but rather develops in an intricately orchestrated
sequence of stages. (It changes in shape from a simple swelling at the front of the
nerve cord in the earliest embryonic stages, to a complex array of areas and
connections. Neurons are created in special zones that contain stem cells, and then
migrate through the tissue to reach their ultimate locations. Once neurons have
positioned themselves, their axons sprout and navigate through the brain,
branching and extending as they go, until the tips reach their targets and form
synaptic connections. In a number of parts of the nervous system, neurons and

synapses are produced in excessive numbers during the early stages, and the
unneeded (unwanted) ones are pruned (remove) away.
The human brain is hugely interconnected but three major components can be
identified: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brain stem.
1.
Cerebrum the largest part of the brain. The cerebrum of cerebral
hemispheres makes up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various
structures combine forming the cerebral hemispheres, among others, the cortex,
basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a
large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory,
perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for
the cognitive (concerned with the act or processing of knowing, perceiving, etc.)
capabilities of the brain.
Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum (a wide, flat bundle of
neural fibers beneath the cortex that connects the left and right cerebral
hemispheres and facilities interhemispheric communication. The corpus callosum is
sometimes implicated in the cause of seizures; patients with epilepsy sometimes
undergo a corpus colostomy, (or the removal of the corpus callosum) as well as
several additional commissures. One of the most important parts of the cerebral
hemispheres is the cortex, made up of gray matter covering the surface of the bran.
Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of
everyday tasks.
Our brain is divided into 2 halves, or hemispheres, that are connected &
communicating with each other by corpus callosum.
These 2 hemispheres (left & right hemispheres) control the motion in and receive
sensory inputs from the opposite side of our body. Each part provides a different set
of functions, behaviors, and controls. It controls its own unique set of activities or
tasks.
The left hemispheres appears to dominate the functions of speech, language
processing, comprehension, and logical reasoning, while the right is more dominant
in spatial tasks like vision-independent object recognition (such as identifying an
object by touch or another nonvisual sense). However, it is easy to exaggerate the
differences between the functions of the left and right hemispheres are involved
with most processes. Additionally, neuroplasticity (ability of a brain to adapt to
experience) enables the brain to compensate for damage to one hemisphere by
taking on extra functions on the other half, especially in young brains.

Left brain the left side of our brain handles tasks such as reading, writing,
speaking, arithmetic reasoning and understanding. Study shows that when we
speak or do arithmetic calculations, activity increases in our left hemisphere is that
it tends to process information sequentially, one at a time.

Right brain the right side of our brain excels in visual perceptions,
understanding spatial relationships, recognizing patterns, music, emotional
expressions, etc. it is also good at making inferences.

People with lesions (a region in an organ) in the right brain sometimes have
difficulty recognizing themselves in the mirror. Unlike the left hemisphere, our right
hemisphere tends to process information as a whole.
The cerebrum is also divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital.
Frontal lobe associated with executive functions and motor performance.
Executives functions are some of the highest-order cognitive processes that
humans have. Examples:

Planning and engaging in goal-directed behavior;

Recognizing future consequences of current actions;

Choosing between good and bad actions.

The frontal lobe - is considered to be the moral center of the brain because it is
responsible for advanced decision-making processes. It also plays an important role
in retaining emotional memories derived from the limbic system, and modifying
those emotions to fit socially accepted norms.
Parietal lobe associated with sensory skills. It integrates different types of sensory
information and is particularly useful in spatial processing and navigation. The
parietal lobe plays an important role in integrating sensory information from various
parts of the body, understanding numbers and their relations, and manipulating
objects. Its also processes information related to the sense of touch.
The left parietal lobe is involved in symbolic functions in language and
mathematics, while the right parietal lobe is specialized to process images and
interpretation of maps.
Temporal lobe associated with the retention of short- and long-term memories. It
processes sensory input including auditory information, language comprehension,
and naming. It also creates emotional responses and controls biological drives such
as aggression and sexuality. This lobe contains the hippocampus, which is the
memory center of the brain. The hippocampus plays a key role in the formation of
emotion-laden, long-term memories based on emotional input from the amygdala.
The left temporal lobe holds the primary auditory cortex, which is important for
processing the semantics of speech.
Occipital lobe contains most of the visual cortex (the outer layer of the cerebrum,
composed of folded gray matter & playing an important role in consciousness) and
is the visual processing center of the brain. Cells on the posterior (further back in
position) side of the occipital lobe are the arranged as a spatial map of the retinal
field. The visual cortex receives raw sensory informations through sensors in the
retina of the eyes, which is then conveyed through the optic tracts to the visual
cortex. Other areas of the occipital lobe are the specialized for different visual tasks,
such as visuospatial (relating to or denoting the visual perception of the spatial
relationships of objects) processing, color discrimination, and motion perception.
Damage to the primary visual cortex (located on the surface of the posterior

