Grammar in Steps

lntroduction
Verb forms
1 The present simple: She works 6
2 The present continuous: It's raining 9
3 The present continuous: He's smoking oR the present simple: He smokes?
4 The present continuous and the present simple with future meaning 16
5 The past simple: He wqs/He arriued l8
6 The past continuous: He was working 22
7 The present perfect: I'ue lost my job 25
8 Thepresent perfectwithjus yet, euer,etc. 27
9 The present perfect: other uses 30
l0 The past simple: He came on the present perfect: He's come 32
l1 The present perfect continuous: He's been waiting for hours 36
l2 The present perfect: continuous or simple? 39
13 The past perfect:He hadcome 42
14 The future: will/won't, shall/shan't 45
15 Going to op. will? 48
16 The future continuous: I'll be waiting and the future perfect: He'll haue left
13
50
Passives
17 The passive l: He was sacked Forms and main uses
18 The passive 2: other constructions 56
19 Haue/get something done 60
53
Questions and answers

20 Questions
2l
22
23
24
62
Question lags: You're English, aren't you? 65

The question words Who? What? Which? Do you know who/what/if, etc?
I think so, I hopeso, etc. So do I, Neitherdo I,etc. 72
Auxiliary verbs used alone: Will you come? - I might 75
Modals and auxliary verbs

25 Can, could, be able to 79
26 Can, could, may, wouldinrequests, offers and invitations 82

27 Must/mustn't Hae to/don't haue to 85
28 Must, can't Must haue done, can't haue done 89
29 May (haue), might (haue), could (haue) 92
30 Should/oughtto, had better Should haue/oughtto haue 95
Other verb constructions

3l Hauegot/haue
32
,,
JJ
99
Phrasal verbs: He took off his coat 102

Look, feel, etc. + adjectiveor like/es if 105
34 Used to 108
35 Get used to Be used
36 The verb need 11,4
,1
JT
to l1l
Verb + direct object/indirect object: I sent him a
letter ll7
69
lf clauses and other conditionals

38 1/sentences: 1st and 2nd conditional 120
39 If in past situations: 3rd conditional 124
40 Unless, prouided (thet) As long as, in case 127
4t I wish .../If only
130
...
The
infinitive and the -ing torm
42 The infinitive of purpose In order to So that, so 133

43 Verb + infinitive with fo: I uant to go 136
44 Yerb + object + infinitive: I want you to listen 140
45 Adjective + infinitive: It's difficult to say 143
46 Verb + -ing: I enjoy swimming 146
47 Preposition + -rng: I'm tired of waiting 148
48 Doyoumind+-ingl Idon'tmind+-ing lt'snouse,there'snopoint,etc.+-lng
49 -rng clauses: l1e sat listening 154
50 Like, loue, hate + infinitive with Io or -ing 157
5l I prefer to do/l prefer doing I'd prefer to/l'd rather 161
52 Verb + infinitive with fo or + -ing'. Remember to do or remember doing 164
151
Reported speech
53 Reportedspeech: He soid it was a good car 168
54 Reported questions, commands, etc.: Sfte asked me where I was from
173
Articles
55 The definite article:
56 The definite article:
57 A, an, some 184
the
the
(l)
(2)
177
182
Nouns
58 Nouns: singular and plural: book/books, child/children 187
59 Countable and uncountable nouns: cars, traffic, pollution 190
Quantif iers
few
60 Much, many, a lot, plenty, (uery) little, (uery) few A little, a

61 Some, any, no, none 197
62 All/euerything, euerybody All/euery/each whole 200
63 All (of), most (of), some (of), etc. Both (of), neither (of), either
194
(of)
204
Pronouns
64 Demonstratives: this, that, these, those 207
65 Reflexive and emphatic pronouns myself, himself, themselues, elc. 210
66 Someone, something, somewhere, anyone, onything, onywhere, etc. 214
67 Possessive forms: The man's children, the door of the room, a friend of mine 217
68 Possessive adjectives and pronouns: my, mine, elc. My oun ... Whose ...? 221
69 One/ones 224
Adjectives
70
7l
72
73
The use and position of adjectives 227

Comparatives and superlatives (1) 230
Comparatives and superlatives (2) 235
Adjectives ending in -ed and -ing: interested,/interesting 239
Adverbs
74
75
76
77
Adverbs
Adverbs
Adverbs
Adverbs
of manner and degree: slowly, uery 241

of frequency, time and place often, today, there 246
of degree: quite, fairly, pretty, rather So, such 250
of degree: a lot, a bit, much, e|c. More, most, better, esl,
Any more/any longer,/no longer 257
78 Still, yet
79 Tooandenough
etc.
260
Prepositions
80 Time prepositions: in, 0t, on 263
81 Prepositions of place: in, on, at 266
82 Prepositions of place'. under, opposite, elc. 270
83 Prepositions of movement: up, down, elc. 274
84 Prepositions used for travel and transporl: by bus, go to, arriue at
Prepositions/Li nk words
85 For, since, ago 280
86 For, during, while 283
87 When, as soon as, etc. in future sentences
88 By/by the time, till/until 288
89 Like and as As if/as though 290
90 Although, though, euen though In spite of
277
286
Because, since,
so
293
Relative clauses
91 Relative clauses with who, which, that 296
92 The relative pronouns where, whose, what 299
93 Defining and non-defining relative clauses 302
94 Clauses with -rng or a past participle With in identifying phrases
Appendices
1 American English - British English 308
2 Contractions or short forms (l'm, they're, can't, etc.)
3 Spelling 311
4 Phrasal verbs 313
5 Adjectives with prepositions 315
6 Verbs with prepositions 316
7 Irregularverbs 317
8 Glossary of grammatical terms 318
lndex
320
310
305
254
il*
:l
1
,Paul Hart and'Sarah'For.d live,in'the same block of flats'in Avonmouth.
Paul's a postman. He gets up at 5.30 a.m. and goes to work at 6. He
usually catches the bus. Sarah lives in the next flat. She's a nurse. She
works nights. She gets home from work at 6 a.m., at the same time as
Paul leaves'for'work! They meet on the stair.s and say hello; but that's
all. He sometimes tries to arrange a date with her, but he doesn't find it
easy. And they don't see each other at weekends because Sarah works
mot weekens. lrlur dont have an easy life. But she says she likes
nursing and she doesn't want to change her job. 'l enjoy my job, but I
don't have a very good social life. Paul and I don't spend any time
together. We often try to arrange a date, but we're never free at the
same time.'
present simple
We use the present simple to talk about:
o habits or regular activities and situations.

Paul gets up at 5.30 a.m. They meet on the stairs.
Paul qnd Sarah liae in Auonmouth.
o facts and attitudes
that are generally or always true.
don't hqae qn easy life. Sarah likes nursing.

o We don't use the present simple to talk about things that are in progress now,
that are temporary. We don't say: Look! It rains. We have to use the present
Nurses
continuous: Look! It's roining.

(For the present continuous, see Unit 2. For the present simple used with a future
meaning, see Unit 4 Step 2.)
CHECK QUESTIONS
Which sentences describe a regular activity or an attitude?
I Paul has a shower every morning. 2 He went to bed late last night.
3 Sarah's going to Spain next summer. 4 She loves the sun.
Step 2
The present simple: affirmative/positive forms

Towork
work
work
We
You work
You work
He/she/it works
Theywork
In the affirmative, the present simple has the same form as the infinitive in all
persons except the 3rd person singular (he, it, Paul, the flat, etc.). We add -s in the
3rd person singular.
Paul gets up at 5.30 a.m. Sarah likes nursing.
With verbs that end in -o, <h, -sh, -ss (g,o, catch, watch, wash, kiss, etc.), we add -es
and not just -s in the 3rd person singular.
Paul goes to work at 6. He usually catches the bus.
With some verbs that end in -y (cry, fly, hurry, try, etc.) the -y changes to -es in the
3rd person singular.
Paul often tries to arronge a date with her.
o But with verbs with a vowel before -y (buy, play, say, etc.) we simply add -s.
Buf she says she likes nursing.
Complete the sentences, using the present simple.

I Paul (play) football. 2 Sarah (study) Spanish in her spare time.
3 Paul sometimes (miss) the bus to work. 4 Sarah (do) her shopping on Thursdays.
CHECK QUESTIONS 2
Step 3
The present simple: negative and question forms
Negative
I don't work
You don't work
He/she/it doesn't
We don't work
You don't work
They don't
Questions
work
work
Do I work?
Do you work?
Does he/she/it work?

Do we work?
Do you work?
Do they work?
To form the negative we use don't (do not) f.or all persons except the 3rd person
singular.
They don't see each other at weekends. I don't haae a uery good sociol life.
Paul and I don't spend much time together.
o In the 3rd person singular we use doesn't (does nor). We don't add -s to the verb
that follows doesn't.
She doesn't u)qnt to change her job. (Nor She doesn't wants)
He doesn't find it easy. (Nor He doesn't finds it easy.)
o To form questions we use do for all persons except the 3rd person singular.
Do
+
subject + infinitive without fo
you
know any nurses?
Do
Do
Paul and Sorah liue together?
see each other?
When do
they
o In the 3rd person singular we form the question with does.
Does
Paul
workatweekends?
get home from work?
When does
Sarah
like nursing?
Does
she
o Note the short answers.
Does Saroh work nights? Yes, she does.
Does Poul work nights? No, he doesn't.
Do they liue in the same block of flats? Yes, they do.
Do they spend much time together? No, they don't.
-:aK QUrSr/ONS
.'5 !,i,ER5
r- uE-s
1.
Complete the sentences, using the present simple.

1 Where (live) Paul? 2 Paul (not work) at weekends.
3 Sarah (not want) to change her job. 4 (have) nurses a good social life?
IO
i!o,ry5
ANL)
Paul has a shower every morning. She loves

the sun.
I Paul plays football. 2 Sarah studies Spanish
in her spare time. 3 Paul sometimes misses the
bus to work, 4 Sarah does her shopping on
Thursdays.
1 Where does Paul live? 2 Paul doesn't work

at weekends. 3 Sarah doesn't want to change
her.iob. 4 Do nurses have a good social life?
The present continuous for actions in progress
We use the present continuous to talk about something that's in progress now at
this moment.
Dad's making supper. His wife isn't helping him.
She's uatching teleuision. The children aren't helping him either.
iJiST
/ONS
Step 2
Are these things happening now in the situation above? Answer

1 They're having supper. 2 Tim's playing a computer game.
3 Helen's doing her homework. 4 Jessie's going out.
Yes
or No.
Forms of the present continuous
We form the present continuous with the present of be + the -rng form of the verb.
Note: The negative has two possible forms.
Affirmative
( am) working
You're (ou are) working
He's (He is) working
She's (She is) working
It's Qt is) working
We're C/e are) working
You're ou are) working
They're (fhey are) working
I'm
Negative
I'm not working
You aren't/You're not working
He isn't/He's not working
She isn't/She's not working
It isn't/lt's not working
We aren'tflVe're not working
You aren't/You're not working
They aren't/They're not working
Questions
Short answers
Am I working?
Are you working?
Yes, I am. oR No, I'm not.

Yes, you are. oR No, you aren't/you're not.
Is he/she/it working?
Are we working?
Yes, he
is. on No, he's not/he isn't.
Yes, we are. oR No, we're not/we aren't.

Yes, we are. oR No, we're not/we aren't.
Yes, they are. oR No, they're not/they aren't.
Are you working?

Are they working?
o Note the spelling changes before -lng.

Words ending in: e
have having
m
n
p
t
swim
run
stop
get
swimming
running
stopping
getting
(See also Appendix 3.)

H:(.1 Ql-/fSi/al/VS
Put the verb into the present continuous.

1 Dad (make) supper. 2 Jessie (help) her father? No, she ...
3 She (get) ready to go out. 4 The boys (not help) their father.
in the present continuous

Dad: Tim, I know you're busy, but I want some help.
Tim: But Dad, l'm doing something important.
Dad: lmportant? What do you men? I don't believe youl
Some verbs (most of them verbs of thinking and feeling) are almost never used in
the present continuous. The most common are'. ogree, be, belieue, belong, care,
forget, hate, hear, know, like, loue, mean, mind, notice, oun, remember, seem,
suppose, understand, want, wish.
(See also Unit 3, Step 3.)
( HE( K ()UF.\TION5 3
Which sentences are incorrect?
I James is being in his bedroom at the moment. 2 He's playing a computer

3 He's loving computer games. 4 His father's hating computer games.
5 He's thinking they're a waste of money. 6 James isn't agreeing.
the present continuous
It's 8.30 p.m. Jessie's doing her maths homewor(. This year she's
studying maths, physics and economics. She's going out wth a boy in
her class called Carl. At the moment they're spending a lot of time
together. Jessie's Dad doesn't think she's doing enough school work.
He's also worried about Tim. Tim's always playing games on his
computer.
Dad: Youlre always wasting your time. Why don't you do something
usefu
Tim: Oh, you're always saying that, Dad. You're always complaining.
10
game.
We often use the present continuous to talk about a temporary activity or

situation. It may not be in progress at the moment of speaking.
This year she's stud.ying maths, physics and economics.
Carl and Jessie are going out together.
Note: The only thing that is happening now (at 8.30) is that Jessie is doing her
maths homework. The other things are not happening at this moment.
o We sometimes use the present continuous wilh always to talk about things that
happen frequently and are irritating.
Tim's aluays playing games on his computer.
You're alusays complaining.
_.,. truEsr/oNs
In these sentences, are we talking about what is happening at this moment (A), or
about a temporary situation which may not be happening now @)? Write A or B.
I Carl's also studying maths, physics and economics.
2 Jessie's sitting at her desk in her bedroom.
3 She's waiting for Carl to phone.
4 She's finding physics quite difficult.
Write sentences using always and the present continuous.
5
6
Step 5
You (go) out in the evening!

She (use) the phone!
The present continuous with future meaning
Dad: What are you doing tonight, Jessie?

iessie: 'm goi(lg out- l'm.meeting Carlandwe're go ng to
a c ub
We often use the present continuous to talk about arrangements we've made for
the future. (See also Unit 4.)
I'm going out. I'm meeting Carl.
(Ihese are her arrangements for the future. She isn't going out at the moment.)
-...:
i)UESTIONS 5
Complete the conversation.

Dad: Where you (1 meet) Carl tonight? And what time you (2 come) home?
Jessie: We (3 meet) at the town hall. I don't know what time I (4 come) home, but
not late.
IO
: aK QUESIi ONS
AN5WFRs
- 2,3.44ND5
1 No. 2 Yes. 3 No. 4 No.

1 Dad's making supper. 2 ls Jessie helping her
father? No, she isn't/No, she's not. 3 She's
getting ready to go out. 4 The boys aren't
helping their father.
1,3,4,5,6
1B 2A 3A 48 5You're always going out in

the evening. 6 She's always using the phone.
5
areyou meeting 2areyou coming 3 We're
meeting 4 l'm coming
4
11
Liz Rix is working for a year on a Greenpeace ship in the Mediterranean.

Theylre checking pollution levels. Liz is writing a letter to her,mther;
'... l'm writing this letter in my cabin. The sea's quite rough at the
moment and l'm finding it difficult to write! I usually get about two
hours'free time a day, and I often write letters or read a book (or I
sometimes don't do nhing at all - I just sleepl). l'm reading a book
about the history of Greenpeace at the moment. Greenpeace workers
come from all over the world, but, fortunately, everybody on this ship
speaks English ... '
Things happening now oR things happening repeatedly?
We use the present continuous to talk about something that's in progress at the
moment of speaking.
I'm writing this letter in my cabin. I'm fnd.ing it difficult to write.
o We also use the present continuous to talk about a present activity or situation
that may not be in progress at the moment of speaking.
I'm reading a booh about Greenpeace at the moment. (Nor I read a book)
(Liz hasn't finished her book; she's still reading it, but not at this moment. At this
moment she's writing her letter.)
o We use the present simple to talk about repeated actions and regular situations.
We often use words like always, often, usually, sometimes, neuerwilh the present
simple. Qor always with the present continuous, see Unit 2, Step 4.)
I usually get two hours' free time a day. (Nor I'm getting)
I often write letters or reqd. I sometimes don't do anything at all.
o We also use it to talk about a situation or a general fact.
Euerybody on the ship speahs English. (ruor is speaking)
Greenpeoce uorkers come from all ouer the world.
.-..K
QUESTIONS
Step 2
Choose the correct verb form.

1 Liz (writes/is writing) a letter.
2 In her free time she (reads/is reading) a lot.
3 Greenpeace workers (come/are coming) from all over the world.
Temporary situations oR more permanent situations?

... At the moment, l'm,working:w-ith Thor Sve'Rsen,'a Norwegian
rnarine bilog,ist, We;retaki'ngwter,sarnples and,,anfysingthem, Thor
works at Oslo University, but he's working for Greenpeace for a year ...'
1
We use the present continuous to talk about
temporary actions or situations.
At the moment, I'm u;orking with Thor Suensen.

(Liz will probably have a different job on the ship soon.)
13
II.IICK QUESTIANS
we use the present simple to talk about more permanent situations. compare:
Thor uorhs at oslo uniuersity. (present simple) (fhat's his permanent job.)
He's utorhing for Greenpeace for a year. (present continuous)
(This is a temporary job, for only a year.)
Answer the questions.

I What's Thor's permanent job? He ... at Oslo University.
2 What's Liz's present job on the ship? She ... Thor Svensen.
the continuous
' ... I think this is the best job l've ever had. I want to do it for another
year. I like the people on the ship and I know we're doing a useful job. I
love life at sea. l'm looking really healthy. The ship has very little fresh
water and l'm being extravugunt at the moment - washin three times
a day! l'd like a shower, but the ship doesn't have showers. But l'm
having a great time. l'll f inish my letter now because I don't feel very
well.Theship,srollingalot'lnfact,l,mfeelingabitsick.l,mthinkingof
you. Love, Liz.'
Some verbs describe a state (a situation that stays the same) and not an action.
don't normally use these verbs in the continuous form: belieue, belong, contain,
exist, forget, hate, hear, know, like, loue, mean, need, own, prefer, reolise, remember,
seem, suppose, understand, want.
I uant to stay for anotheryear. (Nor I'm wanting)
I lhe the people. (Nor I'm liking the people.)
I hnou we're doing a useful job. (Nor I'm knowing)
We
o Some verbs (rlnft , haue, be, see, smell, taste) can describe a state or an action.
When the verb is an action we can use the continuous form.
I thinh this is a great job.0 think
=I
believe
=a
state)
I'm thinhing of you. (fhoughts of you are going through my mind. = an action)
The ship doesn't haae showers. (= a state. Nor isn't having)
I'm haaing a great time. (= an action. I'm doing a lot of great things.)
I'm extrauagant. (= astate, describing the person's character.)
I'm being extraagant. (= an action. I'm doing an extravagant thing.)
o The verbs look (= someone's
appearanc e), feel (= sensation s), hurt can be used in
the simple or the continuous form. The meaning is the same.

I'm loohingreally healthy. (on I look really healthy.)
I don't feel well at the moment. (on I'm not feeling well.)
(-HtcK. oL)r!T|rlN\
A^t5\/,/ER5 fA
(.TIFLK QUFST!CN5
T, ) AAID J
14
Complete the sentences.

I Liz (know) she's doing a useful job.
2 The ship (not have) a lot of fresh water.
3 Liz (feel) a bit sick at the moment.
1
2
1 is writlng 2 reads 3 come

1 He works at Oslo university. 2 She's working
with Thor Svensen.
knows 2 doesn't have 3 feels/is feeling
'What are you doing for your birthday, Jake?'

'l'm having a party on a boat on the Thames. About fifty people are
coming. My father, who lives in Germany, is coming over specially for
the party. The boat company's providing the food, and everybody's
bringing their own drink. l'm not having a disco. I prefer live music, so
we're having a reggae band on the boat.'
The present continuous for arrangements for the future
o We use the present continuous to talk about things that we've already arranged
to do in the future. We don't use the present simple here.
What are you doing for your birthday? (Nor What do you do for your birthday?)
I'm haaing a party on a boat on the Thames. (Nor I have)
I'm not haoing a disco. (xor I don't have a disco.)
o lt's possible to use be going fo here. We could say:
What are you going to do for your birthday?
I'm going to haue a party on a boat on the Thames.
sut be going fo suggests an intention more than an arrangement.
(For the use of e going to see Unit 15.)
CHECK QUESTIONS
Look at the text. Complete the questions.

I How many... ? About fifty. 2 Who ... ? The boat company.
3 ... you ...? No, I prefer live music.
The present simple for programmes and timetables

This is the timetable for Jake's party:
'The boat leaves Henley at 8 p.m. Then we go down river to Sonning.
We stop there for an hour. Then, at 10.30, the boat turns round and
comes back to Henley. We get back at about midnight.'
We often use the present simple when we talk about a programme of future
events or a timetable. The time is often given.
The boat leaaes at I p.m. We get bach to Henley ot about midnight.
CHfCK QTJESTIONS
ANSWERS TO
CHECK QUESTIONS
7 AND2
Complete the questions.

1 What time ... the boat ... Henley? About eight o'clock.
2 What time ... it ... to Sonning? At 9.30. 3 When ... they... to Henley? At about
'l
1 How many people are coming? 2 Who's

providing the food? 3 Are you having a disco?
12.
1 What time does the boat leave Henley?

2 What time does it get to Sonning? 3 When
do they get (back) to Henley?
Ruben'Kleinsteuber,:(62) f rom Cleve!nd,,Ohio, was n,a Med iterra nea n

cruise. His wife wasnrt with him. She was back"home in the States.,His
children weren't with hm either. They were too old to go on holiday
with their father and they weren't interested in Mediterranean cruises.
Past simple of the verb be
We use the past simple of the verb to be to talk about a past situation.
Ruben u)as on a Mediterranean cruise.
His children u)eren't uith him.
We form the affirmative

I
was
with uas oy were.
we were
you were
you were
he/she/it was they were
o
o
CHE{K AUESTIONS
His wife uas back home in the States.

His two children u)ere too old to go on holiday with him.
We form the negative wilh wasn't (was not) or weren't (were not).
His wife u:esn't with him.
His children useren't interested in Mediterranean cruises.
We form questions and short answers like this:
Was he on his own? Yes, he uas.
Were his children with him? No, they ueren't.
Complete these questions and answers, using uas,/roasn't, roere/weren't.
1 ... Ruben on a Caribbean cruise? No, ...

2 Where ... he from? He ... from Cleveland,
...
his two children with him? No,
Past simple
Ohio.
...
of regular and irregular verbs
Last Monday Mr Kleinsteuber's ship arrived in Mallorca. He decided to

visit the town of Palma. But he didn't want to go sight-seeing with the
other passengers. They always visited churcheiand museums. He didn't
.r,r,.r'"r. so he stopp"J"iu "i uno th"n went-to a
he
ate a large paella and drank several glasses of
There
restaurant.
at his watch, he saw that it was already 3.55 p.m.
When
he
looked
wine.
He didn't have much time. He only had five minutes! He ran back to the
port and got there at 4.02 p.m. His ship was already three m.etres from.
lik;H;;L
if'e qr"y. He tried to jump aboard, but he didn't reach the ship' He fell
into thewater below. 'Why did you do that?' a man on the quay said.
'That wasn't your ship. Yor ship's over there!'
That evening tfre otnlr prir"ng"* asked him, 'Why didn't you come
with us to the cathedral this afternoon? Where did you go?' Mr
Kleinsteuber replied, 'Oh, Ijust went for a swim.'
We use the past simple of regular and irregular verbs to talk about something
that happened and finished in the past, a completed action. We usually say or know
when the action happened. The moment in the past is clearly defined.
Last Monday Ruben's ship arriaed in Mallorca.
He got there at 4.02 p.m.
o Often we don't need to say when something happened.
It is understood.
He uent to a restaurant instead.
(We know that this happened in the past when he was in Palma.)
We also use the past simple to describe:

something that happened regularly or continually in the past.
They
aluays aisited
churches and museums.
situation that existed in the past over a period of time, not just at one fixed moment.
He didn't lihe looking at old churches.
Which sentences refer to the past?
I
2
3
4
Ruben goes on a cruise every year.

Last year he went on a Caribbean cruise.
He enjoyed it.
His wife doesn't like cruises.
simple
o We form the past simple of most regular verbs by adding -ed to the infinitive. It is
the same for all persons.
look He looked
visit
They visited
o Note the spelling changes:

like liked
try tried
stop stopped
(See also Appendix 3.)

The -ed ending can be pronounced in three different ways:
[id] a{ter the sounds [d] and [t]
decided
uisited
It] after unvoiced sounds (except It])
looked
qsked
after
voiced
sounds (except Id])
Id]
qrriued tried
o Many common verbs are irregular. We don't form the past simple with -ed. (A full
table of irregular verbs is on page 317.)
He went to a restaurqnf. (irregular verb go)
There he ate a large paella. (irregular verb eaf)
He drank a lot of wine. (irregular verb drink)
llas,oNs
e past simple of these verbs, and how do you pronounce the final
wait 2 stop 3 move 4 want 5 watch 6 reply
What is
1
What is the past simple form of these verbs?

7
get 8 come t have
10
say
-ed?
Step 4
The past
negative
We form the negative of the past simple with didn't (did
not) + the infinitive
without fo.
CHECK QUESTI)NS 4
Step 5
Affirmative
Negative
He
He
He
He
He
He
He
He
liked
reached
had
went
d.idn't like old churclres. (Nor didn't liked)

d.idn't reqch the ship. (Nor didn't reached)
d.id.n't hoae much fme. (Nor didn't had)
d.idn't go with the others. (Nor didn't went)
Make these sentences negative.

I Ruben's family came on the cruise with him.
2 Ruben liked sight-seeing.
3 The other passengers went to the restaurant.
4 Ruben missed his boat.
questions and shrt answers
The past
We form questions in the past simple with dd or didn't + the

We form short answers with did or didn't.
Did Ruben go to the cothedral? No, he didn't.
infinitive without fo.
(Nor Did Ruben went to the cathedral?)
Did he fctll into the water? Yes, he did.

Where did you go2 Why did you do that? Why didn't you come with
CHTC,( QUE.STION.S 5
ANSWIRS TA
CHECK QUESIIONS
1,2,3,1 AND 5
What questions give these answers?

I What ... ? He ate a large paella.
2 How much ... ? He drank several glasses of wine.
3 When ... ? He left the restaurant at 3.55 p.m.
4 What time... ? He got to the port at 4.02 p.m.
Was No,
he
wasn't.
was was
3 Were
No, they weren't.

2
3
2,3
waited
7 got
[idJ
[t]
ttl
2 stopped
3 moved [d]
5 watched
6 replied tdl
B came had 10 said
4 wanted
20
us?
[id]
1 Ruben's family didn't come on the cruise with

him. 2 Ruben didn't like sight-seeing. 3 The
other passengers didn't go to the restaurant.
4 Ruben didn't miss his boat.
1 What did he eat? 2 How much did he drink?
3 When did he leave the restaurant?
4 What time did he get to the port?
A detective
Detective:
interviewing MrsJane Garfield about a b'ank robbery.

