Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Noiembrie, 2008
FASCICULA PSIHOLOGIE
Volumul
XIV
- 2008 -
Editor
Lect. univ. drd. Mihai Marian
Facultatea de tiine Socio-Umane, Universitatea din Oradea, Romnia
&
the
Adresa redaciei:
Universitatea din Oradea; Facultatea de tiine SocioUmane, Catedra de Psihologie
Str. Universitii, nr. 3, Corp X, Oradea, jud. Bihor, cod: 410087 Romnia
Tel.: (040)0259432830 fax: (040)0259432789
E-mail: anale.psihologie@gmail.com www.socioumane.ro
CUPRINS
Articole
Noiembrie, 2008
Volumul XIV
Ioan Chelemen
14 ABORDRI ALE PRINCIPIULUI NORMALIZRII
Ioan Tia
32 MODELAREA CU AJUTORUL ECUAIILOR STRUCTURALE
Tatiana Buianina
56 CONCEPTUL DE SINE
IRAIONALE
RAPORT
CU
CONVINGERILE
DISCRIMINRII
Mihai Marian
129 CORELATE PSIHOSOCIALE ALE CANCERULUI: O TRECERE N
REVIST
CONTENTS
Articles
November, 2008
Volume XIV
Ioan Chelemen
14 APPROACHES ON THE NORMALIZATION PRINCIPLE
Ioan Tia
32 STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELLING
Tatiana Buianina
56 THE CONCEPT OF SELF RELATED TO THE IRRATIONAL
BELIEFS
Gabriel Roeanu, Ruxandra Rcanu
65 INVESTIGATION OF THE FACTORIAL STRUCTURE OF THE
PERCEIVED WELLNESS SURVEY
Marius Druga
80 FACTORIAL
VALIDATION
QUESTIONNAIRE
OF
THE
BASIC
NEEDS
Ovidiu Roman
95 THE MEDIATION IN EDUCATIONAL AND CLINICAL CONTEXT
Cristian Tileaga
104 EXPLORING PREJUDICE, DISCRIMINATION AND RACISM
Mihai Marian
129 PSYCHOSOCIAL CORRELATES OF CANCER: A LITERATURE
REVIEW
Scott Marley
University of New Mexico, U.S.A.
Abstract
According to the theory of situated cognition learning is affected by the context in
what the learning takes place. Embedding the process of learning in the context
results in that the implicit knowledge acquired from the context will increase the
performance. However, real context like situations increase also later
performance. This research study is based on the hypothesis of real context like
activities applied to reading comprehension task for students in 4th and 5th
grade. The hypothesis of this research is that the use of methods similar to
situated cognition related to a reading comprehension task will increase later
performance of students for free retrieval and cued-recall of a story and new
words presented through the story. Students were randomly assigned to one of
three groups: control, visual, and activity (in situated cognition like condition).
Results show that tasks that mimic reality increase reading comprehension
performance. There are discussed implications for educational practice by
showing the relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit understanding
as related to situated cognition.
Keywords: situated cognition; indexical representations; listening comprehension
performance
Ph. D., Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Student Learning & Assessment, U.S.A. Her
research interests include human cognition, team learning, classroom assessment, and
gender issues in education. E-mail: szaboz@rpi.edu
Zs. Szabo, and S. Marley / Fascicula Psihologie Vol. XIV (2008), 7-13
often credited with developing situated cognition theory, they argue that
knowledge is situated, being in part a product of the activity, context, and
culture in which it is developed and used. According to the theory of
situated cognition educators should try to develop a learning environment
that approximates as closely as possible the context in which students will
apply their new ideas and behaviors (Schell & Black, 1997). Hansmand
(2002) specifies that learning is tool dependent because the setting
provides mechanisms [] that aid, and more important structure the
cognitive process. More important is that the interaction with the setting
itself in relation to its social and tool dependent nature determines the
learning (Hansmand, 2002).
Collins (1988) notes four benefits of situated cognition as a theoretical
basis for learning. First, students learn about the conditions for applying
knowledge. Second, students are more likely to engage in invention and
problem-solving when they learn in novel and diverse situations and settings.
Third, students can see the implications of knowledge. Finally, students are
supported in structuring knowledge in ways appropriate to later use by
gaining and working with that knowledge in context. Knowledge indexes the
situation in which it arises and is used. The embedding context in what the
knowledge is acquired efficiently provides essential parts of its structure and
meaning. For this reason knowledge is coded by and connected to the activity
and environment in which it is developed. In the process of learning the
knowledge learned is spread across its component parts. Parts of the
information processed have connections in the mind and other parts in the
context the information is learned in. The action is dependent on the context,
and this relation is named indexicality (Suchman, 1987). Indexical
representations gain their efficiency by learning from the implicit context.
One of the key points of the concept of indexicality is that it indicates that
knowledge, and not just learning, is situated. As a consequence learning
methods that are embedded in authentic situations are not only useful but they
are essential in education. When students learn in classroom setting most of
the content of their learning is of theoretical nature. In order for the students
to efficiently use and apply the learned knowledge they should be able to
transfer the abstract information to real life applications. For this reason
teachers should teach for this transfer and use cognition in a situated manner.
Perkins and Salomon (1989) explain that the transfer teaching
technique is distinguished by two mechanisms: high road and low road to
8
Zs. Szabo, and S. Marley / Fascicula Psihologie Vol. XIV (2008), 7-13
Zs. Szabo, and S. Marley / Fascicula Psihologie Vol. XIV (2008), 7-13
Zs. Szabo, and S. Marley / Fascicula Psihologie Vol. XIV (2008), 7-13
story. Students were asked to tell the story and all that they can remember
(free recall) what happened in the story. Their responses were recorded for
accuracy. Then each of the tested students in all three conditions were also
asked to respond (cued recall) to twelve questions that represented the exact
same key actions being represented by the picture book (the same actions
students in the situated cognition activity condition were supposed to
perform by moving the Lego pieces in correct positions according to the
story). Responses to the twelve questions were recorded as correct or
incorrect. The responses to free recall, telling of the story by the students,
were analyzed for accuracy and details of responses were quantified and
compared to the original number of actors and number of actions, and
accuracy of actions in the original story. The count of correct responses was
compared in statistical analysis for students in the three separate groups.
Results and discussions
Results from the free recall and cued recall were analyzed by
comparing responses of students in the three conditions. Students in the
reading only condition were compared first with the other two groups
together (overall) and separate each group (listening and visual condition,
and with listening and situated cognition condition).
The results show that the use of a setting that the content of reading
represents will increase reading comprehension performance in students.
More specifically using real-life like settings representing the content it is
read will increase reading comprehension performance statistically significant
(F(2, 57) =22.3), when compared with the use of images (pictures) or just text
in cued-recall tasks. In the comparison of groups for free recall task there was
no statistically significant difference between the control group and the
reading and visual group. However, there was a statistically significant
difference (F(2, 57)= 10.7) between the situated cognition group and the other
two groups. The results show that the use of situated cognition method for
reading comprehension was the most efficient for cued-recall and free recall
as well in reading comprehension tasks for 4th and 5th grade students. Results
are very important for classroom teaching purposes.
This means that activity that represents real life situations, even if it is
represented only by toys such as the Lego pieces used in this study, increases
the performance in reading comprehension in 4th and 5th grade students.
11
Zs. Szabo, and S. Marley / Fascicula Psihologie Vol. XIV (2008), 7-13
The above results support the hypothesis that teaching strategies that
use situated cognition like methods increase performance for reading
comprehension tasks in 4th and 5th grade students. These results show that
using pictures as teaching aids in listening comprehension tasks will increase
in 4th and 5th grade students performance in both free recall and cued recall
tests. More than this, results show that using activities as teaching aids in
tasks involving listening comprehension for in 4th and 5th grade students will
result in higher performance than teaching methods that use reading only or
methods that use reading and looking at pictures.