occipital lobe) can cause blindness, due to the holes in the visual map on the
surface of the cortex caused by the lesions.
2.
Cerebellum lies under the cerebrum. It is composed of several dividing
fissures and lobes. Its functions includes the control of posture, and the coordination
of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head as well as the limbs
(an arm or a leg of a person). Further it is involved in the motion that has been
learned and perfected though practice, and will adapt to new learned movements.
Despite its previous classification as a motor structures, the cerebellum also
displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language as well as
cognitive functions.

The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the
brain including that of the larger cerebrum (or cerebral hemisphere), but is also
more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, and includes fewer
types of different neurons.

3.
Brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons, and the midbrain. It controls
the breathing, digestions, heart rate and other autonomic processes, as well as
connecting the brain with the spinal cord and the rest of the body.

The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, and its
organization and functional properties are similar to those of the spinal cord. The
tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here.

The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral
anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work
with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the
cerebral cortex. In the dorsal pons lie nuclei that have to do with breathing, sleep
and taste.

The midbrain (mesencephalon) is situated above rostral to the pons, and

includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, among others the
cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres. Additionally parts of
the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of
automatic eye movements.

The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain of a number of pathways
for motors and autonomic control of the face and the neck through cranial nerves,
and autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial nerve. A large
portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such
functions may engage the heart, blood vessels, pupillae, among others.
And then, brainstem is made up of the midbrain and the hindbrain.

(The midbrain and the hindbrain is part of the 3 major divisions of the brain where
the forebrain also belongs.)
1.
Forebrain (proencephalon) and consists of the diencephalon and
telencephalon.
The
diencephalon
includes
the
thalamus,
epithalamus,
hypothalamus and subthalamus. It is the control center for the nerve impulses
going to the central cortex and a relay center for motor impulses.
The 2 structures of the diencephalon worth nothing are the thalamus and the
hypothalamus.

Thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral

nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from
the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only
a relay station, but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach
cerebral hemispheres.
Apart from its functions of sorting information from the periphery, the
thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In
common with the aforementioned reticular system the thalamus s involved in
wakefulness and consciousness.

Hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or

feelings such as hunger, thirst and maternal bonding. This is regulated partly
through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Additionally the
hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of the individual.
Generally, the diencephalon is a relay center for many impulses going to the
cerebral cortex.
And the largest portion of the brain and the forebrain is the telencephalon that
includes the two cerebral hemispheres, the cerebral cortex, the limbic system and
part of the basal ganglia.

Cerebral cortex is divided into the occipital, frontal, parietal and temporal
lobe by the central sulcus, parieto-occipital sulcus, sylvianfissure and a longitudinal
fissure into 2 hemispheres.

Limbic system is a set of brain structures located on both sides of the

thalamus, immediately underneath the cerebrum. It is also commonly referred to as
the paleomammalian brain although this term is no longer espoused by the
majority of comparative neuroscientists in the post-2000 era. It is not a separate
system but a collection of structures from the telencephalon, diencephalon, and
mesencephalon.
The limbic system supports a variety of functions including emotion,
behavior, motivation, long-term memory, and olfaction. Emotional life is largely
housed in the limbic system, and it has a great deal to do with the formation of
memories.


Basal ganglia (basal nuclei) comprise multiple subcritical nuclei, of varied
origin, in the brains of vertebrates, which are situated at the base of the forebrain.
Basal ganglia nuclei are strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus,
and brainstem, as well as several other brain areas. The basal ganglia are
associated with a variety of functions including: control of voluntary motor
movements, procedural learning, routine behaviors or habits such as bruxism, eye
movements, cognition and emotion.

Telencephalon primarily serves to control goal oriented behaviors, voluntary motor

movements, process memory, thinking and analysis as well as speech, swell and
visual processing.
2.
Midbrain is also called as the mesencephalon, it is made up of thetectum
(which mediates visual motor movements), the cerebral penduncles (bundles of
fibers for transmitting motor signals to the body).
3.
Hindbrain consists of the myencephalon and metencephalon. The
metencephalon portion of the hindbrain includes the cerebellum and the pons. The
myencephalon is also called the medulla oblongata, or, medulla. The grey and white
matter of the cerebellum helps to maintain equilibrium and coordination of
movement and balance. The pons transmits information to the brain stem.