What wer you doing at 10.30, at the time of the
robbery?
Mrs Garfield: I was walking along King Street.
Detective:
Were you going to the bank?
Mrs Garfield: No, I wasn't. lwas going to the post office: There were a
lot of other people in the street. They were just doing
their shopping, quite normally.
What were the robbers wearing?
Detective:
Mrs Garfield: They were both wearing jeans nd dark sweaters.
is
'
conti
uous
We use the past continuous to talk about something that started before a certain
time in the past and was still in progress at that time.
At 10.30 I u:as walhing olong King Street. I usas going to the post office.
o We often use the past continuous to describe a situation, to give the background
to a scene that happened in the past.
What uere they wearing? They uere wearing jeans.
People uere just doing their shopping, quite normally.
o We don't use the past continuous with verbs not normally used in t[e
continuous f.orm. (know, want, etc. See Unit 3, Step 3.)
o We don't normally use the past continuous to talk about a repeated action in the
past. (See used to, Unit 34.)
cHfc,(
Qt-/_s7loN5
Step 2
Which two actions were in progress near the bank at 10.30?
Forms of the past continuous
We form the past continuous
Affirmative
I
You
He
She
was
working
were working
was working
was working
It
was working
We were working
You were working
They were working
wilh wss/uere + the -ing form of the verb.
Negative
I
You
He
She
It
We
You
They
Questions
wasn't working
weren't working
wasn't working
wasn't working
wasn't working
weren't working
weren't working
weren't working
Were you working? Yes, I was./No, I wasn't.

Were they working? Yes, they were./No, they weren't.
CHECK QUESTIONS 2
Complete these sentences.

1 At 10.30 Mrs Garfield/not golto the bank.
Where/shelgo?
She/goltothepost office.
Was I working?
Were you working?
Was he working?
Was she working?
Was it working?
Were we working?
Were you working?
Were they working?
Step 3
The past continuous
oR,
the past simple?
Detective:
What were you doing when you saw them?
Mrs Garfield: I was standing outside the post office. I was looking in my
bag for my letters when I heard a shout. Then I saw them
run out of the bank.
Detective:
And what did you do when you saw them?
Mrs'Garfield: I just stopped. I didn't try to do anything, because one of
them was carrying a gun. They ran past me and jumped
into a car that was waiting near the bus-stop. People were
shouting and screaming. The manager rushed out of the
bank and ran towards the cal but it was too late. He
couldn't stop them.
The past continuous and the past simple don't mean the same. We use the past
continuous to talk about an action or a situation that was in progress. We use the
past simple to talk about a completed action.
People uere shouting and screaming. (past continuous)
(fhat was the situation before and after the robbers ran past Mrs Garfield.)
They ran post me and jumped into a car. (past simple)
(fwo completed actions that started and finished while she was watching.)
o We often use the past continuous and the past simple in the same sentence. The
action in the past simple is short and usually unexpected. It interrupts the 'longer'
action in the past continuous.
What were you doing when you saus them?
I uas standing outside the post office when I saw them.
I uas looking in my bag for my letters when I heard a shout.
They jumped into a car that u;as uaiting near the bus-stop.
o Note the difference:
a) Past continuous + past simple
What were you doing when you sau them?
I was standing outside the post office when I sqw them.
b) Past simple + past simple
What did you d.o when you squ them? When I squ; them I stopped.
In a) she saw them when she was 'in the middle of' standing outside the post office.
(One action 'inside' another.)
In b) she saw them and then, after that, she stopped. Cfwo separate actions.)
-!f(
OUESI/ONS 3
AiVSWFR.
IO
Complete the sentences with the past continuous or the past simple.
I I (walk) past the bank when the door suddenly (open).
2 While I (watch) they (throw) a bag of money into the car.
3 As they (drive) away, the manager (run) out of the bank.
4ECK QUESTIONS
'I )AND}
'1 Mrs Carfield was walking along King Street.

2 People were doing their shopping.
1 At 10.30 Mrs Carfield wasn't going to the
bank. 2 Where was she going? 3 She was

gong to the post office.
1 was walking opened 2 was watching
threw 3 were driving ran
Mick: You look miserable. What's the matter? Have you lost your job?
Dave: No, lhaven't.
Mick: Well, what's happened?
Dave: l've cut my finger.
Mick: You've cut youl fingerl ls that all?
Dave: lt's serious. I can't play the guitar. Our band's playing at a big concert
tomorrow night. And they've asked Rick to play instead of me.
The present perfect: the past and the present connected
The present perfect connects the past and the present. It refers to a past action,
but we're more interested in the present effects or results of the action.
I'oe cut my finger @ave cut his finger in the past, but it hurts now)
o We often use the present perfect to give people some new information or (in the
question form) to ask for information.
What's the mqtter? Haae you lost your job?
(Mick's first question shows that he's interested in the situation now. In his second
question he asks for information that will explain the present situation.)
They'oe oshed Rick to play instead of me.
Qt doesn't matter when the band asked Rick. Dave is only interested in the present
result - he can't play with the band.)
,siloNS
Step 2

1 Is Dave miserable because of his job? No, he hasn't ... job.
2 What's the problem with his finger? He ... it.
3 Can he play at the concert? No, they... Rick instead.
The forms of the present perfect
We form the present perfect wilh haue/has + the past participle.
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I've (have) started
I haven't started
Have I started?
You've started
You haven't started
Have you started?
He/she's (has) started He/she hasn't started Has he/she started?
We've started
We haven't started
Have we started?
They've started
They haven't started Have they started?
o Note the short answers: Have you started? Yes, I have./No, I haven't.
Has the film
-:.
aEST|ANS2
started? Yes, it has./No, it hasn't.
Which sentences have a verb in the present perfect?

I Dave's miserable. 2 Has he lost his job?
3 He's cut his finger. 4 His band's playing tomorrow.
',,5r/ER_S
rO
Q UE5rlO,ry5
1 AND2
1 No, he hasn't lost his job. 2 He's cut it.

3 No, they've asked Rick to play instead.
2,3
Lucy wants a job. She started looking for work
two months ago. She's

looked in the newspaper every day. She's visited the job centre in town
every week. But she hasn't found anything so far.
The present perfect: past time up to now
The present perfect connects the past and the present. We use it to talk about
what has happened (or hasn't happened) in the period up to the present.
She's (has) looked in the newspoper euery day.
(Lucy has done this during the last two months and today too.)
But she hasn't found anything so far.(so for = ug to now)
(She hasn't found a job in the two months up to today.)
:a<
OIIFSTANS
Step 2
Ask Lucy: What/you/do/so far? 2,3 Give her answers.
The present perfect
already, yet and iust
.De,a.frl:nd,,hasjustme't'Lucy,,!n,town.
Dee: Hi, Lucy. How are you? Have you found a job yet?
Lucy: No, not yet. l've written to four companies so far; but I haven't
,Dei:' ,livgjust,sen.qn advert inthe newsagnt's, The4li,.looking r,','

someone.
We use already with the present perfect to emphasise that the action has
happened before the moment of speaking.
We normally use it only in affirmative sentences and questions.
We usually put it between haue, as, etc. and the main verb.
I'ue already phoned them.
(Lucy emphasises that she's phoned them before now.)
o We use yef with the present perfect to say that something has not happened up
to noq but we expect it to happen some time in the future. We use it only in
questions and negative sentences. We put it at the end of the sentence.
Haue you found a job yet? I hauen't had any replies yet.
(Lucy expects to have some replies in the future.)
o We often usefus (= a very short time ago) with the present perfect.
We put it between haue, has, etc. and the main verb.
Dee has just met Lucy in town. (= a few moments ago)
I'ue just seen an aduert in the newsagent's.
Note: American English. Americans often usejust, already, yef with the simple past:
Dee just met Lucy in town. I already phoned them. Did you find a job yet? (See
Appendix
l.)

1 Has Lucy found a job? No, she ... one ...
2 Why doesn't Lucy contact the newsagent's? She's ... them.
3 How does Dee know about the job at the newsagent's? She ...
CHECK QUTS IONS 2
Step 3
The present perfect with eve4 never, before

The manager of the local newspaper is interviewing Lucy for a job.
Manager: Have you always lived in Billingham?

Yes, l've lived here all my life. I know the town very well.
Lucy:
Manager: Where have I seen you before? l'm sure l've seen you before
somewhere.
Lucy:
ii.OlUiv i, the
Red Lion in King Street. l've often worked
behind the bar there.

Manager: Ah, yes. I remember now. Er ... Have you ever worked on a
newspaper?
No. I've done a few part-time jobs so faL but l've never
worked on a newspaper.
Manager: Have you ever worked in an office?
Lucy: No. l've had jobs in shops and restaurants, but l've never
worked in an office before.
Manager: Have you travelled much? Have you ever lived abroad?
Lucy: Well, l've been abroad on holiday, but l've never lived
abroad.
Lucy:
We often use euerwith the present perfect to ask if something has happened at
any time up to the present. We normally use it only in questions.
Haue you eaer worked on a newspaper?
o We use neuerwith the present perfect to say that something hasn't happened at
any time up to the present.
We put euer and never betwe en haue, as, etc. and the main verb.
I'ue never liued abroad.
o We often use before (= before now) with the present perfect. We usually put it at
the end of the sentence.
I'ue seen you before. Where haue I seen you before?
Note: We sometimes se neuer and before in the same sentence.
I'ue neaer uorhed in an office before.
(HECK QUESTIONS
Has Lucy worked in an office?
2
3
A,rysr,liFR5
iO
( HE'K QU5TION5
1,2
28
AND
Add euerto this question.

Add before to the same question.
Answer the question usingneuer. No, she
1 What have you done so{ar? 2l've looked in

the newspaper every day. 3 l've visited the .iob
centre every week.
1 No,she hasn'tfoundoneyet. 2 She's
already phoned them. 3 She's just seen the
advert.
...
1 Has Lucy everworked in an office? 2 Has

Lucy worked in an office before? 3 No, she's
(has) never worked in an office.
Hardwick! an Amercan anthlopolgOiit from Los Ang9!es'5het

bee alt over the world. she's ben t Africa, shels been t South .
Shefs:
mer:ica and she's been to lndia., Now sh's gone torAustr-alia,
gone:to:livewithagroupof]Austr:alianbori9,inal'people.
Satly
She's
CTIE(K QUESIIONS
Step 2
Gone fo and been to don't mean the same'
gone to Austratia. B She's been to Africa'

(A Sally'sn't in LA now. She's in, or on the way to' Australia')
in Sn""ittt't in Africa now, but she went there in the past')
S/e's
Whichquestions(Where'sSatlygone?Where'sSallybeen?)givetheseanswers?
t To Soth America and India. 2 To Australia'
Words and phrases often used with
tht ptttglt
!9at
Sally,sboyf'riendhasonly.seen'herfortwomonthsthisyear.She,s.
this ''
;riia i rr* on." this"month. She's tried to phone him four times
,,
ce
today.
twf
him
*t, Uri f," f,rn;i answered. She,slrled to phone
this euening' this weeh'
We often use the present perfect wilh" today, this morning'
of speaking'
moment
the
at
completed
this year,etc. when in"r" p"iiods aren't
Iie's only seen her for

She's
CHECK QI.)E'IIONS 2
Step 3
tried
tio
months this year' (Ihe year isn tlinished')
to phone him twice today'
(Ioday isn't finished')
Complete these questions.

1 Hw many tims (she/write) to him this month?
2 How many times (she/phone) him today?
It's the f irst time ... /the best
in Western Ausiralia. lt's the firsttime shefsrlived in.a $9sert.

r,sn't ,.ri'nd in this:region fofiveyears' lt'S the longst drouoht
Satlyr5
ii
+ the present Perfect
o*
they,ve ever had. Sallyls eting with som:abriginals,itlsthe

r.ang.iot*eat::rtls the belt meat sherl ever
fit time
tarrud,
il;'t ;;*.
is the first
we use the present perfect (Nor the simple present) afler lt's/This
superlatives'
after
often
(second, third, elc.) time ... and
'
CHCK QUFSI/ONs 3
ANSWERS TO
CHECK QUISTIONS
1,2 AND )
30
first time'she's liaed in a desert' (Nor she lives

drought they'ae eoer hqd
longest
the
It's
the
it? Yes, it's "'

1 Has she eaten kangaroo before? No, it's ... i|. 2 Does she like
1 1 Where's Sally been? 2 Where's Sally gone?

2 t has she written 2 has she Phoned
1 the first time she's eaten

she's ever tasted.
it
2 the best meat
1CI
Jenny Price is 16. She lives with her mother in Sidmouth
It's 6 p.m. on Thursday evening and veryone's asking:'Where's Jenny?'
She left school at 4 olclock, but she hasn't come home. She hasn't
phoned her mother. She hasn't left a note. None of her friends have
seen her since 4 o'clock. Shels dsappeared.
What happened before 4 o'clock this afternoon? Jenny was at school all
day. she dldn't go str:aight home after school. At five past fo-ur she .
bolght some sweets atlhe corner shop. Then she said goodbye to her
f riends.
Step
The difference between the past simple and the present perfect
We use the past simple to talk about an event or a situation that happened at a
particular time in the past, which is now {inished.
She left school at 4 o'clock.
(fhis is a finished action that happened at a particular time.)

J"rry *r" at school all day. (She isn't there now because school
is finished.)
We use the present perfect when we're more interested in the present results or
ef{ects of a past action. The action is unfinished at the time of speaking.
She hasn't come home. (She isn't at home now.)
She's disappeared. (Ihat's the present situation.)
CHECK AUESTIONS
Step 2
Look at these two sentences.

Present perfect AJenny has had the same boyfriend for six months'
Past simple: B Jenny had the same boyfriend for six months.
1 Does A mean she has the same boyfriend now?
2 Does A mean she doesn't go out with him now?
3 Does B mean she has the same boyfriend now?
4 Does B mean she doesn't go out with him now?
Time words often used with the past simple

Jeny3 parents came to live in Sidmouth 18 years ago' Jen4y was bofn
two iears later. Her,father teft home ryhqn Jenny was twelvq.'He went
to livewitf! aother woman. For thq nexttwo years Jennr:9.,m9hef was
very poor, The Jenny's'grandfather died'and leftthem a lot of 6oney.
They bought a new hous, ltwas l'enny's 16th birthday last Tusday, Her
'rr,
., ' ':
GCsEexamsstartedyesterday. ' ,'
In sentences with the past simple there is often a word, phrase or clause that
tells us when the action happened or when a situation existed.
Jenny's parents came to Sidmouth 18 years ago.
Her father left home when Jenny uas tuele.

For the next two years Jenny's mother was ery poor.
Her GCSE exams storted yesterday.
We use the past simple (not the present perfect) after the question word When?.
When did Jenny's father leaae home? (;tast simple)
Nor When has Jenny's father left home? (present perfect)
o When the time that the action happened is understood, we can use the past
simple without time words and phrases
He uent to liue with another woman.
@e understand that this happened immediately after he left home.)
They bought a new house.
(Me understand that this was soon after the grandfather died.)
.K
OUESTIANS 2
Which words, phrases or clauses answer the question When? in these sentences.
2
3
4
Step 3
Jenny's parents moved to Sidmouth when they got married.

They were happy at first.
Her father lost his job in 1990.
Jenny met her first boyfriend last year.
Time words often used with the present perfect

It's now 24 hours after Jenny's disappearance. Detective lnspector Green
has come to Sidmouth to investigate. There's been no news of Jenny
today. Her mother hasn't seen her since y.esterday morning. lnspector
Green has already spoken to her mother. He's just checked all the local
hospitals. But he hasn't spoken to Jenny's teachers yet. They've known
Jenny for five years. The.lnspector still hasnt discovered why Jenny.has
disappeared.
o In sentences
with the present perfect there's often a word or a phrase which

shows that the action or situation is a present one, or which connects the present
situation with the past. These are the most common:
today this morning, week, elc. just still yet already recently since
There's been no news of Jenny today.
Her mother hosn't seen her since yesterday morning.
Inspector Green has already spoken to her mother.
QUESTIONS 3
What is the word in these sentences that often goes with the present perfect?
1 He's just checked all the local hospitals.
2 He hasn't spoken to Jenny's teachers yet.
3 He still hasn't discovered why Jenny has disappeared.
Step 4
Time words used with the past simple or the present perfect
lnspector:GreenwenttoJenny,shome.Hewasthereforanhour.Now
he's at her school. He's been there for two hours. Jenny's headteacher
introduced him: 'The police have come to school this morning to ask
you about Jenny Price.'
After school, one of the students told his parents: 'The police came to
school this morning. They think Jenny Price has been kidnapped.'
t,,
We can use time words and phrases (for two hours, this morning, etc.) with the
past simple and the present perfect.
Past simple: He was at Jenny's home for qn hour.
(FIis visit, which lasted an hour, is now finished.)
Present perfect: He's been at the school for tuo hours.
(His visit to the school is not finished. After two hours he's still there.)
Present perfect: 'The police hqae come to school this morning to ask you obout
Jenny Price. ' (Ihe morning isn't finished.)

Past simple: 'The police came to school this
morning.'
(fhe morning is finished. It's now evening.)
We can also use these words and phrases with either the present perfect or the
past simple:
all morning all afternoon all euening all year all his life
this afternoon this euening this year
today tonight
for two hours, for three weeks, for ten years, eLc.
CHECK OUESIONS 4

1 Jenny's mother didn't sleep all night; she was so worried. Is the night finished
2
3
4
now?
She slept for an hour this morning. Is it the morning now?
She has waited by the telephone all day. Is it still today?
'l haven't seen the newspaper this evening. Is there any news of
Jenny?' Is it the
evening now?
ANSWERS TO
CHECK Qi.JESTIONS
1,2,]AND4
34
1
2
1Yes.2No.3No.4Yes.
1 when they
4 last year
got married 2 at first 3 in 1990
3 fiust 2yet
4 1Yes.2No.
3 still
3 Yes. 4 Yes.
The rock band Avalon are giving a concert in London' People are
queueing to get tickets. A reporter's talking to a man i the queue:
'How long have you been standing here?'
'i\,;t";;";i; ;ilo r,rii's"ome people have been queueins all

day. That girlove-r:there has been
waiting since 6 o'clockthis morning!'
Actions that continue into the present

we use the present perfect continuous to talk about an action that started in the
past, that has continued over a period of time and is still continuing now.
NOW
PAST
l....-........''.'........'......'.....l....'........'....'.>
i'ue been u)aiting for tuso hours.
(FIe
arrived two hours ago and he's still waiting now)
We often use the present perf ect continuous with for and since f"o say how Iong
an action has been haPPening.

Note: We don't use the present continuous here.
I'ue been waiting for ttoo hours. (Nor I'm waiting for two hours')
She's been waiting since 6 q.m. (Nor She's waiting since 6 a'm')
(For the uses of for, since see Unit 85')
(HECK AUESIONS
Step 2

1 Some people came early this morning, so they/wait/all day'
2 One girl said: 'l/queue/6 o'clock this morning.'
The forms of the present perfect continuous

Negative
I haven't been working
You haven't been working
He hasn't been working
She hasn't been working
It hasn't been working
It's been working
We haven't been working
We've been working
You've been working You haven't been working
They've been working They haven't been working
o We form the present perfect continuous wllh haue/has
a Been is usually pronounced /bin/.
Affrrmative
I've been working
You've been working
He's been working
She's been working
(HFCK OUESTIONS 2
Questions
Have I been working?
Have you been working?
Has he been working?
Has she been working?
Has it been working?
Have we been working?
Have you been working?
Have they been working?
+ been +
Put the sentences a) into the negative b) into the question form'
I They've been queueing.
2 He's been waiting.
-ing'
Step 3
Actions repeated over a period of time

Th reporterfs.talking,to-a youngWgman in the
'Have you ever seen Avalon in ioncert?'
;o,
queuqi ,' ' :
'havent I'veibeen tryin to get into,onelof theiiconcerts for':','
years. l've been buying their albums for a long time. ln fact, l've been
listening to their music sincel was.15.'
., ,.
We use the present perfect continuous to talk about repeated actions which have
continued over a period of time up to now.
PAST
1991
I
1993 1994 1995

rtll
NOW
I'oe been buying their qlbums for a long time.

I'ae been trying to get into one of their concerts for years.
. HEC( OUESI/ONS
Complete the answers.

1 Has she often tried to see them in concert? Yes ... for years.
2 Has she often bought their albums? Yes, ... for a long time.
3 Has she often listened to their music? Yes, ... since she was
15.
Actions that have just stopped

The reporter has arrived back at the office. His editor:'s talking to him. '.,
'What have you been doing?'
'l've been standing in the rain for the last hour. l've been talking to
some of the people in the queue for the Avalon concert.'
We also use the present perfect continuous to talk about an action which started
in the past, which continued over a period, and which has just stopped.
'1
hour
rll
ago
NOW
I'oe been standing in the rain for the last hour.

ftle isn't standing in the rain now. He's just come back to the office.)
Note: We don't use the present perfect continuous with verbs that aren't normally
used in the continuous form. (See Unit 2.)
(For the difference between the present perfect continuous and the present perfect
simple, see Unit 12.)

. \
QUESTIONS 4
2
ANSWERS TO
,|
-.aK QUESTIONS
1,2,34ND4
Was the reporter standing in the rain a short time ago?

Is he talking to the people in the queue now?
1 ... so they've been waiting all day. 2l've

been queueing since 6 o'clock this morning.
1a) They haven't been queueing. b) Have
they been queueing? 2a) He hasn't been
waiting. b) Has he been waiting?
1 Yes, she's been trying to see them for years.

2 Yes, she's been buying their albums for a long
time. 3 Yes, she's been listening to their music
since she was 15.
1 Yes. 2 No.
37
12
MandyBatistv.hasbe:enil.e/nng.bei..apartrnen..th's;nor.nigr.Sofar
shels',eleaned:the kitchn and shers'd;6the"bi,throm:...jn asn1t done
the bedroom or the living room yet.
Actions over a period of time on completed actions?
o We use the present perfect continuous to talk about an activity over a period of
time. It doesn't matter if it's finished or not. (See Unit I l.)
Mandy hqs been cleaning her aportment this morning.
o we normally use the present perfect simple to talk about a completed action.
We're interested in the present result of the action. (See Unit 7.)
She's cleaned the kitchen.
is finished. It's clean now.)
She hqsn't done the bedroom.
(Ihe kitchen
(fhe bedroom isn't done.lt's still dirty.)

:saK
OUSIIOIV
Step 2
What has Mandy been doing?

What has she done so far?
Actions over a long period on actions over a shorter period?

Mandy works at NASA, the American Space Agency in Houston, Texas.
worked in the space industry, buithis is a new job and she,s
only been working at NASA for six weeks. She,s been trying to get a job
there for years. She's lived in Houston all her life, but a few days ago she
moved into a new apartment. She's only been living ther for iour-days.
She's always
:l
we can use both the present perfect continuous and the present perfect simple
(with verbs like work and liue) to talk about actions that started in the past andstill
continue now.
o But we normally use the present perfect simple for actions or situations that
continue over a long period.
always worhed in the space industry.

We normally use the present perfect continuous for actions or situations that
She's
continue over a shorter period.

She's been uorking at NASA for six weehs.
o Note that we can use the present perfect continuous for actions that continue
over a long period when we're talking about repeated actions.
She's been
-:a!,
QUESTTANS 2
I
2
trying
to get o job there
for years.
Has she lived in Houston for long? Yes, she ... all her life.
Has she lived in the apartment for very long? No, she ... only ... four days.
Step 3
How long oR How many?

For hundreds of years peo-ple have asked the question, 'Are we alone in
the universe?i For the last few weeks NASA has been receiving reports
from the American publ,ic about strange objects in theisky. They've
received several letiers from a man in r,izona and Mandy has talked to
him twice on the phone. He says that a spacecraft has \anded three
timesnearhishome,andthathe,smetatman,fromouterspacet
We can use both the present perfect simple and the present perfect continuous
to say how long something has been happening. (See Step 2.)
For hundreds of years people haae oshed the question.
For the last few weeks NASA has been receiaing reports.
But we must use the present perfect simple to say how many things we've done
or how many times something has happened.
They'ue receiaed seaeral letters from a man in Arizona.
A spacecraft ho,s landed. three times near his home.
auac QU.i/oN5 i
Step 4

I How many times/a spacecraft/land/near the man's home?
2 How lone/NASA/receive/reports about objects in the sky?
Verbs not used
the present perfect continuous
Mandy has been divorced for three years, and she hasn't had any contact
with her ex-husband for the last year. For the last month she's been
going out w th a nf lot She's known him since she started work at NASA
o Some verbs like be, haue (= possess), know, efc. (when
they describe a state, not
an action) aren't used in the present perfect continuous.

Mandy has been diaorced for three years. (Nor Mandy has been being divorced)
She hqsn't had any contact with her husband for the last year.
(r.lor She hasn't been having any contact)
She's knoun him since she started work qt NASA. (Nor She's been knowing him)
(For verbs which aren't normally used in the continuous form, see Unit 3, Step 3.)
LLI{CK OUTST!ol'}5 ,l
AtJ-Sl,4/tRs
iO

1 Mandy (be) at NASA for six weeks.
2 She (have) a new boyfriend for a month.
3 The pilot (know) her since she started work at NASA.
CIiE( K QUESTION:;
1, 2, .3 AND 4
1 She's been cleaning her apartment. 2 She's

cleaned the kitchen and she's done the
bathroom.
life.
2 No, she's
1 Yes, she's lived there all her
only been living there for four days.

1 How many times has a spacecraft landed
near the man's home? 2 How long has NASA

been receiving reports about obiects in the sky?
1 Mandy has been at NASA for six weeks.
2 She's had a new boyfriend for a month.
3 The pilot has known her since she started
work at NASA.
13
ln
the ltalian quarter of Los Angeles.

ltalian immigrant from Naples. He had come to the USA in
1992. He'd been in America for two years, but he hadn't learnt to speak
much English. During those two years he'd worked hard, and by 1994
he'd saved up enough money to go back to Naples for a holiday.
Oh'Jufy 151fi.[iis:pianerfeft tolAngels airport:ai, '2a30. fterinzo had
eten a lar,ge dinner and hqd drunk some wine, h,'fe,lllasleep.,
1994 Enzo Manzoni was living in
He was an
Uses of the past perfect
o If we're already talking about the past, we use the past perfect when we want to
talk about an earlier past.
Enzo had come to the USA in 1992.
(We're talking about the past - 1994. So we use the past perfect to talk about
what happened in an earlier past - 1992.)
o When something happened in the past before another thing, we use the past
perfect for the first action and usually the past simple for the second action.
(lst action)
(2nd action)
After he'd eaten a large dinner, he fell asleep.
CHICK QUESTIONS
Which thing happened first? Which thing happened after at? Write (lst) and
(2nO.
I
2
3
Step 2
He'd emigrated to Los Angeles. ... He worked hard. ...