Students learn and remember not only through explicit teaching, but
they also remember the implicit knowledge involved in visual cues, such as
pictures, and through actions that they perform on objects representing real
life experiences.
In conclusion, teachers should use as much as possible in their
teaching situated cognition techniques that involve action tasks along with
pure theoretical tasks.
Implications
According to the theory of situated cognition and the concept of
indexicality, knowledge and learning is situated. In consequence learning
methods that are embedded in or simulate authentic situations are quite
essential. As it was above mentioned situated cognition representations gain
their efficiency by helping students learn much of the context underrepresented
or implicit in the theoretical content of a task. Results from this study show that
there is a relationship between explicit knowledge and implicit understanding
that is bridged by the situated cognition imbedded in the context. The process
of learning benefits from contextual related knowledge and situated cognition
activities. In other words if teaching involves a situated cognition feature,
learning is much improved. The use of situated cognition would also help in
high road transfer, making easier the transfer of abstract knowledge to real life
application.
Limitations and future steps
This study involved only in 4th and 5th grade students that took part
in a reading comprehension task. A future study will involve students in
12
Zs. Szabo, and S. Marley / Fascicula Psihologie Vol. XIV (2008), 7-13
13
Conf. univ. dr., Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de tiine Socio-Umane, Catedra de
tiine ale Educaiei, Str. Universitii, nr. 3, Corp X, Oradea, Romnia
pentru c limitele sale sunt fluide i este o diversitate n care poate intra
oricine, n orice moment, ca urmare a unor accidente.
Un alt concept care necesit o explicare detaliat este cel de
normalizare. Iniiatorul conceptului de normalizare, devenit un principiu,
susine c acesta s-a nscut din dorina de a nelege condiiile de via a
persoanelor cu handicap mintal, din dorina de a gsi un limbaj cu ntrebri i
rspunsuri privind aceste condiii. n concepia lui B. Nirje (1980)
normalizarea nseamn posibilitatea unui ritm normal al zilei, intimitate,
activiti i responsabiliti mutuale, un ritm normal al sptmnii, cu o cas
n care s locuieti, o coal, un loc de munc pe care s-l frecventezi, un timp
de recreere cu interaciune social modic, un ritm normal al anului, cu
moduri i ci schimbtoare ale vieii, cu obiceiurile de familie i ale
comunitii ca experiene n diferite anotimpuri ale anului. Normalizarea
nseamn oportunitatea de a fi supus la o experien de dezvoltare normal a
ciclului vieii: copilria i primii pai ai dezvoltrii, adolescena, viaa adult.
Aa cum este normal pentru un copil s locuiasc acas, este normal
pentru aduli s se mute de acas i s-i consolideze independena i noi
relaii. Persoana cu dizabiliti trebuie s experimenteze perioada adult i a
maturitii prin schimbrile marcante n circumstanele vieii lor.
Normalizarea nseamn aceleai modele de via sexual, aceleai
modele economice. Atunci cnd persoanele cu retard nu pot s locuiasc
ntr-o cas a lor, trebuie s li se ofere o cas situat ntr-o zon de reziden
normal, pentru a nu fi izolate, pentru a se putea realiza o integrare, o
interaciune social a lor.
Principiul normalizrii pune accentul pe nelegerea felului n care
ritmurile normale, secvenele i modelele vieii, n orice circumstan
cultural legat de dezvoltare, maturitate i via a persoanei cu dizabiliti,
devin modele ce apar ca indicatori ai dezvoltrii unor servicii umane
adecvate. Principiul normalizrii se aplic tuturor persoanelor retardate
indiferent de handicap i indiferent unde triesc.
Aplicarea acestui principiu nu va face din persoane retardate persoane
normale. B. Nirje (1980) afirm c persoanele cu retard sunt de fapt la fel de
normale ca tine, ca mine dei au de-a face cu un handicap. O persoan, este o
persoan n primul rnd i dup aceea handicapat. Un copil, este un copil n
primul rnd, i mai apoi orb sau retardat mintal; un adult este nainte de toate
brbat sau femeie, ntr-o poziie social - ca inginer, muncitor, sportiv - i abia n
al doilea sau al treilea rnd este surd, retardat etc. Aplicarea acestui principiu va
17
19
Persoan
Sistemele
sociale
primare i
intermediare
Sistemele
societale
Interaciune
Interpretare
Prezentarea, coordonarea,
adresarea, etichetarea i
interpretarea persoanelor
individuale ntr-o manier care
pune n eviden similaritile, mai
degrab dect diferenele fa de
alii.
Formarea, prezentarea i
interpretarea sistemelor sociale
intermediare care nconjoar o
persoan sau constituirea unor
persoane int astfel nct aceste
sisteme, precum i persoanele
implicate n ele, s fie percepute ct
mai aproape posibil de norme
culturale.
Formarea valorilor culturale, a
atitudinilor i stereotipurilor astfel
nct s obinem acceptarea
cultural maxim posibil a
diferenelor.
21
minimal s fie expui mediului, angajailor sau voluntarilor sau altor indivizi
percepui ei nii ca deviani de ctre o proporie semnificativ a
publicului. Ex.: plasnd un client deviant printre ali clieni deviani i
putem reduce contactele sociale cu persoanele non-deviante. O astfel de
juxtapunere ntre angajaii deviani care lucreaz cu clieni deviani i
defavorizeaz pe ambii dar, n special pe clieni. ansele persoanelor
deviante de a se socializa n aceast situaie sunt sczute.
Este de asemenea important ca persoanele cu dizabiliti s se
integreze n comunitate, s se ncurajeze la maximum integrarea social i
s li se asigure un numr mare de experiene.
Wolfensberger susine separarea fizic i contextual a grupurilor de
vrste. Adulii deviani reprezint rareori, ntr-o manier limitat, modele de
rol pentru copii i nu se dorete ca aceti copii s-i nsueasc
comportamente dezadaptive (mai ales dac adulii n cauz n-au beneficiat
de serviciile care se ofer acum copiilor). Dac serviciile sunt orientate spre
copii, adulii prezeni n aceeai instituie sunt predispui de a fi distribuii n
rolul de copii. n instituiile care deservesc persoanele deviante, trebuie s se
evite o percepie asupra clienilor sau cel puin s fie minimalizat deviana
perceput. n aceste instituii trebuie evitate cuvinte ca retardat, infirm,
handicapat. Adulii nu trebuie, de asemenea, etichetai ca i copii,
pensionari, ci brbai, femei, clieni, ceteni etc. Acestor denumiri le
lipsete stigmatul, oferind respect i n acelai timp termenii amintii sunt
normativi.
Sintetiznd o interpretare a aciunii de normalizare n situaia
interaciunii persoanei deviante, la nivelul sistemelor sociale primare i
intermediare se sesizeaz un dublu impact asupra ambelor dimensiuni:att
asupra persoanei, ct i asupra principalului nivel intermediar al
interaciunii.
Acest impact presupune:
Normalizarea nseamn a tri ntr-o lume heterosexual-serviciile oferite
vor viza att brbaii ct i femeile care vor locui n aceeai cldire;
Rutina zilnic a clienilor, grupurilor de clieni trebuie s fie
asemntoare cu cea a persoanelor non-deviante de aceeai vrst;
Persoana deviant trebuie implicat, ct mai mult posibil, ntr-o
activitate ct mai normativ ca tip, cantitate i mediu (munca s nu fie
asociat jocului, plcerii sau recrerii, iar atelierele de lucru s fie
asemenea celor din industrie);
24
27
28
Bibliografie
Sillamy, N. (1996). Dicionar de psihologie, Univers Enciclopedic:
Bucureti.
Wolfensberger, W. (1983). The principle of normalization in human
services. Toronto: National Institute on Mental Retardation.