Reticular activating system (RAS), or extra thalamic control modulatory system, is a

set of connected nuclei in the brains of vertebrates that is responsible for regulating
wakefulness and sleep-wake transitions. As its name implies, its most influential
component is the reticular formation.
Amygdala are two almond-shaped groups of nuclei located deep and medially within
the temporal lobes of the brain in complex vertebrates, including humans. Shown in
research to perform a primary role in the processing of memory, decision-making,
and emotional reactions, the amygdala are considered part of the Limbic System.

Spinal Cords
A long, thin, cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissue that is
enclosed in the spine and connects nearly all parts of the body to the brain, with
which forms the central nervous system. The spinal begins at the occipital bone
and extends down to the space between the first and second lumbar vertebrae; it
does not extend the entire length of the vertebral column. It is around 45 cm (18 in)
in men and around 43 cm (17 in) long in women. Also the spinal cord has a varying
width, ranging from 13 mm (1/2 in) thick in the cervical and lumbar regions to 6.4
mm (1/4 in) thick in the thoraric area. The enclosing bony vertebral column protects
the relatively shorter spinal cord.

It is a long, slender cable of nerve tissue which extends lengthwise through

the vertebrae of the spinal column, at the upper end it connects with the brain
through an opening in the floor of the skull. It extends downward almost to the level
of the hips. It is well protected by the vertebrae, whose bony processes join
together to from a canal within which the spinal cord s located.
The spinal cord functions primarily in the transmission of neural signals
between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that can
independently control numerous reflexes and central pattern generators.
Spinal cord has 3 major functions:

As a conduit (a channel for conveying fluid or channel for the transmission of

something) for motor information, which travels down the spinal cord;

As a conduit sensory information in the reverse direction; and finally

As a center for coordinating certain reflexes.

Spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain and peripheral
nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter compared to the
length of the vertebral column.

The spinal cord conducts motor information from the brain to our various
effectors.
o
Skeletal muscles (as its name implies, is the muscle attached to the skeleton.
It is also called striated muscle. The contraction of skeletal muscle is under
voluntary control.)
o
Cardiac muscle (cardiac or heart muscle resembles skeletal muscle in some
ways: it is striated and each cell contains sarcomeres with sliding filaments of actin
and myosin.)
o
Smooth muscle (made of single, spindle-shaped cells. It gets its name
because no striations are visible in them. Nonetheless, each smooth muscle cell
contains thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments that slide against each other to
produce contraction of the cell. The thick and thin filaments are anchored near the
plasma membrane (with the help of intermediate filaments) a slender threadlike
object or fiber, especially one found in animal or plant structures.
o

Glands

Serves as a minor reflex center

Like the brain, the spinal cord is covered by 3 layers (meninges). The spinal cord
and meninges are contained in the spinal canal, which runs through the center of
the spine. In most adults, the spine is composed of 26 individual back bones
(vertebrae). Just as the skull protects the brain, vertebrae protects the spinal cord.
The vertebrae are separated by disks made of cartilage, which act as cushions
reducing the forces generated by movements such as walking and jumping.

Spinal cord itself consists of millions of nerve fibers which transmit electrical
information to and from the limbs, trunk and organs of the body, back to and from
the brain. The nerves which exit the spinal cord in the upper section, the neck,
control breathing and the arms. The nerves which exit the spinal cord in the mid and
lower section of the back, control the trunk and legs, as well as bladder, bowel and
sexual functions.
The nerves which carry the information from the brain to muscles are called motor
neurons. The nerves which carry information from the body back to the brain are
called sensory neurons. Sensory neurons carry information to the brain about skin
temperature, touch, pain and joint position.

There are 32 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:

8 cervical segments forming 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1 spinal nerves exit
spinal occiput and C1 vertebra; C2 nerves exit between the posterior arch of C1
vertebra and lamina of C2 vertebra; C3-C8 spinal nerves through IVF (intervertebral
foramen) above corresponding cervical vertebra, with the exception of C8 pair
which exit via IVF between C7 and T1 vertebra)

12 thoraric segments forming 12 pairs of thoraric nerves (exit spinal column

through IVF below corresponding vertebra T1-T12)

5 lumbar segments forming 5 pairs of lumber nerves (exit spinal column

through IVF, below corresponding vertebra L1-L5)

5 sacral segments forming 5 pairs of sacral nerves (exit spinal column

through IVF, below corresponding vertebra S1-S5)

1 coccygeal segment

There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:

1.
Cervical enlargement corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves,
which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to
T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4-T1).
2.
Lumbosacral enlargement corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves,
which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2-S3
and its found about the vertebral levels of T9-T12.