He decided to go to Naples. ... He'd saved up enough money.
He fell asleep. ... He'dlad a big meal. ...
The forms of the past perfect
We form the past perfect with had + a past
Affirmative
I'd (had) started
You'd started
He'd started
She'd started
It'd started
We'd started
You'd started
participle.
Negative
I hadn't (had not) started
You hadn't started
He hadn't started
She hadn't started
It hadn't started
We hadn't started
You hadn't started
They hadn't started
They'd started
Had Enzo come from Naples ? Yes, he had.
Had he learnt English ? No, he hadn't.
CHECK AULSTIONS 2
...
Put the verbs into the past perfect.

1 How long (live) Enzo in America?
2 He (not make) many friends in Los Angeles.
3 He (want) to go back to Naples for a long time.
Questions
Had I started?
Had you started?
Had he started?
Had she started?
Had it started?
Had we started?
Had you started?
Had they started?
Step 3
The past perfect or the past simple?

Enzo woke up when his plane landed. When he looked at his watch, he
ws'surprised.'The flight hadnlt tkeh very lng. When'held been
through customs, he came out of the terminal. He was surprised no-one
had come to meet him. After he'd waited for a bit, he took a bus into
the city. He was a\azed when he saw how much NaOtel had changed.
When one action is an immediate reaction to another, or when the two actions
are almost simultaneous, we use the past simple for both actions.
Past simple
+
Past simple
When he looked at his wqtch,
he was surprised.
But when it is clear that the first action was completed before the second
started, we often use the past perfect.
Past perfect
+
Past simple
After he'd waited for a bit,
he took a bus.
o Note the difference'. Enzo woke up when his plane land.ed..
(Enzo woke up at the same time that the plane landed.)

Enzo woke up when the plane hod landed.
(Ihe plane landed, and after that Enzo woke up.)
CHCK QUESTIONS 3
In which sentence was one action completed before another started?

I He went back to Naples as soon as he'd saved enough money.
2 By the time the bus arrived in the city, he was very confused.
3 He was amazed when he saw how different Naples was.
perfect continuous
Enzo sat down on a bench. After he'd been sitting there for a few
minutes, he asked a policeman where he was. 'New York, of coursel'
He hurried back to the airport. When he arrived, the airline had been
calling his name for the last 20 minutes. They'd been looking for him
everywhere. But they hadn't found him, so the plane had left for
Naples. lt had only stopped in New York to pick up more passengers!
We use the past perfect continuous if we want to emphasise that something had
been in progress continuously up to a certain time in the past.
The airline had been calling his name for the last 20 minutes.
(Ihis had continued during the 20 minutes before he arrived.)
o We form the past perfect continuous wilh had/hadn't been * an -rng form.
Affirmative: He'd (He had) been waiting
Negative: He hadn't been waiting Questions: Had he been waiting?
.i1TCK QUESTIONS
AA/sWRs TO
.HEC.K QUESTIONS
T,2,}AND1
Complete the sentences with the past perfect continuous or the simpte past.
I Enzo (live) in Los Angeles for two years when he (decide) to go back to Naples.
2 On the plane Enzo (eat) for an hour when he (fall) asleep.
3 Enzo (not sit) on the bench for long, when he (see) a policeman.
1 11st 2nd 22nd 1st 32nd 1st

2 t had Enzo lived 2 He hadn't made 3 He'd
wanted
Sentence 1
t had been
fell
living decided 2 had been eating

3 hadn'tbeensitting saw
43
14
Jan and Mike want
to go to Eurodisney. They're trying to decide when
to go.
Mike: I think it'l[ be better in October. The hotels will be cheaper then.
There won't be as many people. In July we'll probably have to
queue for hours to go on the rides. We shan't have time to see
Jan:
everything.
but the weather won't be as good in October. lt'll probably
rain all the time, and it'll be cold. We'll have to take winter
clothes.
Yes,
Will, won't, shall, shan't for simple predictions

o
We use will
or won'twhen we make simple predictions about future actions or
situations.
The hotels will be cheaper in October.
But the ueather u)on't be as good.
o Alter l and rue, we can use oil/ or sholl in affirmative sentences. But we normally
use the short forms Q'll, we'lt).
We'll haue to take winter clothes.
(= We shall have to/We will have to)
In negative sentences, after l and we, we can use uon't o shan't. Won't is more
common.
We uon't haue time to see euerything.
= We shqn't haue time to see euerything.
o Weoftenusel(don'f)
thinh, I(don't)expect, I'msure, I'mafraidandprobably,
definitely, perhaps, etc. with will and won't.

I think it'll be better. We'll probably haue to gueue for hours.
:1TCK QUESTIONS
Step 2

1 Jan prefers July, because she thinks the weather ... be better.
2 Mike prefers October, because they... have to pay as much for a hotel.
3 Jan says: 'July will be bette because we ... need to take winter clothes.'
Shall l?/Shall we? for offers and suggestions

what shall we do? Shall we go in October?
No, letrs go in July. I know it'l[ be more crowded then,.but l'm sure
the weather will be better.
Mike: OK. Shall I book the tickets?
, Mike: So;
Jan:
o In questions, we use Shell l/Shall we (and not wilt) when we make suggestions
or
offers:
Shqll we go in October? Shall I book the tickets?
o and when we ask for suggestions.

What
shall
we do?
45
CHECK QUTSilONS 2
Step 3

1 Jan asks Mike to suggest a date for their trip. 'When ....go?'
2 Mike offers to go to the travel agent's. '.... to the travel agent's?'
Will for intentions (sudden decisions and requests)

at Eurodisney. Jan's trying to persuade Mike to
go on the Big Thunder Mountain ride, but Mike won't go. He's sure the
ride will make him sick.
)an: Come on! You'll be all right. l'll sit next to you. l'll hold your hand,
Jan and Mike are now
lpromsel
Mike: No, l've told you. I won't come. l'll just sit here and watch.
Jan: Oh, OK. Willyou hold my camera ? Willyou take a photo of
me?
,.
Mike: Yes, sure.
Jan: And afterwards we'll
have a drink at the Last Chance Caf, and l'll
tell you all about it.
We can use will/won'f when we talk about something we decide to do or not to do

at the moment of speaking.
I'll sit next to you.
We'll haue e drink ot the Last Chance Caf.
CT{ECK QUESf IONS 3
We use 11to make arequest.
WilI you hold my camera? WilI you tahe a photo of me?

We use won'twhenwe refuse to do something.
I won't come.
Mike won't go on the BigThunder Mountain ride.
Jan and Mike are in the Last Chance Caf after Jan's ride. Complete their
conversation.
I What will you have to drink, Jan? I ... anything, thanks. I feel
2 What about you, Mike? I think ... a coffee.
3 Jan, are you all risht? No. I think... to the toilet.
A,VWFRS
IO
CIlECK QUESTIANS
1, 2 AND .)
46
'l
2
3
'1
will be 2 won't 3 won't/shan't
'1
shall
won't have 2 I'll have 3 l'll go
we
2 Shall I go
bit sick.
Joe:
Hi! What are you going to do today?

Daniel: l'm going to go for a bike ride.
Daniel: Princetown. I was going to ride to Bovey, but itt too far.
Joe: l'll come with you, if you like, and l,ll bring some sandwiches.
Decisions
futu re
We use be going to + infinitive (and not wilt) lo talk about future actions we've
already decided on.
I'm going to go for a bike ride. (A decision he made before the phone call.)
What are you going to do? (= What are your plans?)
o_ We use ucs/were
going to + infinitive to talk about intentions or plans we had in

the past (but we've now changed our plans).
I utas going to ride to Bouey, but ... (rhat was his intention, but it isn't now.)
o In contrast, we generally use will (Not goine fo) when we decide to do something
at the moment of speaking. (See Unit 14.)
I'll come with you, if you tike. (fhis wasn't Joe's intention before he phoned.)
CI.lfCK OU6I/OAJS
,,
to/will in your answers.

what does Daniel intend to do today? 2 where has he decided to
3 But what was his first intention?
Use going
4 They
Step 2
go?
decide to take some food. What does Joe say?
Predicting future events:
will or going to?
Daniel's looking at the weather forecast in the newspaper.

'lt will be fine at first, but rain will spread from the west to all areas by
late morning. The westerly wind will become fresh to strong. The
temperature will fallto 8" this afternoon., Now he,s phoning Joe.
Daniel: The weather forecast,s awful. tt,s going t;,='i, ;;; ,, g;ing ao
be very windy. lt won,t be much fun on the road.
Joe: Well, what shallwe do?
Dan el: Eat our sandwiches in the kitchen, l suppose!
j
We normally use will,/won't for simple predictions. (See Unit 14.)

Rain usill spreqd from the west. It uton,t be much fun.
o But we use gorng fo (Nor wilt) tor predictions about the future when there's
present evidence of a future event.
It's going to rain. It's gong to be uery windy
(Ihe weather forecast he's looking at tells him this.)
CHI:CK QUESTIONS 2
A,rysWf /ts Io
(IiECK QUESTIONS
1 AND2
what does the forecast tell Daniel about this afternoon's temperature?
'1 He's going to go for a bike

ride. 2 He's going
to go to Princetown. 3 He was going to ride t
Bovey. 4 "l'll bring some sandwiches.,,
1 lt (The temperature) is going to fall (io B"
It's Saturday morning. Andy's phoning Anna
to ask if shelsfree this
evenrng.
'
Andy: icould come round at about 7.30.
- .at
Ann: No, sorry. !,ll be playing volleyball at 7.30, My match starts 7.15.
Andy: How about 9 o'clock?
Rnn: 'No, l'[l be having a swim then, afterthe match' : . Andy: Ah, OK, I understand. Will you be seeing Alison today?.
;;, yei, l,lt'e seeing her at lunchtime. she lways eats at the same'
.
,l
'
pub as me on SaturdaYs. WhY?

Andy: Lun you ask her if she;s f ree this
wenilng?
.'
enn:Shewon,tbegoingoutthisevening.5helllbewtchingthe
Form and uses of the future continuous

Subject + will/uon't +
I'U
Affirmative:
Negative: She won't
Question: Witt You
be
be
-ing form of the verb

playine uolleyball.
be
be
going out.
going out?
We use the future continuous (wilt be/won't be + -ing) to say that something
We also use the future continuous to talk about things that will happen
will
be in progress at a certain time in the future'

I'tt be playing uolleYball at 7.30.
(She'll be in the middle of her game.)
I'll be haaing a swim at 9 o'clock.
(Anna will alieady be in the swimming pool at 9 o'clock')
a) because they're part of the normal routine:

be seeing her at lunchtime. She aluays eats at the same pub os me on
I;ll
Saturdays.
(Anna always sees Alison at lunchtime on Saturdays')
orb) because they've been Planned.

She'll be watching the football on teleuision.
(Alison decided to watch this football match some time ago')

Noie: We could also use the present continuous in b). (See Unit 4')
Sheb utatchng the football on teleuison thts euening.
Note: We can also use the future continuous in questions to ask about somebody's
plans because we want them to do something.
Will you be seeing Alison today?
(Andy asks this because he wants Anna to give Alison a message.)
CHECK OUESTIONS

1 What will Anna be doing aL7.45?
2 Will Alison be going out tonight?
What will she be doing?
Step 2
Form and uses of the future perfect

Andy's now phoning Fona to ask if she's free this evening.
Fiona: l'm sorry, Andy. l've got a lot of college work to do.
Andy: What time will you have finished?
Fiona: l'll have finished my work by 9, but my uncle will have arrived by
then. He's just come over from Australia. He won't have eaten
when he arrives, so we'll be having a late dinner. Sorry.
Affirmative:
Negative:
Question:
Subject + u;ill/uon't
I'U
He won't
Will you
+ hqae
haue
haue
haue
past participle of the verb

finished.
eaten.
finished?
We use the future perfect (will haue/won't haue + past participle) to talk about
something that hasn't happened yet, but that will be or won't be completed before
a certain time in the future.
I'll hoae finished my work by 9.
(by 9 = not later than 9 o'clock)
He uon't haae eaten when he arriues.
.HECK QTJESTIONS
Step 3
What will have happened at Fiona's by 9 o'clock? (Iwo things)
Another use of the future continuous and the f uture perfect

Andy,sstilltryingtoarrangesomethingfor:thisevening'
Andy: lthink l'll phone Lucy.
Friend: Don't phone her now, Andy.
Andy: Why not? She won't be in bed. She'll have got up by now.
Friend: I know, but it's Saturday morning. She'll be doing the shopping
.].,ir..
:.,.. .ri.
...,..i.
...r..i
We can also use the future continuous and the future perfect (and the simple
future) to talk about the present. We use them when we think that something is
probably happening at the moment or has probably happened by now.
She'll be doing the shopping norl. (future continuous)
She'll haae got up by now. (future perfect)
She uon't be in bed. (simple future)
-.K
QUsI/ONs 3
A,^/SWFRs
liCK
rO
QUISTIONS
1, 2 AND .]
1 Is Lucy in bed now? What does Andy think?

2 What's Lucy doing now? What does Andy's friend
1 She'll be playing volleyball. 2 No, she won't

3 She'll be watching the football on television.
'1 She'll have finished her work.
2 Her uncle
will have arrived.
think?
1 She
won't be in bed./She'll have got up by
now.
2 She'll be doing the shopping.
17
Lon don,,rMark ha d bee n
month ago. Yesteiday morning he had an
argument with a oman calln Mrs Dora Hind. The arEument was
heard by the dir,ector- gf iheriadj st.atian Mr Brian Hpkins.
'The
piogr,amme was,lmmeditely stpp.ed; ,Mr Wlsh,ws told to leave and
old Beatles records were played tbi tfre rest of the show.
The morning show on Radio-London is listened to by over 1 million
people. Mr Hopkins commented: 'Our listeners must be treated with
respect. Ivlrs Hind shouldn't have been insulted. Mr Walsh hasn't been
offer.ed his.i;ob,baick.,lf heldpologised,'hervoul:nlt'have been sacked.
An qW, D-J w! fl be cli:qsen'soo n an d,a' lette r . on. ap,olio gy i s be ing se nt t o
Mrs Hind.'
Mr Walsh'later agreed to be intervigrnrg.d by the_,Daily,ExBress, He told,
th-e reportqr:'i,I,h;ope;tob offered'a jb:b;y,noth'gy:rad;io;sl9tion. I was
sacte.d for,'rio ood,realo,n. l wasbeing'iiisulted by i!!y'woman. I was
called,totof tude names. 5o I insulted her:,back, Wbatlswrdngwith ,'
that?'
DJ Mak Wa lsh was iaCked,,yesterday..by'Radrio
given the job of
DJ a
s.
passrve
Forms
Radio London sached Mark Walshis an active sentence.

Mark Walsh was sacked by Radio London is a passive sentence.
The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
Subject+verb+object
London sacked
Passive: Mark Walsh was sacked by
Active:
Radio
Mark Walsh.
Radio London.
We form the passive with the verb be (is, was, has been, etc.) + a past participle
(heard, stopped, eic.)
Subject + verb + pastparticiple

The argument wos heard by the director.
The tense of the verb e changes to form the different tenses in the passive.
Present simple;
The show is listened to by 1 million people
Present continuous: A letter is being sent to Mrs Hind
Past simple:
The argument usas heqrd by the director.
Mr Walsh has not been offered his iob back.
Present perfect:
I usas being insulted by a silly uoman.
Past continuous:
He had been giaen the job a month ago.
Past perfect:
A new DJ uill be chosen soon.
Future:
-ECK QUESTIONS
Make the sentences passive.

I A lot of people listen to Mark Walsh's show.
2 Radio London have received a lot of complaints.
3 They won't allow Mark Walsh to work for them again.
4 A lot of people in Liverpool remember the Beatles.
Step 2
Passive infinitives
o Some verbs are followed by an infinitive, for example modal verbs (can, must,
should, will, would, etc.). When these verbs are used in a passive construction, we
use a passive infinitive (e + past participle).
Active: We must treat
our listeners with respect.

Passive; Our listeners must be treated with respect.
Note the past form of the passive infinitive (haue been + past participle).
Active: He shouldn't have insulted Mrs Hind.
Passive: Mrs Hind shouldn't haoe been insulted.
o We also use a passive infinitive construction after verbs llke want to, expect
lgree to, hope to, etc.
Mr Walsh agreed to be interaieued by the Daily Express.
I hope to be offered a job by another rqdio station.
CHECK OUESTIONS 2
Step 3
to,
Make passive sentences.

1 DJs mustn't insult their listeners.
2 I don't think they should have sacked Mark Walsh.
3 Mark doesn't expect that they'll give him his job back.
Main uses of the passive

o
We use the passive when the person or thing doing the action isn't important or
isn't known or is understood.

The programme wqs immediately stopped.
Qt isn't necessary to say who stopped the programme.)
Mr Walsh wqs told to leaue the studio.
@e understand that the director told him to leave.)
Old Beatles records uere played for the rest of the show.
(We don't know who played them, but it isn't important.)
A passive sentence is usually more formal than an active one. Compare:

We'll choose a new DJ soon. (Active. Informal comment)
A new DJ toill be chosen soon. (Passive. Formal statement)
The passive is very common in English, especially in news reports, signs and
notices, scientific and technical descriptions. In these contexts we're more
interested in the things that happen rather than what/who makes them happen.
o ln a passive construction we can mention the person or thing that does the
action (the agent) after the word y.
He was sacked by Radio London. He was being insulted by a silly uoman.
cHEC( OUISriONS
A or B: Which is better?
2
3
A,rySWERs
IO
CHLCK QUESTIONS
T, 2 AND .]
'1
A: They opened Radio London in 1994.

B: Radio London was opened in 1994.
A: They told Mr Walsh to apologise to Mrs Hind.
B: MrWalsh was told to apologise to Mrs Hind.
A: Mr Walsh will be paid until the end of the month.
B: They'll pay Mr Walsh until the end of the month.
'1
Mark Walsh's show
is listened
to by a lot of
people. 2 A lot of complaints have been

received by Radio London. 3 Mark Walsh
won't be allowed to work for them again. 4
The Beatles are remembered by a lot of people
in Liverpool.
1 Listeners mustn't be insulted by DJs. 2

don't think Mark Walsh should have been
sacked. 3 Mark doesn't expect to be given his
job back.
I
1B 2B 3A
18
Bill Marsh is too old to look after himself. He's in,an old people's home
called Merrif ield. A nurse has to feed him. He hates being fed. She tells
him he's very difficult. He doesn't like being criticised, so he gets angry.
She tells him to stop shouting, but he's tired of being told what to do.
He remembers being treated like this when he was a child.
Step
The passive -ingform
(-HFCK OUESTIONS
Step 2
We can use the -ingform of a verb in the passive. We use being + past participle.
He hates being fed.
(Active: He hates people feeding him.)
He's tired of being told what to do.
(Active: He's tired of people telling him what to do.)
He remembers being treated like this when he was a child.
(Active: He remembers people treating him like this.)

1 The nurses callhim'Billy'. He doesn't like ... 'Billy'.
2 They tell him he's difficult. He's tired of ... he's difficult.
3 A doctor examines him every month. He hates ...
Passive verb + infinitive
with fo
'Billis.saidtobediffi-cult,buthehadadifficuI.tchildhood.Hisparents
are thought to have died when he was 14. He went to work on a farm.
Hewasexpectedtogetupat5'30a.m.andtoworkfor.twelvehouri'
He was considered to be a good worker. But when he wasr16,,he was
found to have poliomyelitis, andihe's believed to have spent two years
in hospital.
We often use an infinitive (to haue) or a perfect infinitive (to hatte had) in passive
constructions with these verbs:
belieue consider expect fear feel find
intend know report say think understand

Passive: Bill's said to be difficult.
(Active; People say Bill is difficult.)
Passive: He was considered to be a good worker.
(Active: They considered he was a good worker.)
Passive: He's belieued to haae spent to yeors in hospital.
(Active: They believe he spent two years in hospital.)
Passive: His parents are thought to haae died when he was
(Active: They think his parents died when he was 14.)
14.
HF.CK
QUESTIONS 2
Step 3
Note the difference between the infinitive and the perfect infinitive. Compare:
When he was 16, he wcts found to haae poliomyelitis.
(= At the age of 16 he had poliomyelitis.)
When he was 16, he was found to haoe had potiomyelitis.
(At the age of 16 he didn't have poliomyelitis. He had it before he was 16.)

1 People know that Bill is very independent.
2 People say that Bill has no brothers or sisters.
3 People think that Bill had a difficult childhood.
It's said .../lt's known .../lt's reported... etc.

thought that there are over 1 million old people in Britain who can't
look after themselves. lt was reported that more than 200 old people
died of cold last winter. lt's feared that most of them died because they
had nobody to look after them. lt's often said that this is one of society's
biggest problems. lt's expected that more old people's homes will be
It's
We can use f + a passive verb + a hor clause to talk about what people in general
say or think or feel about a situation. It can be used with these verbs: agree,
announce, decide, expect, fear, feel, find, hope, intend, know, mention, regret, report,
say, suggest, think, understand.
It's thought (that) there are oDer I million old people.

over I million old people.)
It's often said. (that) this is one of society's biggest problems.
(= This is often said to be one of society's biggest problems.)
It was reported (that) more than 200 old people died of cold last winter.
(= More than 200 old people were reported to have died.)
(= There are thought to be
"E(K
QUESTIONS 3
Rewrite the sentences, usingft + a passive verb.

I People think that many old people die because no-one looks after them.
2 The authorities have announced that more old people's homes will be built.
3 People hope that the situation will improve.
supposed
Merrifield
is supposed to be a very good old people's home. The nurses

are supposed to be well-trained and kind. But Biil doesn't like them. tf
he gets out of bed at the wrong time, he's told: 'Billy, you're supposed
to be in bed.' When he watches a late night film, they say: 'Billy, you
aren't supposed to watch television after 10.30.'Bill often gets very
angry. 'This is supposed to be a home, not a prison!'
Be supposed tohas two different meanings. It can mean that something is the
general opinion of most people.
Merrifield is supposed. to be a good old people's home.
(= People say that Merrifield is a good old people's home.)
It can also mean that something should happen because it's the rule or because
it's been planned.
You're supposed to be in bed.
ou should be in bed because that's the rule.)
This is supposed to be a home, not a prison.
(Merrifield was intended to be a home, not a prison.)
o We use the negative form to say that something isn't allowed.
You qren't supposed to watch teleuision after 10.30.
(fhis isn't permitted.)

CHICK QUESTIONS
Rewrite the sentences, using be supposed to.

1 Bill has to get up at 6.30 a.m. - that's the rule.
2 Bill sometimes smokes, but srnoking isn't permitted.
3 People say the nurses at Merrifield are nice.
Step 5
He was given .../He's been offered ... , etc.

Last Thursday Bill was given a boiled egg for his breakfast. 'l've 9"9n .
given a boiled egg three times this week. You know I don't like boited
eggsl' He got very angry. He was promised some toast and m.armalade
if he was quiet. He just got angrier, so he was given an injection to calm
him down. The nurses refused to look after him any more, so he's been
offered a room at another home. He was shown his new room this
morning but he refuses to move.
When a verb has two objects (indirect and direct: see Unit 37) it's possible to
have two passive sentences.
(Active: They gave Bill a boiled egg.)

I Bill was giuen a boiled egg.
2 A boiled egg uas giuen to Bill.
But we normally make the person the subject, as in sentence l.
He was promised some toast and marmalade.
He's been offered q room at another home.
o we can use this construction with these verbs'. allow, giue, hand, lend, offer, owe,
pay, promise, sell, send, shou, teach, tell.
.Hf I ,( QUT! I/ON

I The authorities have sent Bill a letter saying he must leave.
2 They've offered Bill a better room at the new home.
3 They say they'll give him the kind of food he likes.
IO
ANSI,T/IRs
CHECK QUESTIONS
1,2 ,3,4
AND
I He doesn't like being called 'Billy'. 2 He's

tired of being told he's difficult. 3 He hates
be
being examined.
1 Bill is known to be very independent. 2 Bill is
said to have no brothers or sisters. 3 Bill is
thought to have had a difficult childhood.
1 lt's thought that many old people die because
no-one looks after them. 2 lt's been
announced that more old people's homes will
'1 Bill's
built.
3 lt's hoped that the situation will
improve.
supposed to get up at 6.30 a.m. 2 but
he isn't supposed to (smoke). 3 The nurses at
Merrifield are supposed to be nice.
1 Bill's (has) been sent a letter saying he must
leave. 2 Bill's been offered a better room at
the new home. 3 They say he'll be given the
kind of food he likes.
79
When,Stev and Louise,bught,thei,r,flat; itwa5 in aterrlbls:tatei Thelr
touldn,t'd.a]lthe-jobsthemse[ves;5o,they.ha.deentral.heati1-9,.
:windows replaced; and they- had the flat, : l
i nsta l led. :Thy,a lso gt the
pafntd,,e.trihey tivenlt- had'th caipqt's elend yet, 'And ngwthw
heed:to hae nw,lok fitied to.the,fiont door because ;1esteday, ,
'LouiSe had.he/car br-oke intq and h'er handbag'stolen' The fr:ont door
key was in her bagl
:
Step
Use of have/get something done

we can say ue haue something done if we don't do the lob ourselves. we decide
to employ another person to do the job for us. Compare
ASteie ind Louise had their flat painted. (Someone painted their flat for them')
B Steue and Louise painted their ftat. (Ihey painted their flat themselves.)
o We can use the verb gef instead oi haue. Gef is more informal'
They got (on o@ the uindows replaced.
c we can also use hot-e something done when we talk about something, often
unpleasant, that happened to someone.
Louise hqd her car brohen into. She had her bag stolen'
Note: We don't normally use gef instead of haue here'
CilEfK QUESTIONS
Which jobs did theY do themselves?

t They had some new curtains made.
2 They put up som-e shelves'
3Theyhadatelephoneinstalled.4Theydecoratedthebedrooms.
somethng
Subject
haae
object
past particiPle
checked.
the electricitY
installed.
central heating
installed.
a telephone
cleaned.
the carpets
decorated?
the bedrooms
Have they
repaired?
roof
the
Did they
o Note thatthe tense of theverb haue canchange'
o we don't use the contracted forms of haue ('ue, 's and d) with this construction'
They had the flat painted (Nor They'd the flat painted')
are having
have had
had
are going to have
had
have
They
They
They
They
CHECK QUESTIONS 2
4,rysWRS TO
CHECK QUESTIONS
1 AND2
60
Put in the correct fotmof haue.