Nirje, B. (1993). Comment on mintal retardation and adult education. Ulla
Lehtinen and Raija Pirttimaa, University of Jyvaskyla: Finland, pp.
17-18.
Boudon, R. (1997). Tratat de Sociologie. Humanitas: Bucureti.
Goffman, E. (1968). Stigma. Notes on the management of spoiled identity.
New Jersey: Pelican Books.
Maximilian, C. (1980) Geneza individualitii. Editura Sport-Turism:
Bucureti.
Nirje, B. (1980). Normalization, social integration, and comunity services.
Robert Fleyn: Baltimore.
Perrin, B., & Nirje, B. (1985). Misconceptions of the Normalization
Principle, Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental
Disabilities, 11(2).
31
Dr., psiholog, Penitenciarul de Maxim Siguran Aiud, jud. Alba, Romnia. E-mail:
ioantia@gmail.com
33
34
COR(X,Y)=COV(X,Y) / (VAR(X)*VAR(Y)1/2
Regulile algebrice amintite mai sus pot fi astfel utilizate pentru a reexprima ecuaiile structurale implicite modelului studiat n termeni de varian
i covarian pentru variabilele implicate (decompoziia corelaiei sau a
covarianei).
Exist trei termeni diferii pentru covarian care trebuiesc definii. n
ceea ce privete modelele structurale exist doi termeni ai covarianei ce trebuiesc
considerai: mai nti exist o matrice de covarian a variabilelor latente
independente. Aceasta const n variana fiecrei variabile latente independente
respectiv n covariana acestora; o a doua matrice o reprezint matricea de
covarian a ecuaiilor de predicie a erorilor (cantitatea de varian neexplicat
pentru fiecare ecuaie structural), respectiv n covariana acestora. Covariana
poate fi sau nu poate fi parte a modelului n funcie de caracteristicile acestuia.
n ceea ce privete modelul msurtoare este necesar definirea
varianei i covarianei erorilor de msurare. Erorile de msurare pentru dou
sau mai multe variabile observate pot fi corelate sau pot co-varia.
Pornind de la parametrii estimai n model, de la modelul structural,
respectiv de la modelul msurtoare i covarian este generat o matrice ultim
de covarian pentru ntregul model notat cu sigma ()( - matricea de
covarian reprodus). Scopul analizei statistice este de a estima parametrii
modelului i, ulterior, de a evalua potrivirea datelor reale la acest model. Astfel,
parametrii din matricea sunt estimai pornind de la matricea iniial S
compus din variana i covariana dintre variabilele observate (S - matricea de
covarian observat).
Efecte totale, directe i indirecte. n condiiile decompoziiei
covarianei (pe baza ecuaiilor prezentate anterior) putem vorbi de efecte
directe, indirecte respectiv de efecte totale. Un efect direct ntre dou variabile
latente presupune o singur sgeat sau linie curb care unete cele dou
variabile, este exprimat printr-un coeficient structural.
Un efect indirect ntre dou variabile latente presupune faptul c nu
exist o simpl sgeat sau linie curb care s fac legtura ntre cele dou
variabile, astfel o variabil latent poate fi influenat de o alt variabil latent
prin intermediul uneia sau mai multor variabile latente, prin intermediul cilor
lor. Un efect indirect const n produsul coeficienilor structurali implicai.
Efectul total ntre dou variabile latente este definit ca suma efectelor
directe i / sau indirecte existente ntre cele dou variabile.
36
41
,90 sau peste este considerat acceptabil (Baldwin, 1989; Bentler i Bonett,
1980, apud Schumacker i Lomax, 1996; Kline, 2005). De asemenea n
practica curent este recomandat utilizarea unor criterii GOF ct mai variate n
evaluarea potrivirii unui model.
Unii indici de potrivire pot fi calculai pornind de la modelul nul (n
cadrul modelului covariana este considerat a fi egal cu zero): NFI, TLI, PFI.
n general indicii de potrivire a unui model sunt clasificai n una din
urmtoarele categorii: potrivirea modelului (model fit), compararea modelului
(model comparison) sau economia modelului (model parsimony).
Potrivirea modelului (model fit). Potrivirea modelului determin gradul
la care modelul ecuaiilor structurale se "potrivete" eantionului de date.
Criteriile de potrivire comun utilizate sunt: Hi ptrat, indexul gradului de
potrivire (goodness-of-fit index, GFI), indexul gradului de potrivire ajustat
(adjusted goodness-of-fit index AGFI), rdcina medie ptrat rezidual (rootmeans-square residual RMR). Aceste criterii se calculeaz pe baza diferenelor
dintre matricea de corelaie sau covarian observat (original S) i matricea de
corelaie sau covarian reprodus (implicat de model ).
Chi ptrat. O valoare hi ptrat semnificativ n raport cu gradele de
libertate indic c cele dou matrici: observat S i estimat difer.
Semnificaia statistic indic probabilitatea ca aceast diferen este datorat
variaiilor de eantionare (sampling variation). O valoare chi ptrat
nesemnificativ indic c cele dou matrici nu difer din punct de vedere
statistic, astfel cercettorii sunt interesai s obin valori chi ptrat
nesemnificative. Astfel, un rezultat nesemnificativ indic potrivirea datelor cu
modelul testat, cu toate acestea incertitudinea persist deoarece alte modele pot
s se potriveasc datelor existente.
Metoda chi ptrat este senzitiv la mrimea eantionului: creterea
eantionului este asociat cu tendina de a obine niveluri de probabilitate
semnificative (n general peste 200), respectiv la abaterile de la normalitatea
variaiei variabilelor observate (Baer, 1994; Scumacker, 1996; Brannick, 1995).
Astfel, un chi ptrat statistic exprim diferena dintre cele dou matrici:
observat S i reprodus . Examinarea matricii reziduale (obinut prin scderea
matricii din S) poate furniza un indiciu asupra ntrebrii generale: "ct de bine
datele existente se potrivesc modelului ?" i, de asemenea, asupra ariilor specifice
din model unde potrivirea este slab. Matricea rezidual reprezint unul din
puinele instrumente diagnostice disponibile n programele convenionale
44
45
47
48
50
51
52
53
55
Ignorare
Ignorarea sinelui
Atacare
Atacarea sinelui
Blamare
Criticarea
sinelui
Afirmare
Autoafirmare
Dragoste activ
Dragoste de sine
Control
Autocontrol/
supunere
Protejare
Protejarea
sinelui
59
Autoacceptare
Dragoste
de sine
-0.01
0.04
-0.02
Autoinstruire
-0.06
0.86
0.479
0.66
0.28
0.22
0.04
0.00
0.03
r
p
r
p
0.06
0.31
0.08
-0.04
0.43
0.04
-0.02
0.68
0.04
-0.04
0.44
-0.05
-0.02
0.64
0.04
0.13
0.02
0.16
0.17
0.00
0.16
0.17
0.00
0.12
0.14
0.47
0.50
0.41
0.48
0.007
0.00
0.04
r
P
0.01
-0.01
-0.08
-0.05
-0.04
0.10
0.08
0.13
0.83
0.75
0.14
0.35
0.41
0.07
0.16
0.02
-0.05
-0.05
0.07
0.03
0.07
0.10
0.13
0.13
0.38
0.37
0.19
0.60
0.25
0.07
0.02
0.03
60
Autocontrol
-0.07
Criticarea
sinelui
0.12
Respingerea
sinelui
0.15
Ignorarea
sinelui
0.13
Discuii i concluzii
n acest studiu ne-am propus s explorm relaia dintre dimensiunile
conceptului de sine i convingerile iraionale. Rezultatele obinute contureaz
o imagine consistent, relevnd corelaii modeste dar semnificative ntre
convingerile iraionale i criticarea sinelui (r=0.12-0.16; p<0.05), respingerea
sinelui (r=0.14-0.17, p < 0.02), ignorarea sinelui (r=0.12-0.17, p < 0.04).