1 Last week they... the roof repaired.
2 At the moment they.... the bedrooms decorated'
3 Next week they ... their new kitchen fitted.
I 2,4
2
1 they
had
to have
they're having 3 they're going
20
Libby Johns wants to join an international expedition to the Himalayas.
She's answering'some
of the questions on the application form.
Are you over 18 and under 60?
."""""""Y'g:'"""""""
Were you 18 before March 30th this year?
""""Y"9:'"""
Are you taking any medication at the momen
tl """""N'9:'
6'000m'
The expedition will be climbing to altitudes of over
Do you have any problems with your breathing?
If
so, does your doctor know about the problem?
" 'Ng "
""""'-" """
a chlldl
Did you have any serious illnesses when you were
Have you been to the Himalayas
before? "
""N'9':"""""
Ny'
9'f' :" " " " " " " " "
Can you attend a meeting in London on June 6fh1 " " " "Y'
uestions
To make a question we put the auxiliary verb (be, haue, do or a modal verb: ccn,
will, would, etc.) before the subject.
Auxiliary
Are
Has
Can
verb Subject
you
Libby
Main verb
takingany medication?
been to the Himalayas before?
attend the London meeting?

she
When e is the main verb, it comes before the subject.
Are you ouer 18? Were you 18 before March 30th?
o In the present simple we use do/does to make questions. (See also Unit
Do
Subject
you
Does
your
Auxiliary
Main verb
haue any problems with your breathing?
doctor know ebout the problem?
In the past simple we use dld. (See also Unit 5.)
you
haue anY serious illnesses?
Did
o Note that the main verb is always in the infinitive form.
Does your doctor hnou? (Nor Does your doctor knows?)
Did you haae ony serious i//nesses? (Nor Did you had?)
CHECK QUESTIONS
Make the sentences into questions.

I Libby wants to go to the Himalayas.
2 She's hoping to join the expedition.
3 She's over 18.

4 She's filled in the form.
Step 3.)
Step 2
Questions introduced by question words

Libby's leaving next Sunday. Her friends are asking her questions:
What time are you leaving on Sunday? - At six in ifre morning.
Where do you fly to? - Kathmandu.
How long does the expedition last? - Two months.
How many people are there in the group? - Twenty.
Where do they come from? - From all over the world.
Who's leadng the group? - A man called Richard Lane.
Whatdoes,Flimalaya,mean?_ltmeans,homeofthesnoWs,]
We often begin questions with the following question words: What? When?
Where? Which? Who? Whose? Why? How?
What does 'Himalaya' mean? (Not What means 'Himalaya'?)
o or with phrases
o
like: what time/colour? what kind (of)? How long? How much? etc.
What time ore you leauing? (Nor What time you are leaving?)
Note the position of prepositions (ro, from, etc.) in Wh- questions.
Where do you fly
..I1ECK AUESTION\
to?
Where do they come
from?
Put the words in the right order.
I is/when/leaving/Libby? 2 is/theexpedition/leading/who?
3 tolthe/does/expedition/where/fly? 4 does/how long/take/getlitltolthere?
Step 3
Negative questions
Libby's packing. A friend has come to say goodbye.
'Hi, Libby. Haven't you packed yet? Can I help?'
'No, it's all right. But l'd like a drink. Why don,t you make a cup of tea?,
'OK. ... You haven't packed your camera. Aren't-you taking it?;
'Yes, but I need some flms for it.'
'Why didn't you tell me? l'll go to the chemist's. Don't they sell films?,
'Yes, but don't worry, l'll get some at the airport tomorrow.,
'The Himalayas! Doesn't it sound exciting! Aren,t Vou
luckVl,
We use negative questions: a) to show surprise: Haaen,t you pached. yet?

b) when something seems very probable:
Don't they sell films? (lt's probable the chemist sells them.)
c) often with Why? to show surprise or frustration, or to make a suggestion:
Why didn't you tell me? Why don't you mq.he a cup of tea?
d) in exclamations (we usually use an exclamation mark, not a question mark):
Doesn't it sound exciting! Aren't you lucky!
.:K
AUESTIONS
ANswE Rs r
Make negative questions.

I Libby wants to take photographs. (she/not taking/a camera?)
2 She needs sun cream. @hy/she/not go/to the chemist,s?)
3 Look at this photo of Mount Everest. (itllook/great!)
o 1
to
to the Himalayas?
expedition? 3 Where does the expedition fly to?
-:'KQUEST|oNS 2lsshelopingtojoin'heexpedition?
3lsshe 4Howlongdoesittaketogttoitnranaz
1' 2 AND r
qusshefillediniheform?
overrcl
3 '1 lsn'tsheiakinga ru
u whydoesn't
1 Does Libby want
When
is Libby
go
leaving? 2 Who
is leading
the
she go to the
"rff
chmist's?
3 Doesn'i it look
great!
63
21
Trvo young people are at Melbourne airportwaiting for their plane
back to London.
A: You're English, aren't you?
B: Yes, lam.
A: Our plane's late, isn't it?
B: Yes, l'm afraid so.
A: The flight back takes 2-4 hours, doesn't it?
B: No, I think it's 26 actua[lY.'
uestion
A question tag is an expressio nllke aren't you?'/isn't it? ot doesn't f2 at the end of
We use question tags in conversation to ask if what we said is true or
not, or if the other person agrees or not.
o If we use a rising intonation (i{ our voice goes up) with a question tag, we're
asking a real question. We're not sure if the answer is yes or no'
o
a
r".i"n.e.
You're English, aren't you? y'

The flight-back takes 24 hours, doesn't it?
y'
because he isn't sure if it's true or not')

Qn each [uestion his voice rises at the end
o If we use a falling intonation (if our voice goes down), we're expecting the other
person to agree with what we've just said.
Our plane's late, isn't it? \
ftle means 'l'm sure You agree.')
o Question tags are much less common in American English'
Americans often use tag words llke Right? or OK? instead'
You're English, right? (instead of You're English, aren't you)
QUESTtOfIS
Are these 'real' questions or not?
2
3
Step 2
You're not Australian, are You? \

lt's hot, isn't it? \
They take English money on the plane, don't lhey?
r'
Positive or negative question tag?

A: It's been hot, hasn't it?
B: Yes,
very hot. And dryl lt hasn't rained
foi weeks, hs it?
A: No, it hasn't.
If we say something positive, the question tag is usually negative'
Positive
Negative
hot,
hasn't it?
If we say something negative, the question tag is positive'
It's been
Negative
Positive
It hasn't rained for weeks, has it?

65
(HELK etlEsnnts
Choose the correct question tag.
2
3
Australia's a big country, isn't it?/is it?

Things here aren't expensive, aren't they?/are they?
Food's cheaP, isn't it?/is it?
uesto n
A: You're pretty brown.

B: Yes, lam, arn't l? lspent most of thetime.on the beach'
A; But Australians don't get brown, do'the1t?
B: No, they all wear hats and T-shirts, don't they?
A: Yes. Everybody's worried:about skin cancer; aren't ^they?
B: Yes, it sems so. Yu didn't see any sharks, did you?
A: No, no sharks. But I saw plenty of snakes'
B: There are quite a lot of snakes,.aren't th-ere.?
A: Yes. They've got poisonous spiders too, havenft theVl. . ,.
B: Yes, but j diOn't see any. Austrlian wine's quite good, isn't it?
, v"s, very good. And thl beer. You've tried Australian beer,
haven't you?
B:
A: Our plane should be leaving soon, shouldn't it?

B: Yes, iet's ask what time it's goin9, shall we?
A:
B: Look after my bag, willYou?
A: Yes, of course.
tags always have two words: an auxiliaryverb (are, can, haue, uill, elc.)
The pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence'
Auitralians don't get brown, do they? (lhey = Australians)
Note the verbs which we use in question tags.
do/ does, don't/doesn' t
Present simple:
They all weer hats and T'shirts, don't they?
o Question
*u
p.oôr.4 it, he, they,etc.).
Pastsimple: did/didn't
You didn't see any sharks, did You?
haue/ has, hauen't/ hasn' t
Present perfect:
You'ue tried Australian beer, haoen't you?
Havegot:
haue/has,hasn't/hauen't
They'ue got poisonous spiders, haoen't they?
Note the form of the negative question tagaller I am.

You're pretty brown. Yes, I am, aren't I? (Nor am't I?)
o If a statement has a modal auxiliaryverb (wiII, should, would, might, can, etc.), we
use the same auxiliary verb in the question tag.
Our plane should be leauing soon, shouldn't it?
o After There is/There are the question tags are is there?/isn't there? and are
there?/aren't there?
There are quite a lot of snakes, aten't there?
66
The question tag after lel's is shall we?

Let's ask what time our plane's leauing, sholl use?
o After an imperative we can use the following question tags can you/can't you?
will you/won't you? would you? could you?
Look after my bag, uill you?
After euerybody/somebody,/nobody, efc. we use the pronoun they iothe question

tag. (See also Unit 66 Step l.)
Euerybody's worried about skin cancer, aren't they?
.<E'K
Add question tags.

1 Australians drink
QUESTIONS 3
2
3
4
lot of beer,
...
Everybody's friendly, ...

I suppose you met a lot of nice people,
Let's have a drink,
...
...
uestion
Are you feeling OK?

No, not really. I went out to dinner last night.
And you had too much to eat, did you?
Yes,
ldid.
And now you've got indigestion, have you?

Yes, I have. You couldn't lend me a dolla1 could you? I need some
coffee and I haven't got any Australian money lft.
Yes, here you are.
You don't know where the nearest toilet is, do you?
Yes, there's one over there.
We can use a positive question tag (with a rising intonation) after a positive
statement to express interest, sympathy, surprise or sarcasm.
Positive statement
Positive question tag
You
had too much to eat,
Now you'ue got a
indigestion,
did you? /
haue you?
y'
We sometimes use a negative statement followed by a positive question tag

a rising intonation) when we make a request or ask for information.
You
You
QUTSTIONS 4
IO
No.
'1
isn't
1,2,34ND4
y'

1 Someone has lost their plane ticket. Show your concern. You've lost ...
2 Ask somebody to help you with your luggage. You couldn't ...
3 Ask somebody if they know when the plane gets to London. You don't know when
QUFSIlON5
ANSWERS
-:.K
couldn't lend me a dollqr, could. you? y'

don't know where the nearest toilet is, do you?
(with
No.
3 Yes.
2 are lhey ? 3 isn't it?

3 1 don't they? 2 aren'tthey? 3 didn't you?
it?
4 shall we?
...
1 You've lost your plane ticket, have you?

2 You couldn't help me with my luggage, could
you? 3 You don't know when the plane gets
to London, do you?
67
22
WhatdidAlfred:Nobelintvegt?.+,,Dynamite; . :, .,1,,.
.,,'
What started in April 1861 in the USAU - The American Civil War.
Who did Lee Harvey Oswald kill in Dallas in 1963? - president Kennedy.
Who:ki.l|ed,LeeHarvev.oswaid?,_:Jack.Rub!l,:.':.,
Which travels faster - light or sound? - Light.
Whieh'doesahl.biv'Ore
What,
o Object
Who
which
+
rreter,-re-attor:gras5?-Grass.
:.
subject
Auxiliary verb
did
Which
does
What
did
+ Subject
Oswald
Who
a herbiuore
Which
Alfred Nobel
What
Main verb
kiil?
killed Oswald?
prefer?
trauels faster?
inuent?
storted in April 1861?
When the question words who, which, what arethe subject of a sentence, we
don't use do, does, dd with the verb.

(Flere we don't say: Who did kill Julius Caesar? Which does travel faster?)
Note: I4lo did Lee Horuey Oswqld kill? (= Who was his victim?)
Who
:K
AUESTIONS
killed Lee Haruey Oswald?
(= Who was his killer?)
I Who/discover/oxygen? 2 What/Joseph Priestley/discover/in

3 Which/be/worth more - a US dollar or a British pound?
1774?
noun?
.
What-instrument did Louis Ar:mstr"ong play? - The.trumpet.

What sea separates England from France? - The English Channel.
Which way does the Mississippi flow? - South.
Which president of the USA resigne d in 1974? - president Nixon.
We can often use uhat or which + a noun
without changing the meaning.

What (o*.Which) sea separotes England from France?
But uhich is more common with people. And we normally use which when there's a
limited choice of possibilities, and what when there's a large or unlimited choice.
Which US president resigned in 1974? (which + aperson)
Which uay does the Mississippi flow? Qhe choice is: north, south, east or west.)
Compare: Whqt instrument did Louis Armstrong play?
(Ihere are a lot of alternatives, but they aren't given.)
Which instrument did he play - the trumpet or the clarinet?
(Here we use which because the alternatives are given.)
.Hr.( eursloNs
Put in What or Which'

1 ... languages do they speak in Belgium? 2 "' man gave his name to America?
3 ... language do they speak in Brazil - Spanish or Portuguese?
Which
Which
people/things
:'Whi.h .orntry joined the EuropeaR Union i.n 1973? Br'itain' . .

,wh,ch
/what Grman composer was also a famous organist? Bach'
Which of the Battes was'tilted in trtew York in 1980? John Lennon'
Lndontctocks.WhichoneisthemostfamoUs?BigBen.
for things' but with a

Whocan only be used for people' What onits own is used
car" te used for
Which
composer)'
German
pt"
lWn"t
noun it can be used tor peo
peopte (Which GermanZomposer) and things (Which country)'
We can use which + one/ones and + o/'

killed?
Which one is the most famous? Which of the Beatles uas
Wecan'tusehafandwhowilhof'Wecan'tsay:WhooftheBeatleswaskilled?
cfit(.K
QUESTIONS
tep 4
Put in Which or What.

I Sardinia and Corsica are islands' "' one is French?
2 ... country do the Maoris live in - New Zealand or Australia?
3 ... of the American states is an island? 4 "' is Esperanto?
word
Do you know/Could you tetl me, efc + a question
the most widely-used language in the world?
No'
Vu know if English ii the most widely-used language?
west?
or
east
flow
Dos the River Thames
ls English
CoutdyoutellmewhethertheThamesflowseastorwest?East'
What does'goodbYe' mean?
gs you knoit whai'goodbye' means? Yes, 'God be with you''
We often begin
indirect questions wilh Do you know/Could you tell me'
Simple questioi: Is English the most widely used language?
language?
lndirect question: Do 7ou know if Engtish ii the most widely used
mean?
does'goodbye'
What
question:
Simple
Indirect question: Do you know uhat 'goodbye' means?
Where there is no question word, we use if or whether'

Simple question: Doei the River Thames flow east or west?
flows east or west?
Indirect question: Couti you te,lt me if/whethet the Thames
CI.IE(K QUL'TION.' 4
A /v5
Y/[Rs IO
Start the questions with Do you hnow'

1 What diA Beil invent? 2 Was Columbus Spanish?
3 Who wasMontezuma? 4 Whatdoes aspeleologistdo?
1
CHEaK QUI:5TlO!':
i.
2. 3
A^!1,- 1
2
3
70
1 Who discovered oxygen? 2 What did Priestley

discover in 1774? 3 Which is worih more
1 What 2 Which 3 Which
1 Which 2 Which 3 Which 4 What
1 Do you know what Bell invented? 2 Do you

know iflwhether Columbus was Spanish?
3 Do you know who Montezuma was?
4 Do you know what a speleologist does?
23
people are on a flight frorn Lgndon to Barcelona' '
Two
jtttEa,bit'burnpy,'isn't'itl
tt it atwals like this over the Pyrenees?'
'v*, r;,
but we'll be there soon''
ipanish time isn't the same as British time' is it?'

'ip" to."itriito,
..No;.t.don,tthinkso..i:irrint.te,y'rean,hourahead,;
,|Th,atmens.itlshalfpastseve.nin:Barcelonanow.,
'Yes, I think so.'
rh weather's usally god there, isn't it?'
'l believe so.'
'ttitt b" nice and warm.'
'V"s,-fipitlso,ldonltthinkitlll
't hope not' F'lave you'got
'No, l'm afraid not.'
rainmuch"
;'
street rnap of Barcelona?'
'Oo'yo, think l'll be able to get one at the airport?'

'l imagine so.'
:
',Doth-e,airportShopsclose in the'evning?' '
'l don't trPPot" to.'
rfhe probtem. is thoug h;,the}r wo't aicept Engl ish money; wil l they?'
'No, isuppose not.'
Step
tthink so/don'tthink so
t hope so/l hope not
olnshortanswerswhenwewanttoagreewithwhatSomeonehassaid,weuseso
presume' reckon'
hope' imagine'
after the following ve rbs: belieue, expect, guess,
seem, suppose, suspect, think, be afrqid'

We'll be there soon. - I hoPe so'
so'
It's half past seuen in Barcelona notl' - Yes' I thinh
that'
We don't say: I hope or I hope it or I hope
offen
o With all of these verbs except guess, hope' presume' suspect' be afraidwe
use
* negative forms with so'
think so'
Spiitn ilme isn't the same as British time' is it? - No' I don't
o'
suppoe
I
don't
euening?
the
Do the airport shops close in
gut wemust use not-after guess, hope, presume' suspect' be afraid'
so')
I don't think it'll rQin mich. - I hope not' (Nor I don't hope
Haue you got a street map of Barcelona?
I'm alraid nof' (Nor I'm not afraid so')

We can use both forms with belieue, expect and' suppose'
so'
Do the airport shops close in the euening? - I don't suppose
not
I
suppose
No'
they?
will
money'
They won"t accept English
No,
CHECK QUESTIANS
Give short answer:ri.
1We'llbeabletogetataxiattheairport,won'twe?1"'(hope)
2 It won't take long to get to the hotel, will it? I "' (hope) (expect)
3 We won't get to ihe h-"otel before 9 o'clock, will we? I "'
Step 2
So do l, Neither do
l/Nor do t
'We're going to Sitges. lt's a place on the coast, not far from Barcelona.,
'That's funny! So are we. We haven't been to Sitges before.,
'Neither have we.'

'The trouble is they eat a lot of fish in Spain, and I don,t like fish.,
'Nor does my husband. I hope there are other things to eat at the hotel.'
'Yes, so do l.' ([ater) 'l've been learning a bit of Spanish.,
'So have l. I bought a little phrase book.'
'So did l. I can say a few words in Spanish now.'
'Yes, so can L But I don't like speaking foreign languages.,
'Neither do l. You feel so stupid, don't you.'
'Oopsl lt's a bumpy flight. l'll be glad when we get there.'
'So
will ll'
When we want to say that we do the same or feel the same as someone else, we
can use the short answer So + auxiliary verb + subject after positive statements.
We're going to Sitges. - So are we. (= We're going to Sitges too.)
After negative statements we use lt{either or Nor + auxiliary verb + subject.

I don't like speaking foreign languages.
- Neither do I. onNor do L (= I feel like you. I don't like it.)
I don't like fish. - Nor/Neither does my husband.
(= My husband's the same as you. He doesn't like fish.)
o The auxiliary verb in the short answer will be a form of the verbs be or haue. or a
modal verb (can, could, will, etc.)
We're going to Sitges. - So are we.
I'ae been learning a bit of Spanish. - So haoe L
I'll be glad when we get there. - So ull I.
When the present simple or the past simple is used in the first statement, we use
do, does or did.
I don't like speaking foreign languages. - Neither do

I bought a little phrase book. - So did I.
o Note the word order.

+ auxiliaryverb +
So/Neither/Nor
subject
So
cQn
Neither
does
my husband.
We can replace the So construction with foo and the lVeifh

with a negative auxiliary + either.
We're going to Sitges. - So are we. oRWe qre too.
er/Nor construction
I don't like speaking foreign languages. - Neither do I. op.I don't either.
Respond with So ... I or Neither/Nor ... L

I I usually go to Spain for my holiday. 2 I went there last year.
3 But I've never been to Sitges before. 4 I don't like flying.
Ilf_I/aJN.t 2
iri5
.
r,^,
)U
RS
IO
IO NS
'.:;T
i A^tD
'l
lhopeso. 2lhopenot. 3ldon'texpect
so./l expect not.
1 So do
l. 2 5o did l.
4 Neither/Nor do
l.
3 Neither/Nor have
24
Amy Masters works for a market research organisation. She's
,:interviewinglpeop1e.inth.street,...'|......'.
A: Excuse me, sir. l'm doing a survey of people's reading habits. Could
you answer a few questions, please?
l,cou,ld. if it dosn't take too long; What arth questions?
Do you read much?
No. I should, I suppose, but I never have time. I would if I had more time.
So you aren't reading a book at the moment?
l'm not, no. But my wife is. She reads a lot.
B:
A:
B:
A:
B:
(later)
A: Excuse me, madam. Have you got time to answer a few questions?
C: No, I haven't. l'm in a hurry, l'm afraid, so I can't. But my friend here
isn't. You could ask her. l'm not really interested in books, but she
"l'].ll'll"""'l']l
'l:']:1"'ll" ':''::"'::t'll
is.
-'i'"
l'
':-"
"''I
Single auxiliary verbs used alone
o We often use an auxiliary verb (be, houe, misht, would, can, elc.) alone, without
the main verb. We do this when we don't want to repeat the main verb.
Could you answer a few questions, please?
- I could, if it doesn't take too long. (= I could answer)
So you aren't reading a book at the moment?
- I'm not, no. But my wife is.
(= I'm not reading. My wife is reading.)
The verb be can also be used alone when it's a main verb.
Haue you got time to ansuer some questions?
- I'm in a hurry, I'm afraid, but my friend here isn't.
(= My friend isn't in a hurry.)
I'm not really interested in books, but she is.
(= She's interested in books.)
o The auxiliary
verb is used alone in yes/no short answers.

Haue you got time to ansuer some questions? - No, I hqaen't.
Do you read much? - No, I don't. @or do see Step 3.)
Is your wife reading a book at the moment? - Yes, she is.
We use the full form of auxiliaries when they're affirmative.

I'm not, but my wife is. (Nor my wife's)
I uould if I hod more fme. (Nor I'd)
o The auxiliary verb(s) in the answer can be different from the one(s) in the
question.
Do you read much? - No. I should, I suppose. (= I should read, but ...)
I toould if I hod more time. (= I would read.)
:aK OUIriON
Rewrite the sentences, avoiding repetition.

I The first person can answer her questions, but the second one can't answer her
questions.
2 Could you answer a few questions? I might answer. It depends.
3 Her friend isn't in a hurry, but she's in a hurry.
auxliary
A: Where did you get the book you're reading at the moment?
D: I
borrowed it from the library.
A: Would you have bought it, if it hadn't been in the library?

D: lwould if it hadn't been so expensive'
A: How many books have you read this year? Twenty?
D: I might have. lcan't remember.
when there are two auxiliary verbs, we usually repeat only the first.
Would you haoe bought it, if it hadn't been in the library?

- I utould if hadn't been so expenslue. (Nor I would have)
But if the verb form changes (for example haue changes Io might haue), we use
two auxiliaries in the answer.
How many books haae you read this year? Twenty?
- I might haue. (Nor I might') = I might have read twenty'
( ilta: Qt-i-! 7io,r5

1 Would you have bought the book if it had been cheaper? - Yes, I would have
bought the book.
2 He btught the book, but if it had been in the library, he wouldn't have bought it.
Arny Masters is nterviewing a middle-aged woman and her husband.

A: What kind of books do you and your husband read?
E: Well, t lrike thriller. My husband doesn't; He reads historical novels.
He reads a lot more than I do.
E:' About three days ago. Well, i did: My husband didn't, He staygd
Outsid because ! was lookinO for a sur,Pr:ise birthday present for him'
When the main verb is in the present simple or the past simple, we use the verb
do to avoid repeating the main verb'

I tihe thrillers. My husband doesn't' (= He doesn't like thrillers')
He reqds a lot more than I do. (= more than I read)
Did you go into the bookshop? - I did. My husband didn't.
(= I wentlnto the bookshop. My husband didn't go into the bookshop.)
a
Hf a/(
76
lu157/o:r

I Her husband doesn't like thrillers, but she likes thrillers.
2 He reads historical novels, but she doesn't read historical novels.
3 She talked a lot, but her husband didn't talk a lot.
Step 4
Short reply questions

Amy's now talking to a strange old man.
F: ldon't really like books.
A: Don't you?
F: No. But I read a good book once.
A: Did you? What was it?
F: lt was a book about bees.

A: Was it? That sounds interesting.
F: Yes, it was. You see, these bees could kill.
A: Could they?
F: Yes. But I didn't f inish the book.
A: Didn't you?
F: No. And I haven't read a book since then.
A: Haven't you? Why not?
F: Too many pages. I can't read more than 20 pages.
A: Can't you? Why not?
F: I always fall asleep after 20 pages.
A: Doyou?
F: And then I forget what l've read, so I have to start the book aOaln
o we often reply to what someone says by using a short question with an auxiliary
verb. we use it to show polite interest or surprise. It means Really? or Is that true?
They could kill.
- Could they? (oReally)
We use do/don't/does/doesn't in reply questions after a statement in the present
simple.
I always fall asleep after 20 pages. - Do you?

I don't reolly like books. - Don't you?
We use did/didn't after a statement in the past simple.
I req.d a good book once. - Did you?
I didn't fnish the book. - Didn't you?

If the statement has an auxiliary verb, we repeat the verb in the reply question.
I hqaen't read a book since then. - Haaen't you?
If the statement has the verb e, used as a main verb, we repeat it in the reply
question.
It uas about bees. - Was it?
o We use a positive reply question after a positive statement.
I read a good booh once. - Did you?
o We use a negative reply question after a negative statement.
I cqn't read more than 20 pages. - Can't you?
(For questionLags You're tired, aren'tyou? seeUnit 21.)
CK QUEST|ONS ,]
Add a reply question.
I Amy has worked for the company for ten years. ... ?
2 She's very interested in her work. ... ?
3 Yesterday she interviewed over fifty people. ... ?
4 Several people wouldn't answer her questions. ... ?
/\,/-5 Y'ltR
C)
-t( k oLtLSTtot,,ts
1, ). I A^!D 1
1
2
1 but the second one can't. 2l might. It

depends. 3 but she is.
1Yes,l would. 2 he wouldn't have.
1 but she does. 2 but she doesn't. 3 but her

husband ddn't.
1 Has she? 2 Is she? 3 Did she? 4 Wouldn't
they?
77
25
n g .langua ges in London, She's havi n g an
interview for a job as a tourist guide.
'Miss Willis, how many languages can you speak?'
'l can speak Spanish, ltalian And German.l'd like to.be able to s.peak a
bit of Japanese, but they don't teach it at my college.'
'That's a pity, because we get a lot of Japanese visitors in London. We
need people who can spek Japanese, but we haven't been able to find
any. But this summer there'll be a lot of German and Spanish visitors
too, so you'll be able to use your Spanish and German. Can you start
work in May?'
'No, l'm afraid I can't. I can't miss college. lwon't be able to start until
the end of term in June.'
Ha:nnah'Wj I tis'is.studyi
be able
We use can,/can't (= cannot) + an infinitive without fo to talk about someone's

ability or inability to do something.
I can speah Spanish. (= I know how to speak Spanish.)
I can't speah Japanese. (= I don't have the ability to speak Japanese.)
o We also use can/can't (= cannot) + an infinitive without fo when we talk about
what is possible or impossible.

Can you start work in May? (= Is it possible for you to start in May?)
I can't miss college. (= It isn't possible for me to miss college.)
o Can and can'thave the same form for all persons. Q can, he can, we can, elc.)
o In the present it's often possible to use be able to or can, but e able to is more
formal and a lot less common.
How many languages can you speak?
(How many languages are you able to speak? is very lormal.)
o But because can has no infinitive form or present perfect form, we have to use
forms of be able fo here.
I'd like to be able to speak a bit of Japanese. (infinitive)
We haoen't been able to find any. (present perfect)
o When we tdk about the future we can normaily use can or will,/uon't be able to.
But if it's important to emphasise the future time, we :use will/won't be able to.
Can you start work in May? (on Will you be able to start work in May?)
I uton't be oble to start until June. (on I can't start until June.)
You'll be oble to use your Spanish and German.
HECK OUESTIONS
Write the sentences using a different verb.
Is Hannah able to speak Japanese? ... Hannah speak Japanese?
2 She isn't able to start work immediately. She ... immediately.