Relaia constatat sugereaz c persoanele care se percep prin prisma
reprezentrilor ce conin cogniii evaluative, generalizate, iraionale probabil
expereniaz o tensiune mai mare n ceea ce privete prestaia, adecvana sa,
fapt care implicit menine atitudinea / comportamentul autocritic, respingerea
sinelui, ignorarea sinelui. Cu alte cuvinte operarea cu convingeri iraionale
mediaz meninerea imaginii de sine negative.
Este interesant c blamarea altora coreleaz semnificativ cu
respingerea (r=0.13, p=0.02) i ignorarea sinelui (r=0.13, p=0.03). Acest
rezultat este consistent cu teoria interpersonal, n special modelul SASB,
care postuleaz c persoanele care percep comportamentul prinilor fa de
sine drept respingere, n relaiile cu ceilali vor da dovad de comportamente
orientate mpotriva altora, ori, blamarea este un comportament ce include
respingerea.
Relaiile sociale formeaz fundamentul pentru nelegerea sinelui
(Schore, 1994), ele sunt cele care stimuleaz emergena sinelui. n cadrul
relaiilor sociale sunt dezvoltate scripturile i procedurile sinelui fa de sine
(Baldwin, 1992; Gilbert, 2005a). n cercetrile recente (Popa, 2007) s-a
constatat c, convingerile iraionale ale prinilor coreleaz semnificativ cu
acelai grup de convingeri iraionale ale copiilor, fapt care susine ideea
conform creia aceste convingeri sunt preluate ntr-un mod necritic de copii,
ulterior acestea constituind un cadru de referin pentru evaluarea
informaiei despre sine, alii, lume. Altfel spus, cogniii iraionale inferate
din relaiile interpersonale cu persoanele semnificative, particip la
structurarea informaiei despre sine i alii. Rezultatele obinute n cercetarea
de fa susin constatrile unui numr vast de studii care scot n eviden
faptul c criticarea, respingerea i ignorarea sinelui au la baz un sistem
destul de elaborat i puternic, derivat din i perpetuat n cadrul
interaciunilor sociale specifice.
61
62
Schore, A. N. (1994). Affect regulation and the origin of the self: The
neurobiology of emotional development. Hilsdale, NJ.
Sullivan, H. S. (1953). The interpersonal theory of psychiatry. NY.
Swann jr. W. B. (1987). Identity negotiation: Where two roads meet.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1038-1051.
Whelton, W. J., & Greenberg, L. S. (2005). Emotion in self criticism.
Personality and Individual Differences, 59, 339-345.
64
Ruxandra Rcanu **
Universitatea din Bucureti, Romnia
Abstract
The Perceived Wellness Survey (PWS) (Adams, Bezner and Steinhardt, 1997)
was developed to measure subjective well-being from a eudemonic point of view.
This paper presents the findings of a study undertaken to adapt the PWS for the
Romanian population. A sample of 448 subjects, 229 males and 219 females,
were used. Based on exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis a three factor
model was obtained. Results show adequate construct, convergent and
discriminant validity of the adapted instrument as well as acceptable internal
consistency for each scale.
Keywords: perceived well-being, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor
analysis
Introducere
Starea de bine individual (starea de bine subiectiv) este definit ca
evaluare global asupra propriei viei. Aceast evaluare poate fi predominant
cognitiv, bazndu-se pe evaluarea contient a circumstanelor de via,
valorilor i scopurilor sau afectiv. Evalurile afective se manifest sub forma
emoiilor i dispoziiilor. Emoiile sunt considerate reacii de scurt durat care
sunt relaionate cu evenimente specifice sau stimuli externi iar dispoziiile sunt
*
66
Subieci
La acest studiu au participat 448 de subieci, 219 femei cu vrsta
medie de 28,25 ani ( = 7,43) i 229 brbai cu vrst medie de 35,8 ani ( =
8,42). Toi subiecii au participat voluntar, grupul fiind eterogen din punct
de vedere ocupaional i al nivelului educaional cuprinznd, studeni,
persoane cu studii medii, i persoane cu studii postuniversitare. De
asemenea eantionul a fost echilibrat din punct de vedere al strii civile al
subiecilor (participnd att persoane cstorite ct i necstorite).
Procedura
Subiecii au completat ISBA n conformitate cu criteriile de
administrare prezentate anterior. Instrumentul a fost administrat n grup, n
varianta creion hrtie. Subiecii au primit instruciunea de a rspunde ct
mai sincer la afirmaiile prezentate n inventar specificndu-se c nu exist
rspunsuri bune sau rele. De asemenea, subiecii au fost instruii s nu-i
completeze numele pe foaia de rspuns (pentru a pstra confidenialitatea i
evitarea rspunsurilor dezirabile social). Datele obinute au fost prelucrate
statistic cu ajutorul programelor SPSS i AMOS.
Rezultate i discuii
Primul obiectiv al cercetrii a fost evidenierea structurii factoriale a
instrumentului, astfel am realizat o analiz factorial exploratorie.
Coeficientul KMO (0,87) i testul Bartlett (2 = 4897,92; df = 630; p < 0,01)
au indicat faptul c realizarea analizei factoriale este justificat i c
eantionul utilizat este adecvat.
68
Eigenvector iniial
% al
% al
%
Total
varianei
Cumulat
varianei
1
8,186
22,738
22,738
4,429
12,302
2
2,701
7,502
30,240
3,049
8,470
3
1,911
5,308
35,548
2,444
6,789
4
1,451
4,031
39,579
2,089
5,803
5
1,308
3,633
43,212
1,992
5,532
6
1,292
3,590
46,802
1,580
4,388
7
1,202
3,338
50,140
1,507
4,187
8
1,117
3,101
53,241
1,401
3,891
9
1,068
2,967
56,209
1,401
3,891
10
1,001
2,780
58,988
1,345
3,737
Metoda de extragere a factorilor: analiza componentelor principale
Metoda de rotire: varimax
*Not: Sunt prezentate doar rezultatele obinute pentru cei 10 factori extrai.
Total
%
Cumulat
12,302
20,771
27,560
33,363
38,895
43,283
47,470
51,361
55,251
58,988
69
Eigenvalori
Numrul de componente
Figura nr. 1. Imagine scree-plot al analizei factoriale exploratorii pentru ISBA
Eigenvector iniial
% al
% al
%
Total
varianei
Cumulat
varianei
1
8,186
22,738
22,738
5,443
15,119
2
2,701
7,502
30,240
4,230
11,749
3
1,911
5,308
35,548
3,125
8,681
Metoda de extragere a factorilor: analiza componentelor principale
Metoda de rotire: varimax
%
Cumulat
15,119
26,868
35,548
Total
71
este supra sau subsolicitat din punct de vedere intelectual. Acest factor
cuprinde itemi precum nu am ncredere n abilitile mele de a face
lucrurile bine n viitor, uneori m ntreb dac familia mea va fi cu
adevrat alturi de mine atunci cnd voi avea nevoie de ajutor sau uneori
cred c sunt o persoan fr valoare. Prin urmare, factorul a fost numit
atitudine negativ fa de sine, mediu i via (n = 13; m = 38,8; =
11,29; Cronbach = 0,80).
Factorul 3 a fost denumit sntate fizic autoperceput deoarece
cuprinde itemi precum sntatea mea fizic este excelent, m atept ca
ntotdeauna s fiu sntos din punct de vedere fizic sau Corpul meu are o
rezisten crescut fa de boli fizice. Acest factor explic 8,68% din variana
total a itemilor (eigenvaloare 3,12) indicnd percepia propriei stri de
sntate fizic, adic msura n care o persoan se consider sntoas din
punct de vedere fizic precum i ateptrile acesteia cu privire la propria stare
de sntate fizic (n = 7; m = 30,35; = 6,57; Cronbach = 0,74).
n continuare am realizat analiza factorial confirmatorie (AFC)
pentru a testa gradul de adecvare a soluiei factoriale obinute de noi pe baza
analizei exploratorii (tabelul nr. 5). n anexa 1 este reprezentat diagrama de
cale a modelului propus.