3 She can't start work in May. She ...
4 She can start work at the end of term. She ...
3-k ould or was/were able to?
stup
Hannah finished college on June 13th and she was able to start work
the next day. She took a group of Germans round London' Most of
them could speak English. At London Zoo one woman dropped her
camera into the lionsT enclosure. She could see the camera, but she
couldn't reach it. Fortunately a keeper was able to reach it with a
fishing net. Later, Hannah's group was in St Paul's cathedral. one man
starte to play the organ. He could play very well. Hannah told him that
visitors couldn't play the organ, but she couldn't persuade him to stop.
Later, in a big depaitment siore in oxford Street, two members of
Hannah,s grup got stuck in the lift. They couldn't get out because they
weren,t able to open the doors. After about 30 minutes workmen
managed to open them and the two Germans were able to get out.
o when we talk about the past we can use could or uas/were able to.
o To talk about a general ability, we use could more often than was/usere
able to'
Most of them could sPeah English.

(More common than were able to speak English.)
o But, in affirmative sentences, when we talk about a particular action or situation
in the past, we use was/were able to and not could.
Hainah finished college on June I.\th and she uas able to start work the next day.
(rlor could startJ
The tuo Germans were able to get out (Nor could get out)
(fhey got out of the lift. This was a particular action.)
o In negative
sentences we Can use either couldn't or wasn't/weren't able ta,
although couldn'tis more common.

She couldn't stop the mqn hom playing the organ.
(on She wasn't able to stoP the man.)
Note lhal couldn't can sometimes mean wasn't/weren't allowed to'

She explained to him that uisitors couldn't play the organ.
(= Visitors weren't allowed to play the organ.)
o Before verbs of perception (see, hear, feel, etc.) and verbs llke understand,
rememberwe normally use could rather lhan uas/uere able to'
She could see the camera, but she couldn't reach it.
Put in
( i-tr( K aLlLilON5 2
2
3
4
A^'!,Y'/EAi-', 1(r
t/ (
/(
(')1,,5ri OlJs
Ai\lD
could/couldn't ot was/wasn't/utere able to.
One of Hannah's group ... play the organ very well.

The woman who dropped the camera '.. reach it herself.
But the keeper ... reach it with a fishing net.

At last, after 30 minutes, the workmen '.. open the lift doors.
1 I Can Hannah speak Japanese?
2 She can't
start work immediately. 3 She won't be able to
start work in May. 4 She'll be able to start
work at the end of term.
could 2 couldn't/wasn't able
to
4 were able to
to
3 was able
26
I
r I
- -:
Robert: Can we have a table for two- please? And coutd we tit over
there bY the window?
Waiter: Yes, of .ourt".
itui*, vriy we have'the menu? And would you tqke my coat?
Waiter: CertainlY, sir.

Selina: Can you give us tl're wine'[ist?
Waiter: Ys, here it is' ,.. Can ltake your order now?
loner?
Robert: We 'r ot quite read, yet' Could y'gl'" ut t bit
Can, could, maY, would in requests
permission'
We use can, could and maylo ask for things or
please?
Csn ue haue a table for two? May we haue the menu'
Coutd we sit ouer there by the window?
Couldis a little more polite than ccn'

May is more polite and formal than could and is less common'
o We also use these verbs to ask someone to do something'
longer?
Can you giue us the wine tist? Could you giue us a bit
coat,
mY
take
Would You
Please?
Coutd l/yu? is a little more polite than Ca l/you?
you and is less common.
wiuta y;uis more polite and formal than coutd you and can
would'
afler
we
1or
use
Note: In requests we never
menu?')
@e can't sy: 'Would we have the
we hlue the menu?
we/May
ue/Could
Con
,uy
must
e
CHECK QUES'TIAN5
Complete these requests with can/could ot toould'

1 I'm hungry. (we/have) something to eat?
are?
2 I don't understand some of the things on the menu. (you/tell me) what they
3 I haven't got any money. (you/lend me) some?
could,
permlsslon
Selina: Can lsmoke?
w;ii;;,
Robert:
Waiter:
Robert:
.ia"t,
o, t', afraid you can't. This is a non-smoking section'

Can I PaY bY.credit gard? .
Express'
Yes, you can. We take Visa, but not American
Ah, could I PaY bY cheque?
Yes,,you c"n, iir, {aue you got a cheque card?
ves, i have' May I use your pen, please?
nonert:
Waiter: CertainlY, sir.
Selina: May we use the phone to call a taxi?
Waiter: Yes, of course You can.
We use can, could or may to ask for permission'

phone?
Can I smoke? Could I pay by cheque? May we use the
-.
polite
li,an could'
more
is
May
can'
politeihn
more
lsslightly
Could
To give permission we normally use can. We can use may, but it' s very formal and
not common. We don't :use could.
Con I pay by credit card? - Yes, you can. Could I poy by cheque? - Yes, you can , sir.
To refuse permission we use con't.
Can I smoke? - No, I'm afraid you can't.
//f(,(QU[5rlONS;

I ... we sit at another table? Yes, you ...
2 ... have an ashtray? No, ... , I'm afraid. Smoking's not allowed.
3 ... speak to the manager? Yes, ...
Selina: Robert, can I pay half the bill?

Robert: No, it's all right.
Waiter: May I help you with your coat?
Selina: Oh, thank you.
We use Can I/May I? when we offer to do something.

Can I pay half the bill? - May I help you with your coat?
Can Iis less formal lhan May I and much more common.
oit[sTtoNS
Selina does not want Robert to pay for everything. Complete her offers.
1 ... pay for the tip? 2 ... pay for the taxi home?
3 ... buy you a drink before we go home?
.3
Step 4
Would like in offers and invitations

Robert:
Waiter:
Robert:
Waiter:
Selina:
The taxi isn't here yet. I rang ten minutes ago.
Would you like me to ring again, sir?

Yes, please.
Would you like to wait at the bar? And would you like more coffee?
Yes, tht would be nice. Thank you.
We use would like to offer something or to offer to do something.
Would you like more coffee? Would you lihe me to ring again?
o We also use would like oinvite someone to do something.
Would you like to sit at the bar while you're waiting?
(For would like see also Unit 43 and Unit 50.)
naa( oufsl/oNs
,V.5\,'/t RS
Complete the offers and intations.

I ... another coffee, Selina? 2 ... me to phone you tomorrow?
3 ... come to a party with me on Saturday?
f{l
)E( K QUESTION5
1, 2 AND
.l
1 Can we/Could we have 2 Can youlCould

youlWould you tell me 3 Can youlCould
youlWould you lend me
1 Can we Yes, you can. 2 May we/Can we
No, you
can.
can't
3 Could l/Can
l/May
Yes, you
3 l Canl/Mayl 2Canl/May I 3Canl/Mayl)

4 1 Would you like 2 Would you like 3 Would
you iike to
83
27
D.riihg in Britain.,Advice for Americandriv.ers- ' , ,,..
When you come'to Britain, remember: - ,

You must drive on the left.
Diivers and passe.ngers ,have tb wear Seat:belts t.a ll times'
You must have an international driving licence.
'
You have to have valid insurance.

You mustn't overtake on the left on motorways.
You mustn't drive with more than 0.45 mg of alcohol in your blood.
Forms of must
Present and future
Affirmative
I must go
You must go
Negative
Questions
Must I go?
Must you go?
Must he/she lit go?
Must we go?
Must you go?
Must they go?
mustn't (must not) go

You mustn't go
He/she/it mustn't go
He/she/it must go
We mustn't go
We must go
You mustn't go
You must go
They mustn't go
They must go
o Must is followed by the inf initive without fo.
I
(Nor I must to go)
There's no final -s in the 3rd person singular.

(Nor He musts go. Nor He must goes)
o Questions
(Must you
and negatives are formed without do.
go2
Nor Do you must go?)
o For the past tense of must, we use had to. (See below.)
o (For must haue + past participle, see Unit 28.)
Present
I have to go
You have to go
He/she/it has to go
We have to go
You have to go
They have to go
Past
I had to go
don't have to go
You don't have to go
I
He doesn't have to go
We don't have to go
You don't have to go
They don't have to go
Do I have to go?
Do you have to go?
Does he have to go?
Do we have to go?
Do you have to go?
Do they have to go?
didn't have to go
Did I have to go?
won't have to go
Will I have to go?
Future
I'll have to go
-:aK
QUESTTONS
Put in the correct form ofthe verb.

1 You (have to) drive on the right or the left in Britain?
2 An American driver in Britain (must) have valid insurance.
3 He also (have to) have an international driving licence.
4 A driver (must) drink and drive.
85
tep 3
Uses of must and have to
We use musf and haue to to say that something is necessary or obligatory.

Sometimes, it doesn't matter which we use. In the text in Step I both must and haue
fo could be used in all the four affirmative sentences.
Driuers and passengers haue to usear seat-belts.
on Driuers and passengers must weqr seat-belts.
o For questions asking if something is necessary or obligatory, we normally use Do
I, you, etc. haae to?The question f'orm Must I, you, elc.? is far less common'
Do you haae to haue an international driuing licence?
o For the negative

at1f(
t<
a(I:41' ol,t\
tep
forms, see SteP 5.
Answer these questions.

I Do you have to drive on the left or the right in Britain? You "'
2 When must you wear seat-belts? You ".
,)
Differences between must and have to
lrvine wallace, an American, is in Britain and has hired a car. He has to

wear glasses when he drives, and he's iust broken them'
'l musi get some new glasses. I must go to the optician's''
He{ rJA" an appoint-ment for tomorrow morning. He's telling his wife:
'We can't go to'xford tomorrow. I have to 9o to the optician's at
1
1.30.',
to
There's sometimes a clear difference between musf and haue to. We use musf
It's
our
ourselves.
on
people
or
on
other
impose
we
that
obligation
talk about an
It's subiective.
personal
^ must opinion.
optician's. Qrvine thinks this is necessary')
the
b
I
o
o In contrast, we normally use houe fo when the obligation comes from outside the
speaker. It's obiective, it's outside the speaker's control'
I haue to go to the optician's at 11.30.
by an outsider, the optician')
6ff," ti-Jot lrvine' appointment has been decided
o Note that the obligation or necessity is often habitual'
Iruine has to wear glasses when he driues. (Ihis is an habitual necessity.)
Hi.a K
Otl,\itt.)N\
2
3
86
in must or haae to/hos to.

say we
Irvine can't go to Oxiord tomorrow. He's thinking: 'l ... phone the hotel to
aren't coming.'
go to the
He's phoninglhe hotel: 'l'm afraid we can't come tomorrow I "'
London.'
optician's here in
lrvine's eyesight isn't very good. He '...have an eye-test once a year'
Put
Have got
,,lr\ine's got tq take a tax! to the optician's because he canit drive,his car
He's
,:, '
talking to the taxi driver:
'First, l've got to stop at a bank to change some travellers' cheques.

Then w1il have to hurry, beeause l've got to get to the'optician's by
Haue gof 1o usually means the same as haue to.

It's more informal and colloquial than haue to, but it's used a lot in spoken English.
I'ae got to get to the optician's by I 1.30.
op.l hsae to get to the optician's by I 1.30.
o We often use haue got to in preference lo haue fo when we're talking about a
specif ic, not habitual, situation.
First, I'ae got to stop at a bank. (Rather lhan I hqae to stop at a bank.)
atIF-ct
QUL5rlo!.t\
Put in forms of haoe got to.

I What time ...you ... be at the optician's?
2 I ... be there at 11.30.

3 The taxi driver doesn't know
the way to the optician's. He ... to stop to look at a
map.
Step 5
Mustn't or don't have to/ haven't got to?

Usually in the USA you mustn't drive at more than 55 m.p.h. lt's the law.
lrvine drives at this speed on the motorway in Britain. But he doesn't
have to drive so slowly, because the speed limit in Britain is 70 m.p.h.
The negative forms musfn't and don't haue to/hauen't got to don't mean the same.
We use mustn'tlo tell people not to do something, that something is wrong or
against the law.
t-lsualty in the uSAyou mustn't driue at more than 55 m.p.h.
o But we use don't haue to or hauen't got to lo say that there's no obligation to do
something.
He doesn't hqoe to driue so slowly. (lt isn't necessary.)
Mustn't = You have no choice. You can't choose.
Don't haue to/hauen't gof o = You have a choice. You can choose'
-:aK OLlI\TIONS
Put in mustn't or don't hqae to.

1 You ... drive at more than 30 m.p.h. in towns in Britain.
2 On American highways you ... overtake on the left; you can overtake on the right
if you want to.
ANlWtR5 Tt)
,lCl< OUF.SIION!
1 ) ),1 AllD5
'l Do you have to drive 2 must have 3

have 4 mustn't
has
tolmust drive on the left. 2 You

have to/must wear them at all times.
to
1 You have
1 I must 2 I have to 3 He has to

t have you got to be 2 l've goi to
got to stop
1 mustn't 2 don't have to
be
3 He's
87
28
i[here' an area in the,Atlantic- ealled the grmuda Triang.le. A,lot of .
boats and planes have mysteriously disappeared there. lt must be a
strange place. People rnust feel worried when they cross it. lt can't be
easy for them. A friend of mine is on a ycht in the Triangle at the
moment;.H e rn ust be .feelin g,nervu:''f{e, canlt be enjoyin g the tr i p. So,
is he crazy? He must be. I wouldn't go there. Does he know the risks? He
must do.
Deductions about the present must/can't + infinitive
We can use musr + infinitive without fo when we make a logical deduction from
the information or evidence we have. We use can't + infinitive without fo (not
mustn'f) when we talk about a logical impossibility.
People must feel worried. (Because of the disappearances.)
It cqn't be easy for them. (Because they're worried.)
o Note the continuous
forms must be/can't be
-ing.
He must be feeling neruous.
ou're sure he's feeling nervous.)

can't be enjoying the trip.
ou're sure he isn't enjoying the trip.)
Note the short answers: Is he crazy? - He must
Does he know the risks? - He must do.
He
be.
(For other uses of musf see Unit 27.)

CHECK AUESTIONS
Put in must or can't.

1 People who cross the Triangle ... be very happy about it.
2 They... know about the strange disappearances.
3 The writer's friend ... be feeling worried at the moment.
89
Step 2
Deductions about the
must have, can't have
Last July Art Fidler left Miami in his private jet to f ly to Bermuda. He
never arrived. He had plenty of fuel when he left, so he can't have run
out of fuel. His radio can't have been working, because there was no
radio contact with him. There must have bee something wrong with
his plane. And it must have crashed into the sea and sunk immediately,
because nothing was found. Did he make a stupid mistake? He can't
have done. He was an experienced pilot. Was he killed? He must have
We use must haue + past
participle to say we're almost certain something
happened in the past, because of the information we have. We use can't hate
mustn't haue) + past participle to say we think something was impossible.
It must haae sunk immediatelY.
Qllothing was found.)
cqn't hae run out of fuel.

(lmpossible. He had plenty.)
Note the continuous lorms must/can't haue been
His radio can't haae been working.
Note the short answers.
Did he make a mistake? - He cqn't hqae done.
Was he killed? - He must hqae been.
He
o
o
(HECK AU[STlONS
Put in must haue or can't hqoe.

I Nothing was found, so the plane ... exploded in the air.
2 Fidler... felt scared.
3 He ... been expecting a normal flight.
IO
l can't 2 must 3 must
CIlLCK QUESTIONS
1 can't
AN5WFRS
1AND2
90
+ -ing-
have 2 must have 3 must have
t.:'
.*
29
John Speight keeps snakes at home. Monty, his favourite python, has
escaped. His wife's terrified.
'John, that snake may be dangerous. lt may attack someone. lt might
'eat,the tat, lt could be und.er.the, bd:and l might,ot see:it'when I get
int bed. Ughi lt could be anywhe,re-,lt migtlt be-ih the,gardn.'
'No, it couldn't be in the garden because allthe doors and windows are
closed. Donrt,worw. l'll find it. lt may be under'the flooiboar:ds.l,didnlt
feed it this morning. lt may be feeling hungry. lt could be looking for
food.'
'And you may not f ind it. We need some help. We could phone the
May, might, could for present and future possibility
We can use may, might or could + an infinitive without fo when we want to say
that something is possible (in the present or the future). There is no significant
difference between them.
It may attack someone. (= It's possible it'll attack someone.)
It might eat the cat. (= It's possible it'll eat the cat.)
It could be under the bed. (= It's possible it's under the bed.)
But we use could, not moy or might, to make suggestions.

We could phone the police. (= Shallwe phone the police?)
We use the negative f.orms may not or might not (or mightn'f) to talk about
possibility, but not couldn't.
I might not see it when I get into bed. (= It's possible I won't see it.)
Couldn'tmeans that something is totally impossible.
It couldn't be in the garden. (= That's not possible.)
o We often use the continuous forml' may be, might be, could be + -ingto talk about
present possibility.
It may be feeling hungry. (= It's possible it's feeling hungry.)
It could be looking for food. (= It's possible it's looking for food.)
c May, might, couldhave the same form for all persons.
I may/might/could come. He may/might/could come, etc.
(For could, see also Unit 25.)
-:.CK
QUESTTONS
Rewrite these sentences.

1 Perhaps the snake will attack someone. The snake ...
2 Perhaps it's under the floorboards. It ...
3 It's possible John won't find it. He ...
4 Perhaps the snake's hiding in a cupboard. The snake
5 It isn't possible that it's in this cupboard. It ...
...
May have, might have, could have f or past possibility

May as well/might as well
te p
A police officer has come to talk to John about his snake.

'Have you any idea where the snake may have gone?'
'lt might have gone under the f loorboards. lt may have fallen asleep
somewhere in the house. It could have gone down the toilet.'
'Could someone have stolen it?'
'No. A thief couldn't have got into the house. I was here all the time.'
'How did it escape?'
'l found the cover of its tank on the floor. I might not have put it on. I
might have forgotten. I can't remember. The snake may have moved it
itself. lt may have been feeling hungry. lt might have been looking for
food. I could have given it some this morning, but it didn't seem hungry.'
'Are you sure you've looked under all the beds?'
'Yes, lthink so.'
'Well, we may as well look again, just in case.'
'l suppose you're right. We might as well.'
'Wait a minute. That plant over there ... lt's moving.'
We can use either may haue, might haue or could haue + a past participle to say
that something was possible in the past.
It may hqae fallen asleep. (= It's possible it's fallen asleep.)
It might haae gone under the floorboards. (= That's possible.)
It could hoae gone down the toilet. (= That's possible.)
o Could haue can also mean that something was possible, but didn't happen.
I could haae gioen it some food this morning. (FIe didn't give it any food.)
o Note the negative forms: may not haue/might not(n't) haue.
I might not haae put the coer on. (= It's possible I didn't.)
o Couldn't hare means that something was totally impossible.
A thief couldn't haae got into the house. (= It wasn't possible.)
o We often use the continuous form: may haue been, might haue been, could haue
been + -ing to talk about a past possibility.
It may haae been feeling hungry. (= It's possible it was feeling hungry.)
o Note the expressions may as well and might as wellwhich mean the same. We use
them when we suggest doing something because it seems the only sensible thing to
do, but we aren't very enthusiastic.
We may as uell look again. (= There's nothing better to do.)
,iECK QUESTIANS 2
Relwite the sentences.
I
2
3
4
AA/5WIR5
7C)
:HLCK QUESTION5
1 AND)
Perhaps the snake went under the floorboards. The snake

Perhaps the snake was feeling hungry. The snake ...
It was possible for John to feed it, but he didn't. John ...
Perhaps it hasn't gone very far. It ...
1 The snake
may/might/could attack someone.
2ltmay/mightlcould be under the

floorboards. 3 John may not/might not find it.
4 The snake maylmight/could be hiding in a
cupboard. 5 It couldn't be in this cupboard.
...
1 The snake may have/might have/could have

gone underthe floorboards. 2 The snake may
have/might have/could have been feeling
hungry. 3 John could have fed it, but he
didn't. 4 lt may not have/might not
have/mightn't have gone very far.
93
30
There's too much traffic on British roads. people have different
oprnrons.
- We ought to make petrol more expensive.
- We shouldn't make so many cars.
- People should pay to use the roads.
- We oughtnft to allow cars in city centres.
should /ought
We use should +
infinitive without to or ought to + infinitive when we think
something is the right thing to do.

People should pay to use the roads
People ought to pay.
We use shouldn't (should not) or oughtn't to (ought not to) when we

something isn't a good idea.
We
:.1ICK QUESTIANS
think
shouldn't mahe so many cars = We oughtn't to mqhe.
Put in should(n't) or ought(n't) to.

I We ... build more roads. That will only make the problem worse.
2 We .... build more railways. I think that's the best answer.
Should
ought
. ,,
Sanr Travis is in his ear..The police have stopped him.

lExtuse me, sir. You should be wearing your seat-belt. And
your back
lights aren't working. You oughtn't to be driving this car.'
We use should(n't)/ought(n') to + be + -ingto talk about something that

should(n't) be in progress now.
You should be uearing your seat-belt. You oughtn't to be drioing this car.
.ECK QUSTIONS 2
Put in should(n't) or ought(n't) to.

I Is Sam wearing his seat-belt? No, but he ...it.
2 Are his back lights working? No, so he ... his car.
95
tep
Other uses of should/oughtto

Sam's going
to a football match at 7.30. He's telling his wife about it.

'England should win tonight. Scotland aren't very good this year.'
'Are you going to the match by train?'
'Yes. lf I get a train at 6 p.m., I shouldn't be late. I ought to be there by 7.
Or do you think I should catch an earlier train?'
'Yes, I think you should.'
We use should and ought to when we talk about how probable something is, or
what we expect to happen in the future.
!flrak
atulr/oA/q
Step 4
Englond should win.

(Sam expects this, because Scotland aren't very good.)
I shouldn't be late. I ought to be there by 7 p.m.
(Ihis is probable if he catches a train at 6 p.m.)
Note the use of. should/oughf Io without a main verb.
Do you think I should catch an earlier train?
Yes, I thinkyou should. (on /es, I thinkyou ought to.)
Put in should(n't)/ought(n\) to.

I If the train's on time, Sam .... be late.
2 His wife thinks he .... catch an earlier train.
Had better
+ infinitive without to
'Sam! You're going to mi.ss yor.rr train. Y9u'd bette hurry, ltlsten to six!'
tWhat!Illlnevercatchthattrainnow"l,dbettero.bycar.,
fYes, you'd betten But wait a minute The lights on'i wort<. Perhaps
We use had better ('d better) + infinitive without 10 to say that something is the
right thing to do. We use it with I and we to talk about an immediate intention.
I'd better go by car.

We use it with you or he, she, it, they when we're giving advice or a warning about
the present or the immediate future.
You'd better hurry.
o
o
Note the negative form had ('d) better not.

You'd better not take the car.
Note the use oI had better (nofJ without a main verb.
I'd better go by
CHECK QUESTONS 4
Yes,
you'd better.
Put in had better (not).

I Your car lights don't work, Sam. ... fix them.
96
cor.
You ... drive without lights.
Step 5
Should have/oughtto have + past participle

Sam decided
to take the car. On his way home he was eating a

hamburser. He hit the car in front. uu,tiln ;i,
;;" ;;ui "pp"n"a.
'There was too much traffic! r shourdn,t
h";"i"k;;-irr" .rr. r .rgit" have gone by train.,
'well, r:tt yorr turtt. you ought to have listened
to me. you should have
left home earlier. Alg.you Jughtn,tto fruu" U""n
inthecar.Youshouldhavebenwatchingtr,u".;"rrirg-J;;:;
we use should houe or ought to haue + a past participre to say that something
in
the past was a mistake.
I shouldn't haae taken the car. (But he took it.
It was a mistake.)
' -'/
I ought to haae gone by train. (ut he didn,t go by
train.)
o we lrse should(n't)
lgu.e.or ought(n't) to haue + been * -ng when we tark about
something that shourd(n't)
have been in progress at a particurar moment in the
past.
You should hqae been watching the road.

(But he wasn't watching the road.)
You oughtn't to haae been eating a hamburger.
(But he was eating a hamburger.)
Put in should(n,t) haae or ought(n,t) to haae.

i Sam took the car. That was a mistake. He .... it.
2 He didn't listen to his wife. That was a mistake. He ... to her.
3 He wasn't watching the road. That was a mistake. He .... the road.
QUESIiONS 5
ANSWT R.5 TO
.iECK QUESTIOI'IS
1,2,3,4AND5
2
3
1 shouldn't/oughtn't to 2 should/ought
to
1 should be/ought to be wearing 2 souldn,t
beloughtn't to be drivins
I shouldn't/oughtn't to 2 should/ought to
4
5
better 2 you'd better not

shouldn't have/oughtn't to have taken
2 should have/oughtto have listened 3 should
have been/ought to have been watching
1 You'd
31
Marie Thomas hasn't got many friends so she put an advertisement in
the Personal column of a local,newspaper. he received this reply.
Dear Marie,
First lhe good news. l've got blue eyes and J've got brown hair.'l,ve got
a flatrand t've gt.a job, Aut t haven't got a girlfr.iend!
Now for the bad news. llve got b:ig ears and f haven't got much hair teft.
I've got asthma too. I used to have a good job, but I lost it. The job tlve
had for the last year is badly paid. I had a car a month ago, but I haven't
got one now. ldidn't have enough money, so I sold it. My flat's very
small - itrs only got one bedroom, and it hasntt got a very bg kitchen ...
.
of have
o Haue gof and haue mean the same. But in informal English we normally use haue
gof rather lhan houe when we talk about:
Possessions: I'ae got a flat. It's only got one bedroom.
Relatives:
Illnesses:
I haoen't got a girlfriend.

I'ae got asthma. (I'ae got a headache, o cold, a bad back, etc.)
Personal characteristics: I'ae got blue eyes and brown hair.
We could use hque in all the above examples. But haue gof is far more common.
I haoe a flat. It only ho,s one bedroom. I don't hqae a girthiend.
o In American English we use the affirmative {orms of haue got, but we rarely use
the negative or question forms.
British English: Haoe you got a car? I hauen't got a car.
American English: Do you haae a car? I don't haoe o car.
o The forms of haue got Present simple:
Affirmative
Negative
Question
I've got
I haven't got
Have I got?
He's got
He hasn't got
Has he got?
They've got
They haven't got
Have they got? etc.
Contracted forms: 's got = has got
hasn't got = has not got
've got = have got haven't got = have not got
o Note the short answers: Yes, I haue/Yes, he has/No, they hauen't, elc.
(ruor Yes, I've got/Yes, he's got/No, they haven't got)
Has he got a girlhiend? No, he hqsn't. (lror No, he hasn't gotJ
o In the past simple we can use either had/didn't haue or had got/hadn't gotbut
hod/didn't haue is more common.
I hod a car a month ago. (Nor I'd got a car a month ago.)
o In other tenses (present perfect, past perfect, future, etc.) and forms (the
infinitive) only haue (Nor have got) is possible.
The job I'ae had for the last year. (Nor The job I've had got.)
I used to hqae a good job. (tvor I used to have got.)
.HECK OUESTIONS
Put in forms of haae got.