Analiza factorial confirmatorie indic faptul c, per ansamblu,
modelul factorial propus de noi pentru ISBA (n cazul populaiei romne)
este adecvat; datele observate corespund prezumiilor teoretice postulate de
noi (2 normalizat < 3; SRMR < 0,08; GFI > 0,80; RMSEA HI < 0,08).
Tabelul nr. 5. Valorile principalilor indicatori absolui pentru modelul factorial propus
de noi ISBA (pe eantion de subieci romni) trei factori corelai
2 normalizat
(CMIN/DF)
GFI
SRMR
RMSEA
PCLOSE
2,81
,83
,069
,064
[,060 ,068]
< 0,05
74
P
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
p
***
***
***
Corelaiile dintre majoritatea subscalelor sunt peste 0,5 (dou din trei
corelaii) ceea ce sugereaz ideea conform creia la baza acestora ar sta un
singur factor general comun; considerm c acesta reprezint factorul starea
de bine autoperceput.
n concluzie, pe baza analizei factoriale (exploratorie i
confirmatorie) realizate de noi propunem urmtoarea structur a subscalelor
ISBA (n cazul n care instrumentul se utilizeaz pe eantion alctuit din
subieci romni):
Atitudine pozitiv fa de sine, mediu i via (n = 14) itemii: 1, 3, 5, 6,
8, 13, 15, 18, 21, 23, 26, 30, 33, 35. Un scor ridicat la aceast subscal
indic o puternic atitudine pozitiv fa de sine, mediu i via.
Atitudine negativ fa de sine, mediu i via (n = 13) itemii: 2, 7, 9, 11,
12, 14, 17, 20, 25, 27, 29, 31, 36. Un scor ridicat la acest factor indic o
puternic atitudine negativ fa de sine, mediu i via.
Sntate fizic autoperceput (n = 7) itemii: 4 (cotare invers), 10, 16,
22, 24, 28, 34 (cotare invers). Un scor ridicat la aceast dimensiune
indic percepia unei stri de sntate fizice satisfctoare.
Itemii 19 i 32 sunt exclui din subscale deoarece nu s-au ncrcat pe
nici una dintre acestea. Am decis totui s pstrm aceti itemi n inventar ca
itemi distractori.
Scorul final pentru fiecare factor (subscal) se obine prin nsumarea
scorurilor itemilor ce alctuiesc factorul (subscala) respectiv i mprirea
acestei sume la numrul itemilor ce alctuiesc acel factor (subscal).
Propunem acest procedeu pentru a nu fi avantajate, respectiv dezavantajate
75
76
77
Anexa 1
e_1
pws1
e_3
pws3
e_5
pws5
e_6
pws6
e_8
pws8
e_13
pws13
e_15
pws15
e_18
pws18
,60
,41
,71
,59
,65
,54
,61
,39
,45
e_21
pws21
e_23
pws23
e_26
pws26
e_30
pws30
e_33
pws33
e_35
pws35
,55
,55
,62
,25
,29
-,72
,62
,73
,55
,72
,30
,30
,32
Factor 1
,40
,70
,24
,38
,71
-,42
,59
Factor 3
78
e_36
pws31
e_31
pws29
e_29
pws27
e_27
pws25
e_25
pws20
e_20
pws17
e_17
pws14
e_14
pws12
e_12
pws11
e_11
pws9
e_9
pws7
e_7
pws2
e_2
,54
Factor 2
pws4
e_4
pws10
e_10
pws16
e_16
,44
pws22
e_22
,47
-,53
pws24
e_24
pws28
e_28
pws34
e_34
-,47
,58
,72
pws36
,65
Anexa 2
Etalonul n cinci clase standardizate a subscalelor variantei adaptate pe populaie de
limba romn ISBA
CLASE
SUBSCAL
foarte
foarte
sczut
mediu
ridicat
sczut
ridicat
Atitudine pozitiv
fa de sine, mediu
i via
< 3,39
3,40 4,35
4,36 5,07
5,08 5,57
> 5,58
Atitudine negativ
fa de sine, mediu
i via
< 1,70
1,71 2,46
2,47 3,38
3,39 4,38
> 4,39
Sntate fizic
autoperceput
< 3,00
3,01 4,00
4,01 4,85
4,86 5,71
> 5,72
79
Introducere
Dup Ryan i Deci (2000), o trebuin fundamental presupune o
stare de tensiune care dac este satisfcut duce la sntate i stare de bine,
iar dac nu, la boal i disconfort psihic. Teoria autodeterminrii identific
Asistent universitar doctorand, Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de tiine SocioUmane, Catedra de Psihologie, Str. Universitii, nr. 3, Corp X, Oradea, Romnia, 410087
E-mail: mariusdrugas@gmail.com
mai ales din cauza nelegerii greite a definiiei oferite de Deci i Ryan
(1985). Dezbaterile au devenit din ce n ce mai acide n jurul anilor 2006,
curgnd cu acuzaii de incompeten sau reavoin att la adresa
susintorilor, ct i a criticilor (Deci i Ryan, 2008).
Trebuina de competen
ncepnd cu primele manifestri motorii, manipulri ale obiectelor i
explorri ale mediului, tendina general spre competen se extinde ctre
activiti sociale relevante pentru integrarea social eficient i chiar pentru
supravieuire. n timpul procesului de adaptare evolutiv, interesul pentru
provocri i explorare a adus fr ndoial avantaje, de exemplu
descoperirea unor surse alternative de hran. Trebuina de competen are i
avantaje funcionale pentru grup, pentru c permite talentelor indivizilor s
ias la iveal n nie relevante, cu beneficii pentru toi membrii grupului
(Deci i Ryan, 2000).
Patrick i colaboratorii si (2007) evideniau importana satisfacerii
trebuinei de competen pentru funcionarea uman optim i bunstarea
subiectiv, susinnd c sentimentul competenei contribuie n cea mai mare
msur la ncrederea n sine. Vorbind despre autoeficacitate, Bandura
(1977) preciza c dac persoanele sunt convinse c sunt capabile s obin
rezultatele pe care le doresc vor avea nivele ridicate ale sntii psihice.
Susinnd o idee apropiat, Carver i Scheier (1990) artau c percepia
progresului spre scopuri este benefic la nivel psihic.
Trebuina de competen s-a aflat aadar mereu n atenia teoriilor
motivaiei. Conform teoriei autodeterminrii, competena include curiozitatea,
dorina de a fi provocat i de a fi eficient. n copilrie, rspunsurile care
sprijin ncrederea n sine reprezint nucleul cultivrii competenei. Mai
trziu, n mediul colar, depinde de cadrul didactic i de modul su de
relaionare cu elevii dac sentimentul competenei va fi cultivat sau dac va fi
nlocuit treptat cu nepsarea. Educaia centrat pe elev pare s ofere
rspunsurile necesare n aceast privin.
Trebuina de afiliere
Similar trebuinei de competen, tendina spre afiliere reflect o
caracteristic esenial a fiinelor umane. n timpul adaptrii evolutive,
relaiile umane nu au fost doar un rezultat, ci un element structural care a
devenit din ce n ce mai elaborat i rafinat sub presiuni selective (Deci i
83
Eigenvector iniial
Total
4,170
1,941
1,564
1,188
% al
variantei
26,065
12,129
9,773
7,428
%
cumulat
26,065
38,194
47,967
55,395
86
Eigenvalori
0
1
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Numrul de componente
Figura nr. 1. Imagine scree-plot al analizei factoriale exploratorii pentru CST
89
Afiliere
Competen
Autonomie
r
r
r
1
,554
,625
,738
91
Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Kim, Y., & Kasser, T. (2001). What is
satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate
psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
80(2), 325-339.
Sheldon, K. M., & Niemiec, C. P. (2006). Its not just the amount that
counts: Balanced need satisfaction also affects well-being. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 331-341.
Weissinger, E., & Bandalos, D. L. (1995). Development, reliability and
validity of a scale to measure intrinsic motivation in leisure. Journal
of Leisure Research, 27(4), 379-400.
http://www.psych.rochester.edu/SDT/measures/needs_scl.html; 20.09.2006.
93
ANEXA 1
Chestionarul Structurrii Trebuinelor
Gndii-v la viaa dvs. n general. ncercuii numrul care descrie cel mai
bine prerea dvs. despre fiecare dintre afirmaiile de mai jos, astfel: 5
perfect de acord; 4 de acord; 3 nici de acord, nici mpotriv; 2mpotriv; 1 total mpotriv. Nu exist rspunsuri greite sau corecte. Nu
v gndii prea mult la o afirmaie, ncercai s rspundei repede i sincer.
1. Problemele noi sau neobinuite sunt o provocare
pentru mine.
2. M ncpnez uor dac cineva ncearc s m
dirijeze.
3. mi face plcere s m implic n probleme complexe.
4. M simt mai bine cnd pot s mi stabilesc eu
prioritile n activitile pe care le realizez.
5. Prefer sarcinile care presupun competiie cu ceilali.
6. Prefer s rezolv singur / problemele care apar.
7. Este important pentru mine s pot face ceea ce
doresc.
8. Fidelitatea unei prietenii este o valoare important
pentru mine.
9. Pentru a realiza ceva deosebit, sunt dispus s depun
un efort continuu i foarte intens.
10. Pretind loialitate de la prietenii mei.
11. Cnd trec prin momente intense emoional, simt
nevoia s vorbesc cu cineva.
12. Pentru mine este mai bine s lucrez singur dect n
echip.
13. ncerc s am relaii bune cu persoanele pe care le
cunosc.
14. mi face plcere s fac mici servicii cunoscuilor.
15. Cu ct obstacolul este mai dificil, cu att m
determin mai mult s l depesc.
16. Prefer s mi petrec vacana singur /.
94
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
Introducere
De cte ori nu suntem pregtii s oferim ajutorul celor care ne solicit
i din varii motive dm rspunsuri care impun un algoritm? Ci medici dau
indicaii cu aspect imperativ n legtur cu ceea ce trebuie s facem ca s ne
vindecm sau, n context colar, cte cadre didactice adopt aceeai manier n
procesul transmiterii de cunotine ?
O dezvoltare armonioas a fiinei umane rezult din procesul de
nvare. Cnd vorbim de nvare ne referim la modificare / schimbare obinut
n urma experienei. Aceasta poate fi de dou feluri: nvare direct i nvare
mediat. Relaionarea direct cu exteriorul duce la achiziii care au la baz
nvarea, astfel c, prin prisma modelului piagetian, individul care nva,
interacioneaz n mod direct cu stimulii lumii nconjurtoare i emite
Psiholog, Spitalul Clinic de Recuperare Medical Bile Felix, Oradea, Jud. Bihor,
Romnia E-mail: romanovidiu22@yahoo.com
abstractizare. Rezultatele slabe ale acestui proces sunt cauzate de lipsa medierii
sau de accesul redus la mediere de ctre copil.
Aplicaii ale nvrii mediate n context cognitiv
Printele modificrilor cognitiv-comportamentale, Donald Michembaum,
consider c limbajul intern poate fi utilizat pentru a controla rspunsurile
subiectului uman. Ori limbajul intern este la origine exterior, fiind facilitat de
modelare, cu ajutorul creia este i interiorizat. Cu ajutorul limbajului, n cadrul
modificrilor cognitiv-comportamentale se obine autoreglarea i controlul
comportamentului, fapt care presupune n principal dou activiti
complementare: inhibiia i iniierea unui comportament. Limbajul intern poate
constitui principala modalitate de mediere a competenei. Medierea sentimentului
de competen include un comportament sau o activitate a adultului care s
exprime copilului faptul c ceea ce el realizeaz reprezint un succes. Aceste
medieri pot fi fcute fie verbal, ncurajnd activitatea realizat de persoana, fie
nonverbal. Important este ns nu doar crearea unui sentiment al competenei, ci
i demonstrarea lui n activiti care permit i cer manifestarea acesteia, care in
de zona proximei dezvoltri (Vgotski). Medierea aspectelor realitii exterioare
poate beneficia mult de principiile nvrii mediate prin intervenia terapeutului
n contextul clientului. De exemplu, pentru tratarea unei fobii, terapeutul va
media stimulul fobic al pacientului gradual pentru a determina desensibilizarea
progresiv asigurnd un climat optim pentru schimbare.
Putem considera modificabilitatea cognitiv ca rezultnd din nvarea
mediat, proces care conduce la modificri n arhitectonica minii umane. Dac
abordm la nivel computaional arhitectura cognitiv uman aceasta este
constituit din modele cognitive ale realitii care permit predicia i explicarea
comportamentului persoanei. Aceste modele sunt construite ca urmare a
experienei, prin urmare ele pot fi modelate, deci ar putea fi modificate. Sunt
mai multe paradigme ale modelrii componentelor arhitecturii umane (Taatgen,
Lebiere i Anderson, 1998; apud Sun, 2006)
nvarea instant: are la baz ideea c soluiile rezultate din procesul
rezolvrii de probleme sunt stocate n memoria declarativ a persoanei pentru a
fi reactualizate ori de cte ori este nevoie. Aceste reactualizri sunt facilitate de
gradul de activare a informaiilor, care se constituie ca o sum rezultat din
utilizrile informaiei respective anterior (rest de activare). Aadar nvarea
instant este o metod potrivit pentru mbuntirea performanei. Aceast
metod nu permite evaluarea informaiilor utilizate. El implic doar o activare a
100
103
Abstract
This article presents a review of the contribution of discursive social psychology to
the study of prejudice and racism. At first I will discuss the theoretical and
methodological characteristics of discursive social psychology showing that this
field of social psychology has re-specified some of the traditional socio-cognitive
approaches to stereotyping, prejudice and racism by shifting its emphasis on the
study of the discursive practices, on the discourse which is seen as the action that
construes reality. The paper ends with a presentation of what is known as critical
discursive social psychology, which scopes is to investigate the way in which
some forms, discursive practices, institute, modify, create and reproduce patterns of
social inequality and unequal relations of power which function on an ideological
level. The basic idea of this approach, which has major implications for the study of
prejudice and racism, is to highlight the social, political and ideological
consequences of different types of discursive organizations such as naturalization
and the legitimate dominance and maintenance of the status-quo.
Keywords: prejudice, racism, discursive practices
People use language to do things, to construct versions of the world (Potter and
Wetherell, 1987) depending upon the function of their talk. Talk or text becomes
a topic in its own right (Potter and Wetherell, 1987, p. 35).
Discursive psychologists have offered a range of critical
reinterpretations of some of the basic psychological notions such as, attitudes
(Billig, 1987, 1988b, 1989; Burningham, 1995; Potter 1996b, 1998; Potter and
Wetherell, 1987, 1988; Wetherell and Potter, 1992), memory (Billig, 1990a;
Bogen and Lynch, 1989; Drew, 1989; Edwards and Middleton, 1986, 1987,
1988; Middleton and Edwards, 1990; Edwards, Middleton and Potter, 1992;
Edwards and Potter, 1992a, b, 1993). They have also provided critical insights
into the psycho-sociological study of notions such as categories (Billig, 1985,
1987; Condor, 1988; Potter and Wetherell, 1987; Widdicombe and Wooffitt,
1995; Edwards, 1991, 1997, 1998), the attribution process (Potter and Edwards,
1990; Edwards and Potter, 1992a, 1993; Edwards, 1997) or racism (Billig,
1988a; Condor, 1988; Van Dijk, 1984, 1987; Essed, 1988; Reeves, 1983;
Sykes, 1985; Wetherell and Potter, 1986, 1992; Edwards, in press).