I ... Marie ... many friends? No ...
2 She ... a boyfriend last year, but she ... not ... one now.
3 Her girlfriends ... all ... husbands and children.
99
for actions
... I haven't got any bad habits although, I must admit, I usually have
dinner in front of the television and I sometimes have a cigarette
afterwards. And I don't have a bath every day!
At weekends I often have a long walk in the country. Then I have a meal
in a country pub. Once a year I have a holiday on the south coast. But
l'm not having one this year because I haven't got enough money.
l,d really like to meet you. Perhaps we.can have dinner together soon.
Best wishes,
RaYmond
could meet you any evening next week except for Thursday. That.
evening l,m having a game of badminton with a friend. And then we're
having a drink together afterwards.
PS I
We use haue (Not have got) to talk about actions/activities'

I haoe dinner in front of the teleuision. (Nor I've got dinner)
I haae a holiday on the south cocsf. (Nor I've got a holiday)
When we use hauelikethis, we can use continuous forms because we're

describing actions.
I'm not haaing a holiday this Year.
We're haaing a drink together ofterwards.
o Note the negative and question forms in the present simple.
I don't haae a bath euery daY.
Does he haae a holiday euerY Year?
o We don't use contractions with hauewhe it's describing an action'
I haue a cigarette afterwards. (Nor I've a cigarette)
o Look at this list of further examples ol, haue used for actions.
have breakfast, dinner, a drink, a sandwich, etc.
have a bath, a shower, a wash, a shave, a sauna, etc.
have a rest, a sleep, a dream, etc.

have a holiday, a nice time, a day ofi, etc.
have a swim, a game, a walk, a ride, etc.
ha.e an argument, a talk, a discussion, a meeting, etc.
have a go, a try, etc.
haveababy havealook havealesson

CHECK QUEST!ON! 2
A,rysW[Rs r(-)
CHECK QUfSTIANS
lAND)
100
Put in forms of haae.

1 Raymond (not have) a shower in the morning. He usually (have) a bath'
2 He (have) his breakfast at the moment.
3 he (have) a holiday in July? Yes normally, but he (not have) a holiday this year.
1 Has Marie got many friends? No, she hasn't

2 She had a boyfriend last year, but she hasn't
got one now. 3 Her girlfriends have all got
husbands and children.
1 Raymond doesn't have a shower in the

morning. He usually has a bath. 2 He's having
his breakfast at the moment. 3 Does he have a
holiday in July? ... he isn't/he's not having a
holiday this year.
r
I
l
I
32
Monday, February 3rd
A bad day-l l woke up wth a,'headaehe.l, got uprlate I turned on the
radio,, Th'e news,was bad, so lturned off,the radio and had ,a shower.
Thewatef wasrcold.,Then lwentutfor:a wa!k. ltwas
Step
ralning,''
What are phrasal verbs?
o Phrasal verbs are usually two-word verbs (a verb + an adverbial
particle)'. wake
up, go out, turn on, elc.
We can use different particles with the same verb. The particle changes the
meaning of the verb.
I tumed on the radio. I turned off the radio.
o Phrasal verbs are very common, especially in informal English.
We could say I awoke with a headache, but this is very formal. We normally say:
I wohe up with a heedache.
CHECK QUESTIONS
What are the five phrasal verbs?

I sat down, had breakfast, washed up and set off for work. When I went out, it was
still raining. It went on raining all day.
Different types of phrasal verb

Tuesday, February $th
The'car broke down. I rang up a gar:ge. The mechanic found. out why
- l'd run out of petroll

don't get on with the people at work, so today I filled in an application
form for a new job. I put it down somewhere in the office. Now I can't
find it!
At home I switched on the TV. Cigarette prices are going up. I must give
up smoking. And the governmentrs planning to put up taxes. l'm not
looking forward to that. They've already put them up twice this year.
l've just worked out that l'll soon have no money. I can't go on like this.
l'd stopped
I
Some phrasal verbs never take an object.

The car brohe down. I can't go on like this. Prices are going up.
102
. Most phrasal verbs can take an object. The object can usually go before or after
the particle.
verb + particle+ object

verb+object+particle
rang
up
a garzge. oR
Irang
agarlge up.
I switched on
the W.
oR
I switched the W
on.
o But if the object is long, it usually goes after the particle.
I
I filled in an application form. (Nor I filled an application form in.)
o If the object is a pronoun the construction is always:

verb +
pronoun + particle
I put
it
(Nor I put down it.)
down
They'ue put
them
(Nor They've put up them.)
up
o Some phrasal verbs are three-word verbs with a particle + a preposition.
The
object can only come after the preposition.

I don't get on uith the people at work.
I'd run out of petrol. I'm not looking forward to that.
o (For a list of phrasal verbs see Appendix 4.)
CHLCK OUTSTIONS
Are these right or wrong?
2
3
ANSWERS IO
CHECK QUESTIONS
1 AND2
They're going to put taxes up.

They're going to put up taxes.
They shouldn't put up them.
I'm not looking it forward to.
sat
2 washed up 3 set off

5 went on
2 Right. 3 Wrong. 4 Wrong
down
4 went
out
Right.
103
33
Justin Cox works at an advertising agency. Hefs writing a TV commercial
for a new product called Vitamax.
'You seem depressed. What's the problem?'
'ljust feel tired all the time. When I see my face in the mirrol I look
terrible. Food doesn't taste good any more. l've got no appetite.'
'Try Vitamax, the drink with five esrentiul vitamins. lt will c'hange your
life.'
'That sounds interesting. t'll try it. Mmm! lt smells good. And it tastes
good too!'
'Well, you sound happy!'
'l feel happyl And all my friends say I look great. Thanks to Vitamax!'
look, feel, sound, taste, smell, seem + adjective

o
We use these verbs to talk about our impression of things. We use an adjective
after them, not an adverb.
I look terrible. (Nor terribly) Food doesn't taste good. (Nor well)
We use lookto talk about visual appearance.
I looh terrible. (= 1ry5"n she sees her face in the mirror, that's her impression.)
We use sound lo talk about things that we hear.
That sounds interesting. (= What you said seems interesting.)
o Seem is never used in the continuous form.
cHEcK euEsrtovs

I Before she takes Vitamax how does she feel all the time?
2 But 3 days later, how does she sound? 3 And how does she look?
I .rstin Cqx iswr:iting
adieisementior
o Dew oo,:alcoholii be er
called Old Gold.

'lt looks,like'beer, lt smells lik beer,:lttastes like beer, And when you
drink it, it feels like liquid gold in your mouth. Why not have a glass of
Old Gold?'
'That seems like a great idea. Cheersl'
We use like + a noun after these verbs to describe what someone or something is
similar to.
It smells like beer. It feels lihe liquid gold.
When we use these verbs to describe what something is like, we usually use the
present simple (not the present continuous).
It looks good. It looks like beer. (Nor It's looking)
105
Note: We use
1fte
to make a comparison, but we use fasfe, smell
particular smell or taste on something.

This glass tastes of tipstick. My shirt smells of
( Hf:(K AUE5TIOI;5
tep 3
+ of
when there is a
beer.

1 What does old Gold look like? 2 what does it feel like in your mouth?
Look, feel, sound, seem + as if /as though

r u st
n's w
t ins a
rV
co m m e
rc ia
Ifor
t'' r''
f: ::: H ;"J": i
psl,lli,
v z.
o 'The washing machine isn't working. Who- can I phone on a
she
as
though
She
sounds
It doesn't sound as if she can repair it herself.
needs help. She needs Helpline on 0800 56 56 56'
o Here,s r Thorpe. tte's mirsed his last bus home. He calJ find a taxi. lt
looks as though e'll have to walk home. wait a minute. He can use the
telephone. gJt now he looks as if he's got anothet pI?919T He hasn't
got any changel Don't panic, Mr Thorpe. You can call Helpline free.
I ,Oh,i feeltrrible. lt teels as though the whole room's going round
and round. I feel as if l'n going to faint. The doctor. t must phone the
doctor. Oh no, l've forgotten his number.'
W.t"" it r""ms as f thre's no one who can help you, call Helpline, a
number you won't forget.
we can use cs if/as though + a subject and a verb after these verbs to describe
our impressions. As if and as though mean the same'
needs help.)
She'sounds as though she neeis hetp. (= She sounds as if she
o we often use the impersonal lf with these verbs, with the meaning'it seems'.
It looks as though h'e'll haue to walk home' (= It seems as though "')
It feels as thouih the room is going round and round'
It doesn't sound as if she can repair it herself'
American
Note: In informal English we often use /ifte instead of as if/as though.ln
English llfte is frequentlY used.
it doesn't sound like she can repair it herself'
(= It doesn't sound as if she can repair it herself ')
It looks lihe he'll haue to walk home.
(= It looks as though he'll have to walk home')
feels
like the room's going round and round'
(= It feels as though the room's going round and
round')
When it seems like there's no one who can help you "'
(= When it seems as if there's no one who can help you "')
see Unit 89')
f'or liAe and as and other uses of as if/as though
ctlt(K Qtltsl
lONS 3
A,\5WR5 IO
( HI.(.K ()LJES I'ION.\
1,
106
AN!) ]
Rewrite these sentences, using as if/as though'
1
2
3
She sounds in need of helP' She ...
'1 She
He'll probably have to walk home. It '.'

I think I'm going to faint.
feeis tired. 2 She sounds happy. 3 She
looks great.
1 lt loks like beer. 2 lt feels like liquid gold.
3 I She sounds as iflas though she needs help
(OR she's in need of help). 2 lt looks as iflas

though he'll have to walk home. 3 I feel as
iflas though I'm going to faint.
34
ari'r*ri..'
g,ol1 llr He usd to walk:with hs d,99,

lri1ry',enihi,liatgolf cours; an.tidqg u :to fild a lot oflbalfs'
n
Hi rr, t"t th er no "i nd,put, th9m: i, boxei,,the n in,drawet"'-then
:
useC.ittect
'
.JpUt.at, 't didnt:u'se= to piay- Wiitr'them,iMr titmus cgmmented" '
:q"itl'u!d play'n, when I was you n ge r'-l si*1y,
'althou g h, l. rsed to, b
re,
3 89'th
,seA'toln j o cou nting ihe m,, At,w he n, t'd tletted' 1'5, :to-:
1e.w9
n',
put
the,mi
l
no' mo r,e driwers and i o rnre iu p6oi i s i efl, io usd
e.
of used to
Affirmative: used to + infinitive
Negative: didn't use fo + infinitive
+
Qustions: dld + subject + use to infinitive
Negative
Affrrmative
I didn't use to go
I used to go
You didn't use to go
You used to go
He didn't use to go
go
to
He used
She didn't use to go
She used to go
It didn't use to go
It used to go
We didn't use to go
We used to go
You didn't use to go
go
You used to
TheY didn't use to go
They used to go
o Note the final -d in the affirmative
Question
Did
Did
Did
Did
Did
Did
Did
Did
I use to go?
you use to go?
he use to go?
she use to go?
it use to go?
we use to go?
you use to go?
they use to go?
(used to)'
Harry used to collect golf balls. (Nor Harry use to collect)

question forms (ddn't
But note that there,s nolinal -d in the negative and
he use
use
to/did
to).
I didn't use to PlaY with them.

(Nor I didn't used to play with them')
Where did he use to Put them?
(Nor Where did he used to?)
Do you cottect gotf balls, Harry? No, but I used to'
Do"you u"o, glott"t now, Harry? Yes, but I didn't use to'
o Note that the -s- in used fo is pronounced [s], toin used to is pronounced [te]
before a consonant and [tu:] before a vowel sound'
I used to [te] be .'. I used to [tu:] enjoy "'
o We use the negative form ... neuer used fo for emphasis:
use to play with them'
I neter used to play with themisa stronger version o I didn't
CHECK QUESTIONS
Write three sentences wit}a use(d) to'

I (affirmative) His wife/find golf balls in the bath
2 (negative) SheiPlaY golf

3 (qustion) Why/Harry/collect
golf balls?
Step 2
Used o to describe regular actions in the past
We use used to to talk about a habit or regular activity in the past that doesn't
happen now. Used to emphasises that the activity was repeated many times.
He used to collect golf balls.
His dog used to find a lot of balls.
If we use the past simple here, the idea that the action happened many times isn't
emphasised.
He collected golf balls. His dog found a lot of balls.
Note: If we describe a number of regular activities in the past, it isn't necessary to
repeat used to each time. We can use the past simple instead.
Harry tooh them home ond put them in boxes.
(= Harry used to take them home and he used to put them in boxes.)
o We can also use would + infinitive without fo to talk about past habits. When we
use uould, we usually say when or how often the action happened.
He used to toolh with his dog on the locol golf course.
ox He would walk with his dog eaery day on the local golf course.
Note: I4lou1d is generally more formal and less common.
(HECK OU'TIONS 2
Step 3
Answer these questions with either Yes or No.

I Does Harry collect golf balls now?
2 Did he regularly look for golf balls in the past?
3 Does he still put golf balls in the bath?
4 Did his dog often find balls for him?
Used to to describe situations in the past
We also use used fo to talk about situations in the past which don't exist now.
Harry used to be quite a good player.
All the drawers in the house used to be full of golf balls.
Note: We don't use wouldwhen we talk about a past situation. We can't say; 'Harry
would be quite a good player.'
CHECK QUESTIANS 3
AN5WE,R.S
/O
CHECK QUESTIANS
1,2AND]
Answer these questions with Yes or No.

1 Is Harry a good player now?
2 Was he quite a good player when he was younger?
3 Are the drawers full of golf balls now?
4 Were the drawers full of golf balls at one time in the past?
1 His wife used to find golf balls in the bath.

2 She didn't use to play golf. 3 Why did Harry
use to collect golf balls?
2
3
I No. 2 Yes.
I No. 2 Yes.
3 No. 4
3 No. 4
Yes
Yes
35
Dimitri Poulos, a Greek student, has come to London to learn more
,English. At first things were very strange. English money was a problem
at f irst, but now he's got used to it. Enlish fod is different from creek
food, but he's getting used to it, slowly! He's also getting used to
speaking English all the time. But he hasn't got usd to'tie traffic in
England. He hasn't got used to looking righi before he crosses the road.
That's still a problem.
Step
to get used to + anoun/pronoun on + - ing
o we use ge t used to something or get used to doing something when we talk about
the process of becoming accustomed to something. something that was strange
and unfamiliar, at first, becomes more familiar and normal.
He's getting used to English food. (+ a noun)
(At first English food was strange, but it's becoming less strange.)
He's getting used to lf. (+ a pronoun. lf = English food)
He's getting used to speaking English. (+ the -ing form)
Vhen he speaks English, he now finds it easier than before.)
He's (has) got used to English money.
(fhe process of understanding English money has finished. Now it isn't strange.)
o Note the forms of get used to.
Affirmative
Negative
Question
Present continuous
I'm getting used to
I'm not getting used to
Am I getting used to?
He's getting used to
He isn't getting used to
Is he getting used to?
Present perfect
He's got used to
He hasn't got used to
Has he got used to?
Past simple
He got used
to
Future
He'll get used to
We
He didn't get used

He
don't use an infinitive
to
won't get used to
Did he get used to?
Will he get used to?
afI"er get used to. Tohere is a preposition, so it is
followed by the -ing form of the verb.

He's getting used to speahing English all the time.
(Nor He's getting used to speak English all the time.)
o Used is pronounced /ju:st/.
':HECK QUESTIONS
Put in forms of get used to.

1 Dimitri hasn't ... English food yet.
2 English money was a problem, but after a few days he
3 Slowly he ... (live) in London.
...
it.
tep 2
be used to + a noun/pronoun oR + -ing

Dimitri has been i England for six weeks now and he's used to a lot of
things that were strange at f irst. He's used t_o speaking English a.ll the
time. He,s used to the English weather. Traffic in England doesn't worry
him any more * now he's used to looking right before he crosses the
road. But there'are some things he still isn't used to' He isn't used to
having milk in his tea and coffee and he's not used to drinking instant
coffee.Andheisn.tusedtoswimminginacoldsea.
We use be used to + a noun or a pronoun or + the -ing,Orm of a verb when we say
that something isn't strange any more.
He's used to the English weather.
(Ihe English weather doesn't surprise him any more')
He's used to speaking English all the time.
(Ihis was a problem, but it isn't now.)
He's not used to drinking instant coffee.
(tn Greece he drinks 'real' coffee. So instant coffee is strange to him.)
o Note the forms oi be used to.
Negative
Question
Affirmative
Present
Am I used to?
I'm not used to
I'm used to
He's used to
He isn't used to
Past simple
He was used to
He wasn't used
Is he used to?
Was he used to?
to
Future
Will he be used to?

He won't be used to
He'll be used to
to.7o here is a preposition, so it
used
be
after
o Note that we don't use an infinitive
verb.
-ingfotm
the
of
is followed by the
He's used to speaking English all the time.
(Nor He's used to speak English all the time.)
o Compare:
A Dimitri is used to eating English food.
B Dimitri used to eat English food.
Note: These two sentences have completely different meanings'
it
A means 'Eating English food isn't strange to him any more and he often eats
now.'
it now.'
B means 'Eating English food was his habit in the past, but he doesn't eat
(For the verb used fo see Unit 34.)
at]a( (l{./EIlONs
R5 / C)
la N S
1 A^lD 2
A,V,SW
( i tL( K Qt-l
F':,1
Put in forms of (not) be used to1 Dimitri's ... (hear ) English now.
2 He still ... (drink) tea with milk in it.
3 The sea's warm in Greece. So he ... (swim ) in a cold sea'
1 Diimitri hasn't got used to English food yet.

2 English money was a problem, but after a few
days he got used to it. 3 Slowly he's getting
used
to living in London.
1 Dimitri's used to hearrng English now. 2 F:

still isn't used to drinking tea with milk in it
3 he's not (he isn't) used to swimming in a c: :
sea.
Nick wants to go to New York. He's in a travel agent's;
llf you're British, you don't nee.d a visa. You just need to take
passport.'
,l need to hir:e a car while l'm over there. Do I need an international
aiiring Licence?'
'v"t, y, Oo, and you'll also need a credit card,'.
;Whai about the violence and crime in New York?'

,You don't need to worry too much. You just need to be careful where
you go, especially at ni9ht.'
'So I needn't buy a gun then?'
'No, you needn't.'
'lf I go in September, what sort of clothes do I need to take?'
'lt's ruarm in wew york in September, s you needn't take Winter
clothes.'
We use need + noun/pronoun when we talk about the things it's necessary
to
have.
You'll need a cred.it card. (= It'll be necessary to have one')
Do I need a uisa? (= Is it necessary to have a visa?)
Note: Need has two negative forms: don't need/doesn't need and needn't.When
*
we're talking about soething that isn't necessary we use don't need/doesn't need
noun, not needn't.
You don't need a ulso. (Nor You needn't avisa.)
o We use need * infinitive with fo when we talk about an obligation or necessity in
the present or the future.

I need to driue white I'm ouer there. (= That's necessary.)
You need to be careful' (= It's necessary to be careful')
o We use don't/doesn't need to or needn't when we mean it isn't necessary to do
something.
I needn't buy a gun then? or.I don't need to buy a gun'
o Note that You don't need to/You needn'tmean the same as You don't hctue fo. (See
Unit 27.)
You don't need to worrY too much.
oR )'ou
(= You
o
(Ht{K
114
AUESf tONS
needn't worrY too much.

don't have to worrY too much.)
Needn'tisn't used much in American English.
Rewrite the sentences, using need.

I lt's necessary for Nick to hire a car when he's in the States'
2 Is it necessary for him to have an international licence?
3 It isn't necessary for him to buy a gun.
the verb need

Affirmative
Negative
I need to go
don't need to go
He doesn't need to go
They don't need to go
He needs to go
They need to go
on I needn't go
He needn't go
They needn't go
Questions
Do I need to go?
Does he need to go?
Do they need to go?
o The verb needhas no continuous form. You can't say, for example: 'You're
needing a passport.'
CHTCR OIIF<;TION\
Put in forms of the verb need.

I Nick ... a visa.
2 But he ... a passport.
3 ... take winter clothes?
Step 3
No, he doesn't.
Needn't have + past participle or didn't need to + infinitive?

Six weeks later Nick,goes back to the travel agent's. : ' ' '
'New York was great! I needn't have worried about the crime and
violence. I didn't see any.'
didn't need to tke a gun?'

'No, I didn't. And I needn't have had travel insurance. lwas never ill and
nothing was stolen. And you were right. I didn't need to take winter
clothes. The temperature never went below 30'!'
'So you
We use needn't houe + past participle when someone did something that wasn't
necessary. It was a waste of time or effort. But at the time they didn't know this.
I need.n't haue usorried about rf. (But he worried about it.)
I needn't haae tqhen insurance. (But he took insurance.)
We use didn't need to + infinitive when it wasn't necessary to do something. But it

isn't always clear if it was done or not.
I didn't need to tahe winter clothes.
0t wasn't necessary, but it isn't clear if he took winter clothes or not.)

o Compare 1 needn't haae tqken winter clothes.
(= He took winter clothes, but it wasn't necessary.)
I didn't need to take winter clothes.
(= Perhaps he took them, perhaps not, but it wasn't necessary.)
I
2
3
15l,ytA! ra)
) ti !::\T I O I'l
AA/i-)
).
I I
a sentence with didn't need to or needn't haoe.

He took S1,000. He didn't spend it all. He ...
He took two credit cards, but he only used one. He ...
Add
Ir/5I/ONS J
He didn't have a visa. The agent said it wasn't necessary.

1 Nick needs to hire a car when he's in the
States. 2 Does he need an international
licence? 3 He doesn't need to buy a gun. OR
He needn't buy a gun.
2
3
need 2 needs 3 Does he need to

He needn't have taken f 1,000 (OR so much
money). 2 He needn't have taken two credit
cards. 3 He didn't need to have a vis.
1 doesn't
115
37
On July 17th, 1965 Micky Nash of Finchley, north London wrote a letter
to his brother, Frank. He gave it to his wiie and asked her to post it for
him when she went to the shops. Micky wrote his brother a letter
because he needed money. He explaind the problem to him. He'd just
lost his job, and he wanted to buy a pram for his new baby. He wrote:
'Can you lend me l2O? nl give you the money back when lget a new
job.'
On July 13th, 1995 Micky received the reply. 'l got your letter yesterday,
askin f or f20.1 can lend it to you, but nowadays I think a pram will cost
you a bit more than that! And do you really need a pram for your 30year-old son?!' Frank then went to the posi office and showed them the
Ietter. They promised him an officialapology.
Verb + indirect object + direct object
Some verbs can have two objects, an indirect object and a direct object
Normally the indirect object refers to a person, and comes first.
verb
indirect object
direct object
Micky wrote
his brother
a letter
(His brotheris the person who Mic wrote to - the indirect object.,4 letteris
what Mic wrote - the direct object.)
He shoued
them
Michy's letter.
Con you lend
me
s20?
I'll giue
you
the money.
CHECK QUESTIONS
Write the correct word order.

I Mic/his brother/wanted/him/to lend/some money.
2 Hel aletter/him/sent.
irect object +
We sometimes use fo with the indirect object, which then comes after the direct
object.
verb
+
direct object + indirect object
Micky wrote
a letter
to his brother.
He gaue
We use 1o + the
it
to his wife.
indirect object when we want to emphasise the indirect object.
Compare these two sentences from the text:

A Micky wrote a letter to his brother.
B Micky wrote his brother a letter because he needed money.
In sentence A we want to say who Micky sent the letter to, so we emphasise hs
brotherby saying to his brother.
In sentence B, we already know he's written to his brother. Now we want to say why
he wrote, so we don't need to emphasise his brother.
117
We also use 10 with the indirect object:

when both objects are pronouns (it, him, you, them, efc.).
it to you.
English we can say: I can lend you it. ox I can lend it you.)
or when the direct object is a pronoun (it, them).
I can lend
(n informal
He gaue
it to his wife.
We must use fo
with the verbs describe, explain, mention, report,
suggest.
He explained the problem to him.

(Nor He explained him the problem.)
Complete the sentences, using fo.

1 Micky wrote the letter and (sent/his brother/it)
2 (He/the letter/his wife/showed) when he'd finished it.
CHICK QUESIIONS 2
(Helherlitlread)
We often use an indirect object oy to + an indirect object with the following verbs:
bring, giue, hand, lend, offer, pass, oue, pay, read, recommend, sell, send, show,
teach, tell, throw, write.
Micky Nash urote a letter to his brother.
We use fo+ the indirect obiect when we're talking about something which passes
from one person to another.

o But we use for + the indirect object when we're talking about doing something
that will be of value to another person, or when one person does something instead
of another person.
He wanted to buy a pram for his new baby.
(onHe uanted to buy his new baby a pram.)
Do you really need to get a pram for your son?!
(ox Do you really need to get your son a pram?)
He asked her to post the letter for him when she uent to the shops'
o We often use for + an indirect object with the following verbs: book, bring, build,
buy, choose, cook, cut, do, fetch, find, get, keep, leaue, mahe, order, play, prepare,
reserue, saue, sing, take.
some verbs (attow, cause, charge, cost, fine, promise, refuse, rursh) we must
use the indirect obiect on its own. We don't use fo or for.
A pram will cost you a bit more than that!
They promised him an official apology.
o with
(HECK ()UTSTIONS
A AI5
CIlI'K
WFR. IT)
Qt,/FSTlC)N5
1, 2 Al'D
118
Write complete sentences, adding either to or for.