As previously noted, discursive psychology has developed and provided
a critique of the traditional conceptualisations of attitudes. It was argued for a
re-specification of attitudes in terms of evaluative practices (Myers, 1998;
Potter, 1998). Discursive psychology views opinions, beliefs and attitudes
(prejudiced or otherwise) not as a priori phenomena which need explanation,
but rather as resources which members can draw upon in talk, in order to
achieve contextual relevant rhetorical and social action. The discursive
psychological move is from considering underlying, stable, cognitively
represented attitudes, to evaluative practices that are flexibly produced for
particular occasions (Potter, 1998; Speer and Potter, 2000). In the study of
prejudice and racism, discursive psychologists have moved beyond the
experimental, cognitive approaches or highly standardized survey research
using attitude scales. From a discursive perspective, it is argued that traditional
ways of conceptualizing prejudice and racism by the use of attitude scales tend
to reify the object they attempt to measure, by presenting its contours as
relatively self-evident and objectively measurable prior to and not as a result
of an analysis of actual instances (cf. Speer and Potter, 2000, p. 545).
In traditional analyses of prejudice, social psychologists have been
reluctant to deal with actual interaction, preferring to approach it via
experiment, scales or questionnaires. As Jonathan Potter argues, part of the
reason for this has been the prevalent cognitive assumptions which have
106
107
110
that the speaker is basically prejudiced, but camouflaging it in the way they talk
and that analysis can reveal their true beliefs and attitudes (cf. Edwards, in
press). This move should not be seen as an avoidance of dealing with actual
prejudice, rather it becomes a re-definition of what prejudice is. In the analyses
that discursive psychologists offer, no formal definitions of prejudice or
discrimination is given; instead the definitions and reactions from the
speakers are used as the main ground for determining meaning. This is not to
say that the analysis involves no interpretation, because the analysis is being
informed by the available cultural repertoires shared by the members of specific
societies.
The majority of traditional studies of prejudice treat members talk as a
resource rather than a topic of inquiry in its own right. These kind of abstraction
do not throw light on how the participants in different social settings describe
prejudice for each other. Psychologists classificatory schemes, abstracted from
the members descriptive practices, entail a neglect of the phenomenon of
prejudice as it is known, understood and talked about by members themselves.
It was Garfinkel (1967) who emphasized analysts preference for
generalized descriptions entailed a neglect of the specifics of activities and
settings. In terms of his conception, members categorizations of prejudice
requires investigation as a topic in their own right. The aim is not to theorize
prejudice, but to describe and analyze what prejudice is for the members of
society. One of the aims of discursive psychologists is to examine the ways in
which concerns with prejudice inform members locally ordered practical
action and reasoning. The interest is on describing the mundane practices in and
through which persons are oriented to issues of what being prejudiced means
and engage in its analysis in the course of activities such as describing,
interpreting and explaining. The aim is to draw attention to the various situated
ways in which prejudice is identified, described, explained, and made sense of.
People engaged in conversation with others construct and negotiate meanings
and the reality that they are talking about. The main focus of a different range
of discourse studies is prejudice as a problematic, prejudice as a to-beaccounted-for phenomenon.
The study of participants talk opens the opportunity for the detailed
inspection of the way the mind-world relationship, the nature of the social
actors and their positions involved within it, issues of prejudice and
discrimination are constructed and contested in actual social practices
(Edwards, in press). The discursive approach can help in mapping the
113
1999, 2001). For example, in van Dijks work, the construction of difference is
done by the speakers along the lines of positive self-presentation negative
other presentation together with the categories used to rationalize prejudice
against minority groups. He refers to these categories as the 7 Ds of
discrimination: dominance, differentiation, distance, diffusion, diversion,
depersonalisation and daily discrimination (cf. Van Dijk, 1984). As he
suggests, these strategies serve in various ways to legitimise and enact the
distinction of the other. Even if van Dijks approach on the language of
prejudice has suffered a great deal of reinterpretation, especially from discourse
researchers (e.g., Billig, 1991; Verkuyten et al., 1994a, 1995), the thrust of his
argument relating to prejudice remains extremely important for a thorough
understanding of the contemporary discourses of difference. The conclusion
that can be drawn from most of discourse studies is that the definition of
difference is a complex accomplishment dependent on a range of constructive
processes (see Verkuyten, 2001 for a recent attempt).
Discursive analyses have also benefited from a rhetorical analysis of
argumentation. Discourse analysts have used rhetorical analysis to investigate
patterns of ideology and reveal what is being taken for granted as common
sense. In examining patterns of discussion and argument it is hoped to discover
what issues are being challenged by the speakers involved and how these
challenges are discursively accomplished (Billig, 1991). One can also look for
what is being left unchallenged or what is presented as unchallengeable and
uncontroversial. A rhetorical approach points to the argumentative nature of
racist discourse (Billig et al., 1988; Schiffrin, 1985; Van Dijk, 1984, 1987).
Argumentative discourse is to be found in the context of justification and
criticism (Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca, 1971).
The study of arguments permits the sort of discourse analysis which
could analyze the use of social representations in the expression of attitudes
(Billig, 1993). There is a similarity between the notion of social representation
and the rhetorical notion of common-places (Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca,
1971), which are said to be the socially-shared maxims and values of a
particular community. Opponents, in outlining their opinions, draw upon
socially shared notions or representations. As they argue they draw upon
common representations, only to interpret and instantiate them differently
(Billig, 1993).
For example, arguments about discrimination and prejudice do not rest
in simple declarations such as There is discrimination or prejudice being met
115
118
social action: what is achieved by that use and the nature of the interpretative
resources that allow that achievement (Potter and Wetherell, 1998, p. 147).
Examining the functions of ideological and rhetorical available
resources has analytical consequences. It is argued that while an analysis of the
details of interaction and taking account of participants orientations is
essential, it is equally important to consider talk as a culturally (cf. Abell and
Stokoe, 1999, 2001) and ideologically (cf. Billig, 1991; 2002a; Fairclough,
1992, 1995a; Reisigl and Wodak, 2001; Wodak and Reisigl, 1999) situated
practice. One could argue that it is not enough to say that the discursive
positions, identities, categories that are constructed in situ by the speakers can
simply speak for themselves (Abell and Stokoe, 2001; Wetherell, 1998) as
conversation analysts would propose. Common-sense knowledge with different
ideological meanings or a cultural and political perspective on society and its
actors is displayed when speakers problematize some aspect of the interaction
and when they gloss over issues introduced by the interviewer. Thus, to
understand the rhetorical and ideological thrust of participants arguments and
the complexities of their positioning (and that of their own group), and also the
positioning of others (whomever they might be, immigrants, ethnic minorities
etc.), the analyst (as well as the reader) must engage in a wider understanding
of the cultural and ideological interpretative framework within which all this
becomes relevant. As Verkuyten (2001, p. 275) cogently put it, [the] wider
ideological context is both inside and outside the talk.
Understanding how specific representations of prejudice against
different groups and the issues of accountability linked to it are constructed and
sustained, can provide clues for trying to reconstruct the existing ideological
representations pertaining to prejudice and discrimination and related issue and
point to the social, political and ideological consequences of this kind of
discursive patterning, such as maintenance of the status-quo, the reproduction,
naturalization and legitimation of dominance. As a number of critical discursive
psychologists have argued, group descriptions are usually developed as part of
stories and accounts that are ideological in nature (cf. van Dijk, 1987;
Wetherell and Potter, 1992). As Wetherell (1996) notes, the term ideological
suggests that this discursive work needs to be understood in terms of the
patterning of social relations, power and inequalities within a society (p. 221).