I Micky didn't post the letter himself. (his wifeihim/itlposted)
2 Mic and his wife went to the shops (the baby/a new pram/to buy)
3 Frank/the letter/the post office/took
4 They couldn't/him/explain/why the letter had arrived so late
1 Micky wanted his brother to lend him some

money. 2 He sent him a letter.
1 Micky wrote the letterand sent itto his
brother. 2 He showed the letter to his wife 3
He read it to her.
3 I His wife posted
it for him. 2 to buy a new

pram forthe baby. 3 Frank took the letterto
the post office. 4 They couldn't explain to him
why the |etter had arrived so late.
Cal'and Lee aie footbalt fans. Their team, Leeds United, qre
ptaying
talking about the game.

tonight.
lThey'll win the championship if they'beat Arsenal ton,ight; And if the4
win the championship, theyrl p'lay in the European cup next season''
Cal's
1st conditional: /f+ present simple +
will
We use /+ a verb in the present simple to talk about a possible future action or
situation. The i/clause is often followed by another clause with will or won't.
If they win the championship, they'll play in the Europeon Cup.
(Leeds may win the championship or they may not. winning is a factual
possibility.)
/f + present simple (l/clause) + future rorll (main clause)

If they utin the championship, they'll play in the European Cup.
This sentence is about the future, but we don't use a verb in the future in the l/
clause. we don't say 'lf they will win the championship.'we use a present tense,
often the present simple.
o We can put the lf clause at the beginning or at the end.
They'tl win the chompionship if they best Arsenal tonight.
or.If they beat Arsenal tonight, they'll win the championshipNote: Don't confuse if and when.
If they beqt Arsenal tonight, they'll win the championship.
(1f = a condition. We're talking about a possibility.)
When they beat Arsenql tonight, they'll win the championship(When = a point in time. It's certain they'll beat Arsenal.)
CIIECK OUESTIONS

I What (happen) if ...? They'll win the championship.
2 What (happen) if ...? They'll play in the European Cup'
a present tense + can, should, may, mi7ht, etc.

talking about Leeds United.
'And if they pla-y in the European Cup, they might make a lot of money'
lf they make a lot of money, they can buy some new players. And if theybuy new players, they should win the championship again next year "''
Cal's still
o In addition to the future ui11, we can also use can, could, should, ought to, may,
might, mustin the main clause.
If they ptoy in the Cup, they might mlke a lot of money.
(= Perhaps they'll make a lot of money.)
If they make a lot of money, they can buy new players.

(= They'll be able to buy new players.)
If they buy new players, they should win the championship again(= They'll probably win the championship again.)
120
;..K
OUESTIAN\
Step 3
Write these sentences in a different way. Use should, can, might.

I If Leeds play badly, perhaps Arsenal will win tonight. If Leeds play badly, ..
2 If Leeds play well, they'll probably beat Arsenal. If Leeds play well, ...
3 If they buy new players, they'll be able to improve the team. If they truy...
lf + a present tense + the present simple or the imperative

'Listen, Cal, if we don't leave now, we'll miss the bus. So, if you,ve
,finished talking, can,wego? Come;onI]lf you'e cominglo the match,
hurry up! And if you want to get in, don't forget your tickeil They
don't let people in if they don't have a ticket.'
'OK, OK! l'm looking for my scarf. Leeds always win if I wear my scarf.'
: .
....--.
: .
. - ..a:: .
::.,.a :,..:
We can use the construction 1f + present simple + present simple when we're
talking about something that's always true.
Present simple (main clause) If + present simple (fclause)
Leeds always u;in
if I uear my scarf.
(= Every time I wear my scarf, Leeds win.)
They don't let people in
if they don't haae a ticket.
(= They never let people in without a ticket.)
We can use an imperative (a command) in the main clause.
If
+ present
(ifclause) + imperative
match, hurry up!
If you're coming to the

If you want to get in,
(main clause)
d.on't forget your ticket!
Note also:
If+ present perfect

If you'ae
finished talking, con we go? (= If you've finished now.)
If+ present continuous
If you're coming, hurry up! (= If you intend to come.)

,4ECK QUE'TIONS 3
Put the verb in the correct tense.

I If you (want) to get into the ground, (not forget) your ticket!
2 If you (go) to an 'all-ticket' match, you (need) a ticket to get in.
3 If Cal (wear ) his scarf, Leeds always (win).
4 Come on, CaMf you (come) to the match, hurry up!
conditional:
Lee and Cal have missed the busl The next bus is in 35 minutes. An old
man on a bike is giving them some advice.
Old man: lf I were you, I wouldn't wait for the next bus, l'd walk.
Lee: We haven't got time. lf we walked, it would take us an hour to get
there, and we'd miss the first 20 minutes of the game.
Cal: There wouldn't be a problem if there were more buses.
Lee: lf we had a cal we'd be all right.
Cal: No, we wouldn't. lf we went by cal we might not find a place to park.
Lee: lf we had f30, we could get tax.
Old man:Well, lf I was going to a big match, l'd leave home much
earlier. I wouldn't risk missing the bus, like you two. lt's your own fault.
Lee: Cal, if-we asked him nicely, we could borrow this old man's bike!
We use / + a verb in the past simple to talk about an action or situation in the
present or the future which is improbable, hypothetical or imaginary. The lf clause
is often followed by the conditional uould or wouldn't'

/f + past simple + uould
we'd be all right.
lf we hqd a car,
Qmaginary: They haven't got a car.)

o Note the difference between the lst and 2nd conditional:
If we utolk, it toitl tahe us an hour to get there' (7sl)
(fhis is a factual possibility. It's an ope choice. They can walk or not. See Step 1')
ut Lee says: If we wathed, it ttsould tahe us an hour to get there' (2Dd)
(Ihis is an unreal hypothesis, because Lee doesn't want to walk. He doesn't want to
miss the beginning of the game.)
o To emphasise the improbability or the impossibility we often use uere instead of
uas, but tDas can also be used here.
If I were you, I wouldn't uait. (oRIf I was you)
o We can use could or might ln the second clause'
If we had a car, we might not find anyuhere to park'
(= Perhaps we wouldn't find anywhere to park')
o
o
If we had 530, we could get 0 tlxi.

(= It would be possible to get a taxi')
If necessary, we can use the past continuous in the ifclause'
If I was going to a big match, I'd leaue home much earlier'
we form the conditional with would
Affrrmative
I'd (would) be late
He'd be late
+ an
infinitive without fo.
Negative
Question
wuldn't be late
He wouldn't be late
Would I be late?
Would he be late? Etc'
CTIECK QUT.STIONS 4
Whydon'ttheYwalk? Becauseif
...
2 There aren't many buses. If ... , ... a problem'

3 Couldtheygetataxi? Theycould, i{...
A5WRS
rO
CHE(K QUFSTIONS
1, 2, 3 AI'JD 4
2
What will happen if they beat Arsenal?

2 What will hapPen if theY win the
championship?
'1
1 lf Leeds play badly, Arsenal mightwin. . .

tonight. 2 lf Leeds play well, they should beat
Arsenal. 3 lfthey buy new players, they can
improve the team.
122
l want don'tf orgetl

win 4 you're coming
go need
3wears
I Becase if they walked it would take them

an hour to get there. 2 lf there were more
buses, ther wouldn't be a problem. 3 if they
had f30.
Lynth,fJgw.bac!,to
On Tuesday evenring; November: t6th tast year; Dvid
lf the'wgather
wastrrjble.
t:ingandttreweather
ingf and frbm Tunisl
eve ni-n g'
rl""rl' good, Davi wo-ul d h ave a rr:ived'hom e on Tuesday
f it had n lt b e e nr
didnlt land
foggy. they,would n;;" iA^J--ri:l-onn irprt uttlev
;;.,t;;;rfi
ry,' a n a, r, ir
tif e wou l d n,t h ave. ch a n ge.d,,
/f + past perfect + would have

o
about something that

We use the past perfect in the lf clause to talk
didn't
past'
happen or a siiuation that didn't exist in the
hqae lqnded in London'
would
good,
they
If the weather had been
(lhe weather wasn't good' It was terrible')
o We use the past conditional in the main clause'
Past conditional
they woutd haae londed in London'
if ctause. we don't say'lf the weather
Note: we don,t use th";?;;;;.ditioal in the
would have been good, ...'
Pâst
Perfect
good,
If the weather had been
CHE{K QUESTIONS
Ifithadn'tbeenfoggy,theywouldhavelandedatLondonAirport'andDavid's
life wouldn't have changed'
1 Was it foggY?
2 Did theY land at London AirPort?
3 Did David's life change?
Forms of
past conditional
o The past conditio nal = would hae + apast participle'

Questions
Negative
Affrrmative
Woutd I have won?
won
have
wuldn't
I
won
have
(would)
I'd
Would he have won?
won
have
He wouldn't
He'd have won
Would we have won?
won
have
wouldn't
We
We'd have won
Etc.
o There are two possible contracted forms:
I'd have won oR I would've won, etc'
I would've /wudev/ won'

Note the pronunciation: I'd have laidevlwon'
I wouldn't have /wudntev/ won'
form d'
Note: hod and uou1d both have the contracted
haue got home on time'
(=
would)
he'd
L'ondon,
in
tandei
had)
If he'd(=
CHECK QUESTIONS 2

1 If 'd been on the plane, I (be) worried'
2 I (not take) the plane if it had been foggy'
5 Itir," plan hadlanded in London, he (get) home on time?
Step 3
lf + past perfect + could have or might have

lf the weather had been bettel thre wouldn't have been a problem.
They could have landed in'London quite easily, and it wouldnrt have
been'necessary to f ly. to scotland. lf David had needed to get home that
night, he could have gone back to London by train. But h decided to
stay in a hotel. At the reception desk a woman dropped her pen. He
picked it up for her. lf he hadn't been standing there, he wouldn't have
seen her. lf she hadn't dropped her pen, he might not have noticed her.
lf he hadn't been there, someone else might hve picked it up.
We can also use could haue and might haue in the main clause.
If the weather had been better, they could hqae landed in London.
(= They would have been able to land. It would have been possible to land.)
If he hadn't been there, someone else might haae picked it up.
(= Perhaps someone else would have picked the pen up.)
@or could houe and might haue see also Unit 29.)
o We sometimes use the past perfect continuous (see Unit l3) in the l/clause.
If he hodn't been standing there, he wouldn't haue seen her.
:TCK OUISTIONS 3
Step 4

I If he'd needed to get home that night, what could he have done?
2 What might have happened if the woman hadn't dropped her pen?
/f + past perfect + would or would be + -ing

the hotel, are now married
and living in Scotland. They often talk about their first meeting.
'lf I hadn't dropped my pen, I wouldn't know you now and I wouldn't
, David and.Hanrah; the woman,he met in
be wearing this ring.'

'Yes, it's funny.
lf I hadn't met you, l'd still be living in London. And if

with you now.'
:someoh els had, picked your pen u, I wouldnlt'be-'heie
We sometimes link the past with the present by using uould or would be
/f
+ past
perfect (past action)
+ would
If I hadn't dropped. my pen,

If + past perfect (past action)
+ uould
If I
--.CK
QUSTIANS 4
AI-5WEs IO
iECK QUESTTONS
1, 2, 3, AND 4
hadn't met you,
+-
ing.
(present situation)
I uould.n't hnou you nou.

be + -ing @resent situation)
I'd still be living in London now.
Make sentences with f.

I He met her. He isn't living in London now.
2 She dropped her pen. He knows her now.
3 He picked her pen up. He's here with her now.
1
2
3
1 Yes, it was. 2 No, they didn't. 3 Yes, it did

1 l'd have been worried. 2 I wouldn't have
taken 3 would he have got home on time?
1 He could have gone back to London on the
airline bus. 2 He might not have noticed her.
1 lf
hehadn'tmethet he'd still belivingin
London
now. 2 lf she hadn't dropped
her pen,
wouldn't know her now. 3 lf he hadn't

picked her pen up, he wouldn't be here with
he
her now.
125
40
Rosanna Fisher works at an outdoor activities ceRtre on the
west coast
of Scotland. she teaches mountain crimbing, scuba ri"g
rnggliding. she's talking to some young peopr who've just rrived
"" at rre
centre.
'You can't do any of the actvities unless you're with an instructor.
we
won't let you start an activity unless you have the correct equipment.
You can't go scuba diving unresr yor;r" done thetr.ir; .;ire.
And
remembe; you can't leave the centre unless you say whe" yor;i" going.'
Unless
Unless = if ... not.
unless
You cqn't leaue the centre
unless you
OR
if+
affirmative verb
say where you're going.
negative verb
can't leaue the centre

if you
don't say where you're going.
o unless is followed by the same tenses as /in the lst and 2nd conditional (see
Unit 38). It can't be foliowed by will or would.
we won't let you start an actiuiry unless you haoe the correct equipment.
(Nor unless you will have the correct equipment)
You
CHLCK QUESTIONS
Rewrite these sentences using unless.
You can't go hang-gliding if you aren,t 16 or over.
If you haven't got a medical certificate, you can,t go scuba diving.
rov
ed (th at) / p rov i d i n g (th at)
Two young people are asking Rosanna if they can do certain things.
'Can I go into town this evening, Rosanna?,
'Yes, provided
10.30 p.m.'
that you go with
friend, and as long
as
you get back by
'Will it be safe to go windsurfing this afternoon?,

'Yes. You'll be oK providing there's an instructor with you
and
as you don't go too far out to sea.,
as long
o we usepro uided/prouiding.(thoe or as rong as to talk about a condition. They,re

stronger than Iand mean only if.
As long as and prouided/prouiding (that) altmean the same and they,re
followed by
the same tenses as rf (in the lst ad 2nd conditional)
You can go into town, proaided that you go with a friend.
(= You can go, only if you go with a friend.)
127
You'll be OK, as long as you don't go too far out to sea.

don't go too far out to sea.)
(= You'Il be OK, only if you
We often leave out that after prouided and prouiding.

You'll be OK, proaiding there's an instructor uith you.
(= You'll be OK, proaiding that there's an instructor with you.)
Complete these sentences with as long as or proaided/providing (that)I Mark can go windsurfing ... there (be) enough wind.
2 Emily can go into town ... (get back) late.
CHECK QUESTIANS 2
Rosanna's taking a group of young people into
the mountains
tomorrow.
,Bring a waterproof jacket with you in case it rains and an extra sweater
in case it gets cold. We'll take survival bags with us in case we have to
spend the night on the mountain. Last month ltook a group out and
we took surv'ival bags and extra sweaters in case the weather changed.
Well, it suddenly got very foggy and we were on the mountain for 48
hours. So, don't forget your survival bags in case we can't get home
tonight.'
We use in case to talk about the precautions we take before we do something. We

use a present tense after in cose when we talk about the future. We don't use uli1.
You'll each need a jacket in case it rains. (Nor it will rain)
(= Take a jacket as a precaution because it might rain.)
Take your suruiual bags in case we can't get home tonight.
(= Take them as a precaution because we might not get home.)
In case doesn't mean the same as lf. Compare:
AB
Bring a uaterproof
jacket
in case it starts to rain.
(= Biing a waterproof iacket when we leave, because
it might start to rain later.)
BA
if it starts to rain
(= Bring a waterproof jacket after the rain has started.)
In both sentences A happens first.
Bring a waterproof jacket
We can also use in case to talk about precautions we took in the past.
We tooh suruiuel bags and extra sueaters in case the weather changed.
(= We took survival bags and extra sweaters because it was possible the weather
would change.)
CII.CK QESTIONS J
Put in
2
3
AllswERS
TO
CHTCK QU5I/O,rys
We'll take plenty of food with us ... we don't get back for dinner.
We'll also take some matches ... we need to light a fire.
1 You can't go hang-gliding unless you're 16 or

Unless you've got a medical certificate,
over. 2
1,2AND3
2
124
if or in cqse.
We should get back for dinner ... we leave now.
you can't go scuba diving.

1 Mark can go windsurfing provided/providing
(that) there's enough wind. (on as long as)

2 Emily can go into town as long as she doesn :
get back late. on provided/providing
1
2 in case 3 in case
3 if
Louise, Mqlissa and Brad all share,a flat just-outside London' The two
girls don't like some of Brad's habits.
wish Brad would stop.smoking. The wholefla! smellsof cigarette
smoke.'
,And I wish he wouldn,t leave his clothes everywhere. He's so untidy.'
lAnd he never does any housework. lf only he'd do the'washing-up
sometimes.
l
sometimes wish we could periuade him to- leave. lf only he'd go qnd
another flat!'
'l wish l could juSt say to him iBrad, we'd like you to leave'' But'it's
d iff icu lt.'
Wish/lf only + would

or
We use wish or If only + would when we want something or someone to change
when we want someone to do something.

I uish Brad uould stop smoking. @rad smokes; they want him to stop')
I wish he wouldn't leaue his clothes euerywhere'
to be more tidy.)
@rad leaves his clothes everyr,vhere. They want him
we don't tse would afler I uishl... and I wish we... . we often use could after I
and oe to talk about a regret about a present or future inability'
I wish I could just say to him "Br(td, we'd like you to leaue "
(Nor: I wish I would just say to him ...)
I wish ue could persuade him to le(tue'
(Nor: I wish we would persuade him to leave.)
o Iwish... and If onty... meanthesame,but If onty... canexpressthewishmore
strongly.
If only he'd go and find another flat!
(HECK AUESTIONS

1 Mlissa wishes that Brad ... the washing-up occasionally'
2 Louise: 'Brad, I wish you ... leave your clothes everywhere''
3 Melissa: 'lf only we ... persuade Brad to find another flat''
Wish/lf only + the past simple/the past continuous

Brad works in central London, He's talking to Louise and Me.lissa.
il *irh the f lat was nearer the offiCe. lt's a long way to travel every day.'
'Yes, I bet you wish you had a nice flat in Chelsea''
'Too expesive. I wish I was earning a lot more money"
'Well, why don't you give up smoking, then you'd save some money?'
lIwishldidn,t'smoke,but1can,tstop.,
'Yes, you could, if You tried.
;you,e criticising me again! lf only you two were more tolerant.

Sometimes lwish I lived on my own, ren lcoutd do what lwantl'
We use wish (or If only) + the past simple or the past continuous when we talk
about a regret about a present situation.
I wish I didn't smofte. (He smokes, but he regrets it.)
I wish the flat wqs nearer the office. (lt isn't near the office.)
I wish I uas eq.rning a lot more money. (He isn't earning a lot more.)
Note: We don't use wouldhere. We don't say: 'l wish the flat would be nearer the
office.'
o Note that with this construction we can use either oas or were after { he, the flat,
etc. (lst and 3rd person singular):
I wish the flot uas (o*were) nearer the office.
I uish I uas (oa uere) earning a lot more money.
CHECK QUESTION' 2

1 Brad wishes he (live) in his own flat.
2 He wishes he (have) a lot of money.
3 He wishes he (not smoke).
Wish/lf only + the past perfect

It's a month later. Brad has left the flat. The two girls are talking abot
him.
'lt seems strange without Brad, doesn't it?'

.'Yes,l sgmetimeswish we hadn't asked him to leave, He was a very nice
' guy ieafiy He had a great sense of humour. I wish we'd tried to discuss
ir,ingt wth him.'
'l know. lwish I hadn't criticised him so much.'
'lf only he hadn't been so untidy.'
'lf only he hadn.'t smoked in the flat.'
'lf only, if only! lf only things had been different! Why are we talking
like this? We can't change the past.'
We use rsl and if only + the past perfect when we talk about a regret we have
about something that happened or didn't happen in the past.
I wish we hadn't asked him to leaue.
(But they asked him to leave.)
If only he hadn't smoked in the flat.
(But he smoked in the flat.)
o We don't :use would haue afler wish/if only.
I wish we'd tried (had tried) to talk to each other more.
(Nor I wish we would have tried.)
lECK QUTSf IONS }
A/V5WFRs
.iECK
iO

I They asked Brad to leave. Now they wish they ... him to leave.
2 Brad was untidy. Now Louise says: 'l wish he ... so untidy.'
3 Brad smoked a lot. Theywish he ... in the flat.
1 )AND}
do
1 would
persuade
1 lived 2
C)UESTIONS
2 wouldn't
leave 3 could
3 I hadn't asked
2 hadn't been 3 hadn't
smoked
had
3 didn't smoke
131
42
Sarah Judd's a student. She's saving up to pay for a trip to lndia. She,s
going to sell her motorbike and her CD player to make some money. ln
order to sell them she put an advert in the local paper last week. She
works- in a b'ar two evenings a week in order: to.ern some:extra money.
Her parents have given her f500 to help her pay.for her trip.
Step
Talking about the purpose of an action
To talk about the purpose of an action we can use the infinitive of

purpose (fo + infinitive).
She's sauing up to pay for o holiday.

She works in a bar to eqrn some extra money.
We can also use in order to + infinitive. It is more formal.
In order to sell them
she's
put an aduert in the locol paper.
She works in a bar in ord.er to eorn some extro money.

we can use these two structures only if each part of the sentence has the same
subject.
Sqrah's sauing up to pay for a holiday.
(Sarah's saving up. Sarah wants to pay for a holiday.)
Note that there's no negative form of the infinitive of purpose.
We can't say: Sarah stays in most evenings not to spend money.

We use so that + a verb in the negative or so as not to + infinitive. (See Step 3.)
cHrck ouEsiloNs
Answer the questions with the infrnitive of purpose or in order to.
1 Why does Sarah need money?

2 Why has she put an advert in the local paper?
3 Why did she phone the local paper last week?
Step 2
Talking about the purpose or use of a thing

Sarah dosn't have time to have breakfast at home. She takes
& to,rad|;;,;usu[y a travql book
,gbui.lniq.,n..t {e.ye inrr.jf t!iei:nothing to watch on televisioU".,',
and she hasn't got any work to do, she plans her trip. She'll need a
sorn,thi1g1 toe''qt. OnrthgUs:and',? b
,su{debAkilbftlpher:plah-he,<iuterind engugh money to payr.fo':..

,her.{.ood'ad,1d$ng. She's also going to,take.''n,oteboktowiite.hr,,,.,
experiences in. Shet looking for someone to go rtvith because she
do,sh,'t t.tolgo.,.raln'e . .:::',t, ,, ,,a ,; ,
we use the infinitive of purpose (not rn order to) to talk about the purpose or use
of something.
She doesn't haue time to haoe breakfast ot home.
She takes something to eat on the bus. She takes q book to reqd..
.Notethattheprepositionisstillincludedwhenweuseaverbasaninfinitiveol
comes after the oblect'
purpose. When the.'"-ttu' an object' the preposition
' (Sfre wants to go with someone')
ihe's tooking fr someone to go ttsith'
(She'11 writher experiences in a notebook')
ii-3
(HI'K QU'51IQNS
going to take
'o'"book
to write her experiences in'
of purpose'
Answer the questions, using the infinitive
mornings?
the
in
her
f^ Wttv o"t ir," tuk" boo[wi*r
Step 3
Why will she need a guide book?

Wn *iU she need money on the triP?
So that/so
EveryweekSarahputshermoneyinthebanksothatsheWon,tspend
so that she can
iil A travel agent f'u, gi;'rr'hr uiot of information
found a friend to
has
sarah
to lndia.
choose the cheapest retui ight
gowith,Hisname,sS""jit.H;ianlndianstudentatthesamecollege.
coutd discuss
yesterday sarah inviteo sît t" r,!J,rr.ouse so that they
they could
so
lndia
of
it maps
their plans. She told f i* 'irri^g uli f
both iook at them'
Weusesothat(andnottheinfinitiveofpurpose)totalkaboutthepurposeofan
action:
each part of the sentence'

when there is a different subject in
the
nfoimation so thot she can choose
of
A tratsel qgent no, gi,", i"i_b,t
cheaPest return flight to India'
when the PurPose is negative'

it!
the bank so that she uon't spend
Euery ueek sarah puts nir'*""y in
oNotethatwecanalsousesoasnotto+infinitive.Themeaningstaysthesame'
Eueryweeksarahputsn*''iy'thebanksoasnottospendit!
oSofhafisoftenfollowedbywitt,won,t,would,wouldn't,can,can't,could,couldn't,
she won't spend it!
i'i"i'p'i ner money n tie bank so thqt
their plans'
dlscuss
e "ia S'njit so that they could
o Note that so fhaf is often shortened totheyso'could look at them together'
so
"u-nl'pt
so tht they could look (tt them together'
lpt
i"lt
alt
bring
to
him
She told
These two sentences mean the same'
she told him to bring
IHECK eu:srtolvs
(or so)'
Answer the questions with so that
^
the bank?'
in
money
put
her
I d;d""t'saratt
'
a lot of information?
2 Whv has the travel agent gi"ett Sutun
3 Why i Sutut' invitJSanlit to her house?
A5WfRs ]O
aHf(1( et./t5,rlL)Al!
1)
At',lD
1 To Dav
forlln order to pay for her trip to
2
.,
lndia. i To sell/ln order to sell her motorblKe

putan
nJ f,r.tCD player. 3 To put/ln orderto
adveri in (the PaPer).
1 To read
on the bus. 2 To help her plan her
rori" j To pay for her fooditand2 lodging'

so (that) she
r"" i*,tl tri.'*on't spend
3 So
flight
return
cheapest
the
.-.iiot.
plans
itf,u th"y could discuss their
l ti)r*"'rg2,l:,,i:scatsmaiin;Arthut,r'erg1rt",:#H:
l?ffi,"'.,
Trafalgar Square, London. Ferguson mar
,,r'eiioi:ioium;itrfmouEltatreinthetquare'wa9for s[:He,,,
'iiiiila Ait.himtfra niomni' tor oly tit000..rhe,f merican asreed
was very rich'
.',,to uy,it;**edkte1y, and he,co1!d affor:d t,'hecuse''he
',
Texat'but'he'certainty'
his"r'a,ncli,!n
t+din'i:'kloWW,L get it back to
r
to work or,th Bank:of Erc tan d ;' so,the
t.t e g1rsn cim
. i*ili
"
to give ,
,'m:rl,can Ueid nott ask for.reontract,an6'6i'1,!ieiitte
l umn
c
e.lso
n's
N
rs,0,Q',nd
ad"
I ;;-;;il;;,
i**l t" li, rei uon h'
.
still in Trafalgar Square!
inf in
itive
verb is normally the

when these verbs are followed by another verb, the second
beg, choose,
1ttempt,
ash,
infinitive wit h to.. afford, agree, aim' Tppear, arrTnge,
happen'
guarantee,
fail,
expect,
endeauoir,
claim., consent, decide, delnan'ct, deseiue,
(= intend)'
mean
monagq
long'
(how)'
learn'
knou'
i'ilni'
help, hesitate, hope, nu"y,
neglect,offer,omit,plan,prepare'pretend'promise'proue'refuse'seek'seem'swear'
teid, threaten, train, want, wish'
fie managed to conuince him that it wqs for sale'
He
offerld b
sell him the monument for 56'000'
Hedidn,tknowhowtogetthemonumentb(lcktohisranch.
form of the infinitive:
The American decided not to ash for a contracL
hurry, mean, neglect,
we don,t normally use u.r"guti"" infinitive after fait, hesitate,
o Note the negative
omit, prepare, refuse, train, want' wish'
oWithmanyoftheseverbs(afford,expect,intend,mean,seem,uant,etc.)itisn't
context' we iust use
n"."rrury t repeat tt e sna.r"rL itit'r understood from the
fo instead.
TheAmericanagreedtobuyit,andhecouldoffordto,becausehewasueryrich.
(= He could afford to buY it')
Texas, but he intended to'
He didn't know hou to gt iLt'back to his ranch in
(= He intended to get it back')
:HECK eulsrtous
Complete the sentences'

1 Feiguson (hope/make) a lot of money quickly'
2 He (decide/sell) Nelson's Column'
3 The American Qearn/not/believe) everybody he met'
Step 2
Dare, help + infinitive with and without to

The American soon realised he'd lost his f6,000. At first he didn't dare
tell the police because he didn't want to look foolish. But finally he
asked them to help him find Ferguson. They said they couldn't help him
to get his money back because they had more important crimes to
solve.
Ferguson was planning to sell something else. ll daren't sell Nelsonrs
Column again,' he thought. 'How about Big Ben? Do I dare sell Big
Ben?'
He sold the famous clock for f 10,000 to an ltalian millionairel
o In the present,
we can use dare as a modal verb or an ordinaryverb. The modal
verb is more common.