Ideology is understood as a practice and the interest of critical discursive
psychologists is to unveil the ideological effects of peoples accounts. The
ideological content or import of a discourse is measured by its effects.
119
Discourses that categorize the world in ways that legitimate, maintain and
perpetuate social inequality patterns and unequal relations of power are said to
function ideologically. The focus is on both the discursive practices that
construct representations of the world, social actors and social relations and the
role that these discursive practices play in protecting and reproducing the
interests of particular social groups.
Demonstrating how people make sense of racism and prejudice changes
the sorts of questions that researchers can ask about it. It also changes the ways
in which we can read accounts including peoples ordinary conversations or
newspaper headlines. It is a theme that goes beyond racism and prejudice, it
interferes with all the aspects of public life: social behaviour, civil society,
political life trends, national myths and national consciousness. As Billig et al.
(1988) argued, the problem is seeking to change opinions by changing what
people might talk, argue and think about One of the goals of social action or
of social reform is to win a present argument, in order to change the agenda of
argumentation (pp. 148-149).
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Lect. univ. drd., Universitatea din Oradea, Facultatea de tiine Socio-Umane, Catedra de
Psihologie, Str. Universitii, nr. 3, Corp X, Oradea, Romnia, 410087; E-mail:
mmarian@uoradea.ro
130
Autor (i)
Jensen (1987)
Nr. de
pacieni
52
Tip de cancer i
stadiul
Timp al
msurrii
Tratament n
timp
Design
Cancer de sn
27 tratai pentru
recurena bolii
25 fr recurena
bolii
Dup tratament
Prospectiv
Variabile care
nu sunt
asociate cu
supravieuirea
(recderea)
Nu a fost
evaluat nici o
alt variabil
psihosocial
131
Variabile
asociate cu
supravieuire
a (AS) i
perioada fr
recdere (PR)
Variabile
medicale i
sociodemografice
PR
Stil de
personalitate
represiv
Exprimarea
afectelor
negative
redus
Neajutorare/lip
s de speran
Stres cronic
Vrsta la
diagnosticare,
stadiul bolii,
statusul medical
la debutul
studiului, factori
hormonali i
genetici, status
socio-economic,
IQ, cancer n
familie
Cassileth,
Walsh i Lusk
(1988)
Jamison, Burish
i Wallston
(1987)
Dean i Surtees
(1989)
Richardson,
Zarnegar, Bisno
i Levine
(1990)
Watson,
Homewood,
Haviland i
Bliss (2005)
204 (Grup
I)
i
155 (Grup
II)
49
122
141
578
Grupul I Cancer
intestinal
Stadiile III i IV
Grupul II Cancer
al pielii i de sn
Stadiul II
Dup diagnostic
Grupul I: dup 8
ani
Grupul
II:
n
perioada recurent
Prospectiv
Cancer de sn
Metastaze (stadiul
IV)
Dup tratament i
pn la decesul
pacientului
Prospectiv
Relaiile sociale
Satisfacia
muncii
Satisfacia
n
via
Neajutorarea
Evaluarea
general a vieii
Tratamentul cu
psihotrope
AS
Nici un efect
Grupul I: vrsta,
statutul marital,
rasa, sex
Grupul II:
diagnostic,
statutul marital,
vrsta
Starea general
de bine
Evaluarea
subiectiv a
sntii
Stima de sine
Ostilitatea
Depresia (Scala
Zung)
Locul
controlului
Anxietatea ca
trstur
AS
Nici un efect
Vrsta, nivelul
educaional, alte
boli, noduli,
metastaze,
status al
menopauzei, nr.
de oameni n
cas
Cancer de sn
Stadiu I-III
nainte i la 3 luni
dup operaie
6-8 ani
Prospectiv
Inventarul de
Personalitate
Eysenck
Statusul
psihiatric
Vrsta, clasa
social, statut
marital, status al
nodulilor,
numrul de
tumori, terapie,
regim
Cancer
hematologic i
cancer rectal
1-2 sptmni de
la diagnosticare/
1-3 luni de la
operaie i la
ambele grupuri
dup 6 luni
3 ani mai trziu
Prospectiv
Cancer de sn
Stadiul I i II
4-12 sptmni
post-diagnostic
5-10 ani mai trziu
Prospectiv
Depresie (Beck,
Zung)
Stil de coping
Locul
controlului
Suport social
PR
Boli psihiatrice
nainte de
operaie
Coping-ul i
negarea dup
operaie
Acceptarea
stoic
Neajutorarea/li
psa de
speran
AS
Nici un efect
AS
Spiritul de
lupt
Neajutorarea /
lipsa de
speran
Gen, statut
marital,
educaia, vrsta,
perioada de
spitalizare
Depresia
132
Gen, etnie,
statut marital,
educaia, vrsta,
severitatea bolii:
nalt/moderat/
sczut,
tratament,
perioada de
spitalizare
Andrewes,
Kaye, Murphy,
Harris, Aitken,
Parr i Bates
(2003)
Nespecificat
Stadiul IV
Pre i post test
Prospectiv
Nu a fost
evaluat nici o
alt variabil
psihosocial
Neajutorarea i
depresia
Pierderea
autonomiei
Vrsta, statut
marital, status al
nodulilor,
numrul de
tumori
Tumori cerebrale:
astrocitom,
meningiom,
adenom pituitar
Testare post
chirurgical
Nu a fost
evaluat nici o
alt variabil
psihosocial
Variabile
asociate cu
astrocitomul:
Furie
Neajutorare
Fatigabilitate
Control sczut
al emoiilor
Indiferen
Comportament
maladaptativ
Vrsta, sexul,
status medical
147
67
Variabile controlate
n studiile trecute n revist, timpul scurs ntre evaluri se situeaz
ntre o sptmn i douzeci de ani. Evaluarea relaiei dintre variabilele
psihosociale i rezultatele tratamentelor au fost controlate printr-un numr
de variabile socio-demografice, clinice i patologice. Variabilele relevante
controlate pot fi subdivizate n patru grupuri: 1. socio-demografic, 2. status
al tumorilor / tratament, 3. status general medical i 4. localizare specific.
n continuare prezentm detaliat fiecare grup i numrul de studii care a
vizat variabile n cauz:
Grupul 1: vrsta (8 studii), sex (2 studii), statut socio-economic (1
studiu), statut marital (5 studii), etnia (1 studiu), nivelul educaional (3
studii), clasa social (1 studiu), IQ (1 studiu), familia (1 studiu).
Grupul 2: stadiul clinic (5 studii), aspecte ale tratamentului (6
studii), localizarea primar a tumorii (7 studii), rata de supravieuire (4
studii).
Grupul 3: status medical (3 studii), status psihiatric (8 studii), istoria
familiei n ceea ce privete cancerul (1 studiu), numr de noduli / tumori (4
studii).
133
135
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136
Fascicula Psihologie
Volumul XIV
Noiembrie, 2008
Ioan Chelemen
14 Abordri ale principiului normalizrii
Ioan Tia
32 Modelarea cu ajutorul ecuaiilor structurale
Tatiana Buianina
56 Conceptul de sine n raport cu convingerile iraionale
Gabriel Roeanu, Ruxandra Rcanu
65 Investigarea structurii factoriale a Inventarului Strii de Bine Autopercepute
Marius Druga
80 validarea factorial a Chestionarului Trebuinelor de Baz
Ovidiu Roman
95 Medierea n context educaional i clinic
Cristian Tileaga
104 Explorarea prejudecii, discriminrii i a rasismului
Mihai Marian
129 Corelate psihosociale ale cancerului: o trecere n revist