I daren't sell Nelson's Column again. (modal)
don't dare (to) sell Nelson's Column again. (ordinary)
In the past we normally :use dare as an ordinary verb.
He didn't dore (to) tell the police. (Rather lhanl. dared not)
In questions dare can be used as a modal verb or an ordinary verb (but in past
questions the ordinary verb form is more common).
Do I dare (to) sell Big Ben? onDqre I sell Big Ben?
op.l
When we use dare as an ordinaryverb it can be followed by an infinitive with or

without lo. The infinitive without fo is more common in informal spoken English.
o
o
Note that dare is normally used only in questions and negative sentences.
The verb help can be followed by an infinitive with or without fo. The meaning is
the same.
He asked them to help him fnd Ferguson.
on He asked them to help him to find Ferguson.
They couldn't help him to get his money back.
oxThey couldn't help him get his money back.
CITCK UESTIONS 2

I Ferguson (dare/sell) Nelson's Column again?
2 No, he (dare/try) to sell it a second time.
3 The police (not help the American/find) Ferguson.
and see/go and work

'After1hatFergusondecided'to.go.andWortintheU5A..outsidethe.
White House in Washinton he stopped and talked'to some visitors
from Chicago. He rented them ten rooms in the White House for
After verbs like
go ,
'
come, stop, run, stay, hurry up we often use and + infinitive
without fo.
He decided to go and uork in the States.
They could come and see their rooms later.
137
And we always use and in commands like come and help

(nor Come to help me!)
o Note that and can also be followed by a past tense.
He stopped o,nd tqlked fo some uisitors from Chicago.
(= He stopped to talk to some visitors)
. Lii:lK OilL\ li{)i'.!:.
me!
Go and look! etc.
Complete the sentences using and and the verbs.

I After the sale Ferguson (not stay/talk) to the people from Chicago.
2 He (golcatch) a bus the airPort.
tep 4
Verb + question word + infinitive with to

Ferguson then considered what to do next. He had to decide where to
go, He decided to go to New York. When he arrived he asked someone
how to get to Liberty lsland. There, he sold the Statue of Liberty to
some people from Brazil! But Ferguson didn't know when to stop. And
he was finally arrested while he was trying to sell the Empire State
Building ! He was sent to prison for f ive years.
After the following verbs we often use a question word + the infinitive with fo:
ask, consider, decide, discouer, dscuss, explain, find out, forget, know, learn,
remember, show, teach, tell, understand, wonder.

Ferguson then considered uhat to do next.
He had to decide uhere to go.
He didn't
knou uhen to stop.
The question words we use in this construction are:
how what who where u/ren (Nor why)

We also use the word, whether in this construction.
At first Ferguson couldn't decide ushether to stay in New York or not
o Note that the verb know can't be followed
directly by an infinitive. We
say I know
how to driue a car. (Nor I know to drive a car.)

( Ht( K OIlLSIIOl\ll;
At5\4/R5
/O
( HE( K Qt-iF5TtONS
1. 2. j At'tD 4
138

I Ferguson had discovered (ho(become) rich.
2 He knew (what/say) to make people believe him.
3 After the Statue of Liberty, he didn't know (what/sell) next.
1 Ferguson hoped to make a lot of money
quickly. 2 He decided to sell Nelson's Column

3 The American learned not to believe
everybody he met.
'1 Did Ferguson dare (to) sell Nelson's Column
again? 2 No, he didn't dare (to) try to sell it a
second time. 3 The police didn't help the
American (to) find Ferguson.
1 Ferguson didn't stay and talk to the people

from Chicago. 2 He went and caught a bus to
the airport.
1 Ferguson had discovered how to become
rich. 2 He knew what to say to make people
believe him. 3 he didn't know what to sell
next.
4&
'society encourages me to be the same as everyone else. But l'm not. At
school they don't allow me to be different. They advise me to conform.
I ask them to listen to me, but they tell me to be quiet. They teach me to
speak French, but they don't teach me how to live my life. My parents
expect me to work hard and to get a job. They warn me not to waste
time. For them the most important thng is to earn money. Big multinational companies produce things andlhen get people to buy them. lf
'
Step
vou havent so]ltre .tgngy,to buy,!h,e1,va
ayn't a good.citi
Verb + object (noun or pronoun) + infinitive with to
We use the following verbs in the structure verb + object (noun or pronoun) +
infinitive when we say or do something to influence someone else: aduise, allow,
ask, beg, cause, compel, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, instruct, inuite, oblige,
order, persuade, recommend, remind, reguest, teach, tell, warn.
verb
They don't allow

They warn
Theyget
o
o
o
CHECK QUESTIANS
infinitive
me
me
to be different.
not to uaste time.
to buy their products
people
With these verbs we use the infinitive with fo (negative not to).
After the verb teachwe often add howbefore the infinitive.
They teach me to speak French. (on how to speak French.)
But they don't teach me hous to litse my life.
The verb gef is often used with the meaning persuade.
They get people to buy them.
(=They persuade people to buy them.)
Many of these verbs are reporting verbs used in reported speech. (See Unit 54.)
Write complete sentences.
I
2
3
Step 2
object +
Her parents/expect/Carla/get a job.
Theylwarn/her/not be lazy.
Society/encourage/people/earn money.
Make and /et + infinitive without to

My parents make.me work every evening. They make me feel guilty if I
watch televisori. They don't let me o out during the week. My friends'
parents let them do what they like. My parents make me so angry!
Note the use of this construction wilh make and let.
Mahellet +
Thev make
Thev don't le,t
140
otrject +
infinitive without fo
me-
work.
me
go out.
Make has two meanings - force and cause.

They mahe me work. (=They force me to.)
They make me feel guilty. (=They cause me to.)
o Mahe meaning cause to e can be followed by an adjective.
They make me so angry.
o Moke can be used in a passive construction. It's followed by the infinitive with fo.
Corla is made to u;orh euery euening.
Note that /ef can't be used in a passive construction. We use allow + infinitive
with fo.
Her friends are
.HFCK OLIESTIONS )
alloued to do what they like.
Rewrite the sentences, using make or let.

1 They don't allow her to watch television.
2 They force her to stay in during the week.
3 They only allow her to go out on Saturday evening.
4 Her friends cause her to be envious.
Want, would like, would love, would prefer, would hate

Carla's grandfather enjoys talking 16 fiq. They have endless'discussions.
'l want society to change.'
'But what would you like people to do?'

'l'd like them to take control of their own lives. And I want the
government to see that people are more important than economic
growth.'
'Well; If d hate you to be very ill if there were no hqspitals or doctog'
Governrnents needlrnoney to pay for health eare and education.'
'l know, but l'd prefer them not to make money by selling arms. If we
'
,
",
. wantwarstostop,we rnuststop{hearmstradenow.'r .,'

. 'But you want things to chAnge too quickly. These thngs take time.'
o
We use want, would like, uould loue, would prefer, would hafe
with fo when we talk about our wishes.
vrb
What would you
I'd prefer
object +
I want
like
object
infinitive
infinitive
society
to change.
people
to do?
not to make money,
them
Note: With wantwe use the structure verb + object + infrnitive.

(Nor I want that society changes. on If we want that wars stop.)
-Eak QU5r/O5
AI\/SWERs IO
QUFSI/O,\/5
1,2 AND ]

I Carla/want/the government/listento people.
2 She/would like/the government/stop selling arms.
I I Herparents
FC /<
expectCarlato getajob.
2 They warn her not to be lazy. 3 Society

encourages people to earn money.
1 lhey don't let her watch television. 2rhey
make her stay in during the week. 3 They only
let her go out on Saturday evening. 4 Her

friends make her envious.
I Carla wants the government to listen to
people. 2 She'd like the government to stop
selling arms.
141
45
A policeman is talking to the dr,iver o.f a sportsrcar he's just stopped.
'Good evening, sir.'
'Good evening, officer.'
'lsuppose it's easytorbreakthe speed Iimit in a fast carlike this. lt must
be an exciting car to drive.'
'Er, yes,
it is.'
'lt must be hard not to drive fast.'

it isn't easy.'
to remember that the: sped imitls'70 m. p.h.l
'No, sometimes it isn't.'
'How fast do you think you were going?'
'lt's difficult to say.'
'Would1rou be surpr:ised to know that you were breaking the limit?'
'Yes,
'And, it isn't easy
Step
Adjective (+ noun) + infinitive with to
.
o
ft's
It isn't
adjective
infrnitive with fo
difficult
to say.
easy
to remember that the speed limit's7) m.p.h.
We sometimes use a negative infinitive with nof after the adjective.
It must be hard not to drioe fast.
The most common adjectives used with an infinitive are'. cheap, dangerous,
difficult, disappointed, easy, exciting, expensiue, good, hard, important, impossible,
interesting, lucky, nice, pleased, possible, ready, safe, sensible, silly, stupid, surprised,
terrible, wonderful.
o We sometimes use the construction:
It must be
.HECK QUESNONS
Step 2
an
adjective +
exciting
noun
car
infinitive
to driue.
Complete the sentences using the words in brackets.

1 It's ... the speed limit. (important/remember)
2 It's ... with the police. (stupid/argue)
3 It's ... too fast. (sensible/drive)
Adjective + for + noun/pronoun + infinitive with to

'But it's norrnal for drivers to break the speed limit by a few miles an
lYou aren't the first person to say that, sir. I admit, it irn't unusual for
people to do 75 or 80 m.p.h. But you were doing over 100 m.p.h.l Now,
l'm afraid it's necessary for me to have your name and address.'
. adjective + for + noun/pronoun +

[t's normal
for
driuers
[t's necessary for
me
infinitive with fo
to breok the limit.

to haue your name.
We use this construction with adjectives like'. common, difficult, easy, essential,
importan| necessary, normal, rare, unnecessary, unusual, usual.
o
CH[(K
OUESTIONS 2
Step 3
lt's also used with the first, the second, etc. and the next, the last.
You aren't the first person to say that, sir.
Rewrite the sentences.

1 A lot of people drive too fast. It's common for ...
2 But not many people drive at over 100 m.p.h. It's unusual for
3 Drivers shouldn't break the speed limit. It's important for ...
To
...
be+ adjective + of + noun/pronoun + infinitive with to
'All right, officer:. lt was wrong f me to break the speed limit. lt was
stupid of me to drive so fast. l'm sorry. Now, can I go?'
'Well, it was good of you to apologise, sir. But you can't go yet, l'm
afraid. Your name and address, please.'
o Note this construction:

be + adjective + of
It was wrong
of
lt uas good
of
We use this
noun/pronoun + infinitive with fo

to break the limit
me
you
to apologise.
construction with adjectives that describe how someone Lrehaves:
careless, cleuer, generous, good, kind, mean, nice, polite, silly, stupid, wrong.
CHE( K QUESTIANS
AA/5WERs
IO
CHLCK QUESTIANS
1, 2 AND .]
144

1 He drove too fast. It was stupid of ... fast.
2 He didn't see the police car behind him. It was careless of ...
3 He thought the police officer would let him go. It was silly of
I lt's important to remember the speed limit.

2 lt's stupid to argue with the police.
3 lt's sensible not to drive too fast. on lt's not
sensible to drive too fast.
1 lt's common for people to drive too fast.
2 lt's unusual for people to drive at over 100
...
m.p.h. 3 lt's important for drivers not to break

the speed limit.
1 lt was stupid of him to drive too fast. 2 lt
was careless of him not to see the police car
behind him. 3 lt was silly of him to think that
the police officer would let him go.
It's the weekend. Rowan's asking Emma what she wants
to do'
'What do you fancy doing? Shall we go for a walk?'
lNo. Ican't imagine doing anything more. boring!'

'Do you fancy going round to Pete's place?'
'No, I don't want to risk seeing his sister' I owe'her f20, so l'm trying to
avoid meeting her, if Possible.'
rru"ii i r'"r"nit tinitr,"a cleaning the windows. Do you mind helping me?'
'No, you know I don't enjoy doing that. That's your job''
Verbs that are followed by the -ing form (gerund)
Step 'l
of e
o If these verbs are followed by another verb, we use the -lng form (gerund)
fancy, finish,
second verb: admit, ouoid, ,onid"r, deny, detest, distike, enioy, escape,
imagine, keep, mind, miss, practise, recall, regret, risk, suggest'
Vhat do you fancy doing? (Nor fancy to do)
I don't uant to rish seeing her (Nor risk to see)
Would you mind hetping me? (Nor mind to help me)
C.HECK QIJTSTIONS
Step 2
Complete the sentences using the verbs go, do, make'

1 Rowan keeps ... suggestions. 2 He suggests "' for a walk'
3 Emma dislkes ... for walks. 4 She doesn't enjoy "' that'
Co and come followed by the -ingform

'Well, shallwe go swimming? Or we could go windsurfing" .
'l've never been windsurfin! and l:donrt fancy starting now'!
'Do you want to come jogging with me?'
'Joggingl No, thanksl'

Do you w-ant to come shopp ing;?'
'Well, I migh! go into-town;
'No i*ensrrpplng yesterday.'l don'twanttodoanyth'or:'-,
t,
oWeusegoandcome+.ingwhenwetalkaboutsportsoroutsideactivities.
Shall w go swimming? (Nor Shall we go to swim?)
I'ue neuer been uindsurfing.
me?
I went shopping yesterday. Do you uant to come iogging with
CHECK QUESTION\ 2
A,\i5WER TO
IIlECK
QUESTIONS
1 AND2
go cycling)
What do you do with these things? @xample: a bike 'You
card
credit
3
a
2
skis
1 a fishing rod
1 Rowan keeps making suggestions. 2 He

suggests going for a walk. 3 Emma dislikes
goig for walks. 4 She doesn't enloy doing

that.
2 l You go fishing.
shopping.
2 You go
skiing.
3 You go
4V
Judy Barnard's being interviewed for a job with a travel company.
'Thank you for coming, Miss Barnard. Before starting, l'd like to say that
l'm not interested in interviewing people who simply like the idea of
travelling round the world. The job is more difficult than that.'
'Don't worry. l'm fed up with rloing temporary jobs. l'm keen on doing a
realjob for a change.'
'Good. NoW I see you left school without taking any exams.'
'Yes. I was tired of studying. I was more interested in earning some
money. By staying at sho|, I was just wasting my time.'
'What did you do after leaving school?'
'Well, I wanted to go to Australia, and by working hard for six months, I
saved up enough money to pay for the fare.'
Step
(Adjective) + preposition + -lng
When a verb follows a preposition (in, at, on, etc.), the verb ends in -rng. The
preposition is sometimes on its own.
Before starting, I'd like to soy thot ... by staying at school
without taking any exams. after leauing school
o There's sometimes an adjective before the preposition.
I'm not interested in interuiewing people. I'm keen on doing a real job.
Here are some other common adjectives + preposition: afraid of doing something,
excited about doing something, angry about doing something, fond of doing
something, bod at doing something, good at doing something, cleuer at doing
something, proud of doing something.
o There's sometimes a noun before the preposition.
people uho simply like the idea of trouelling
I don't like the thought of not getting the job.
That's the advantage of working for a trauel company.
CHECK OUESTIONS
a preposition + an -ing form.

Why do a lot of people want to work for travel companies? Because they like the
Add
idea...
Why does she want a real job for a change? Because she's fed up
How did Judy get enough money to go to Australia? By...
...
-Step Z I v.ro*preposition+-ing
,WhatdidyoudoinAustralia;MissBarnard?,
'l travelled'a loi.-t ;"r[; ii'" i, ,nJ *r'"n I felt like moving on, ljust
got on a bus. I don't believe in staying in the same place all the time. I
think I succeeded in visiting every Australian state.'
'And did you come home ten?'
'Yes. I thought about staying longel but my visa ran out, and I was
looking forward to coming home and seeing my friends again.'
148
Some verbs are followed by a preposition + an -ingform.
verb
preposition + the -ing form of a verb
about
I thought
I
felt
like
I was looking
forwqrd
stayinglonger.
moutng on.
seeing my friends.
to
Here are some other common verbs + preposition: to apologise for doing
something, to dream of doing something, to approe of doing something, to insist
on doing something, to decid.e against doing something, to talh about doing
something.
o Note that fo is normally
the infinitive mark(l wanted to come home). But fo is

sometimes used as a preposition.
I was looking forward to coming home.
(7'o here is a preposition so you can't say'l was looking forward to come home.')
I wanted to come home.
(?'o here is the infinitive mark, so you can't say'l wanted to coming home.')
I Why did Judy keep moving on? She ... (not believe)
2 How many states did she visit? She ... (succeed)
3 Why did she want to come home? She ... Qook forward to)
iiicNs:'
object
preposition
'Well, Miss Barnard, l'd like to thank you for coming. And I congratulate
you on getting the jobl'
''ve got"the oZ nelttyZ Thanks very muchl Um, forgive me for askng,
but what will my salary be?'
Some verbs are followed by an object, usually a person, and a preposition.
vert +
object
I'd like to thank you
I
congratulate
you
preposition
verb ending in -ing
for
coming.
on
getting the job.

osking
Forgiue
me
for
o Here are some other verbs + object + preposition:
to accuse
someone
of
doing something
to blame
someone
for
doing something
to preuent
someone
from
doing something
to stop
someone
from
doing something
to succeed
in
doing something
to suspect
someone
of
doing something
I What does he thank Judy for? He thanks ...
2 How does she know she's got the job? He congratulates ... it.
-![5r/ON5 ]
r/v-srvERs
Io
QUFST/OTV5
T,2
AND
)
2
1 the idea of travelling round the world.

2 Because she's fed up with doing temporary
lobs. 3 By working hard for six months.
1 She didn't believe in siaying in the same
place. 2 She succeeded in visiting every state
3 She was looking forward to seeing her

friends.
'1 He thanks her for comng.
2 He congratulates her on getting t.
48
'Tom! Do you mind taking these books off my desk? And would,you
mind not leaving my computer switched on?'
'Sorry, Dad. I was doing my homework.'
'l don't mind helping you with your homework. I don't mind you using
my computer; but would you mind asking me before yu use it?'
Do/Would you mind? I don't mind/he doesn't mind

o
When mind is followed by a verb we always use the -ing form.

mind takingyour books off my desk?
I don't mind helping you with your homework.
Would you mind ashing me before you use it?
Do you mind? arrd Would you mind? are polite ways of asking someone to do
something. Would you mind? is a little more polite.
Do you
I
o
o
.HICK
QUESTIONS
When we say we don't mind what someone else does, we use:
don't
don't
mind +
mind
a noun or
you
pronoun +
-ing
using my computer.
Note that we can use a negative -ingform afler mind:

Would you mind not leaaing my computer suitched on?
Note that we only use the negative and question f.orm of mind.

1 He (not mind/help) Tom with his homework.
2 He (mind) Tom using his computer?
Now Tom's father is talking to Tom's siste4 Kate.

'Kate! Turn that music down! I can't stand listening to that terrible
noise! And I can't stand you wasting your time. Dosome homework!'
(Later) 'Mum. What's the matter with Dad? Why's he so angry?'
'He can't help being irritable sometimes. I can't help thinking he's got
problems at work..We all get angr.y, and sometimes we can't help i!,1
We use can't standlo show strong dislike. It means hqte or detest. When it's
followed by a verb, we always use the -ingform.
I can't stand listening to that terrible noise.
(Ihe expression can't bear means the same as can't stand, so we can say 'l can't
bear listening to that awful noise.' But can't bear can also be followed by the
infinitive with fo: 'l can't bear to listen to that awful noise.')
o When we say we can't stand what someone else does, we use:
-ing
cqn't stand + noun or pronoun +
I can't stand
you
wasting your time.
151
Or we can saY:
cqn't stqnd + it + rften clause

whenyouwasteyourtime'
I can'tstand it
f.rom doi1g..s-o-mething'
o Can't helpmeans that you can't stop yourself
use -ng'
always
we
verb'
a
Uy ir. Wfren it's followed by
foled
'" 'io"t"s
it' (=we can't stop ourselves')
It's often
we can't hetp
himself)
He can't help being irriabte'' (= He can't stop
Rewrite the sentences.

"'
1 He hates Kate to waste her time' He can't He
i He can't stop himself from getting angry' can't
(HECK QIJESTIONS 2
"'
-ing
there's no Pont, t's (not) worth +
Kate's talking to her
ther later in the evening'

bro-
school say it's
i."opf" at
tf'u'"' good film on television at 10'1can
watch it?'
Dad if we
|."u'liv *I t'i^g' ittall we ask
r. irn', worth it. He'll say no'
,lt,s no use asking hi* .i ih;;;;;ri.
'ro,
There's no Point asking him''

y"t' lt's rorth trying''
'He'might
'y
(Later)
)l
tri", but it was no good' He said no"
';;;;;
.;
',t;u'"t *o-t*' askins him; I told vou''
olt,snouse/There,snopoint/It,s(isn,t)wortharefollowedbythe-rngformofthe
verb, not the infinitive with fo'
ns-''iti
Dad' (Nor lt's no use to ask Dad')
poinlasking him tt's worth trying'

fn"i;i'o "ning
(= there,s
worth meanmore or less the same
It,s no use, There,s no point"ina It isn,t
no sense in doing something)'
something'
o We can also use worth + -inglo(or not to)'recommend
to at the momenL
tathing
o" is't worth
The film,s really worth
""2"s.o lt's no use'
o We can say ft's no good instead
(= It's no use'asking Dad)
omitted'
"snin{naa'
point in doing sometiing,but n is often
s'no
There
say
we sometimes
There's no Point (in) asking him'
i;;;-;;;h
oSometimeswedon'tneedtorepeatthefollowingverb'
use,trying')
I tried, but it ulas no use' (= tt was-no
tt'
uortn
isn't
It
him'
ashing
point
no
There's
point'
no
Itls no use sking him' There's
(-HtK Qttsrtovs
l:
=
Relwite the sentences'

f it'"'" was no point asking their father' It was "'
2 It wasn't worth trYing' There "'
ANsWR5 IO
CHECK QUt:51 iOl'lS
'1
152
,2
AND
his
1 He doesn't mind helping Tom with
2 Does h'e mind Tom using his
comouter?
t He can't stand Kate wasting her time
2 He can't helP getting angrY'
f'.r"r.*if
3
-
father' on
It was no use/no good asking their
2 There
father'
their
askig
*orth
rt *utn;t
*t " pirt ttying n lt was no use/no good
'1
trYing.
49
Salesman Barry Tate:of olihult,.B:irmingham sat.ih his car:,listeni'ng.to
io and thinkng about hlsrnext qstomer.'SddenlV a'cr went
the'r
past-Mr iate culdn'ibelieve
it
two legswere hanging
o-ut
fthe':
back'! He decided ta'fol'low the c'ar' He nar:ly had an actident lrying to

.phone the:police o, hi5'6o6ile p,hone, t'te couldnrt contact them' .,-. '-
Takin a'pnout f his,poket, hethen'r:ole'down the car',',,,

reg[stiati.on number. H avi ng written' dswn -th e n um beL' he'*t,"U'*o
the police again.
.,
ou.ll
The -ing form for one of two actions
o If two actions happen
at the same time, we can use a verb in the -lng form for one
of the actions.
He sat in his car listening to the radio.

(= He sat and listened at the same time.)
He sat thinhing about his next customer.
(= He sat and thought about his next customer.)
We often use this construction after the verbs be, lie, sit, stand.
o If one action happens while another action is going on, we Can use a verb in
the -ing form for the longer action.
He early hqd an accident trying to phone the police on his mobile phone.
(= He nearly had an accident while he was trying to phone the police.)
o If one action immediately follows another action, we can use a verb in the -ing
form for the first action.
Taking a pen out of his pochet, he wrote doun the car's registration number.
(= He took his pen out, then immediately wrote down the number')
o If we need to emphasise that one action was completed before another action
started, we use hauing + a past participle'
Harsing uritten down the number, he tried to call the police again'
CHECK QUFS'TIONS
Rewrite the two sentences as one.

1 He was sitting. He was watching the car in front.
2 He used his mobile phone. He tried to call the police.
3 He failed to contact the police the first time. He tried to phone them again.
Step 2
The -ing form to say why something happened

Thinking that the legs must belong to a murder victim, Mr Tate was very
excited. lmagining that he'd be a hero the next day, he tried to stop the
car by f lashing his lights. Not understanding what Mr Tate's signals
meant, the driver kept going. But when Mr Tate flashed his lights again,
he stopped. A man got out of the boot of the car and explained
everything. They were mechanics. There was a strange noise at the back
of the car. Having tried without success to find the reason for the noise
at the garage, they'd decided to take the car out on the road. Wanting
to listen more carefully, he'd climbed into the boot. lt was his legs that
were hanging out of the back!
We can use a clause with a verb in the -lng form to explain why something
happened.
Thinking that the legs must belong to o murder uictim, Mr Tate was uery excited.
(Mr Tate was excited because he thought the legs belonged to a murder victim.)
Imagining that he'd be a hero the next day, he tried to stop the car.
(He tried to stop the car because he imagined he'd be a hero.)
We can use a negative form.
Not und.erstanding what Mr Tate's signals meant, the driuer kept going.
(Ihe driver kept going because
he didn't understand.)
If we need to emphasise that the action giving the reason was completed before
another action started, we use hauing + a past participle.
Haaing tried without success to find the reason for the noise, they'd decided to take
the car out on the road.
__
asI/oN5
r'"/E,Rs
IO
-JE-SI/OA/5
1 AND2
Rewrite the two sentences as one.

1 The driver thought there must be something wrong. He stopped.
2 He was in the boot of the car. It was easier for him to hear the noise.
3 Mr Tate stopped the car in front. He got out to speak to the driver.
4 Mr Tate felt stupid. He asked them not to tell anyone what had happened.
1 He was sitting watching the car in front.

2 Using his mobile phone, he tried to callthe
police. 3 Having failed to contact the police
the first time, he tried to phone them again.
1 Thinking there must be something wrong,
the driver stopped. 2 Being in the boot of the
ca it was easier for him to hear the noise.
3 Having stopped the car in front, Mr Tate got

out to speak to the driver. OR Mr Tate, having
stopped the car in front, got out... 4 Feeling
stupid, Mr Tate asked them not to tell anyone
what had happened.
50
'D-uring a-Healtfi and:Leisu,e programm_e.on TV, people were asked, .
'What do you like doing in your spare time?' These were some of their
answers:
'l like doing active things. I like swimming and going for walks. I hate
sitting around and doing nothing.'
'l love to go to the coffee shop and meet friends. I hate playing sport.
but I enjoy watching it on TV. I don't like people telling me l'm lazy.'
1l don't
tiket.go ot mucfr. l,gnjor relaxingat.honie,:f like watching
television and listening to music. And I like frends coming round to see
me;'
. lii llirr,:ltli
Step
Like, love, hate + infinitive with to and -ing,
en
joy + -ing
The verbs like, loue and hate can be followed by -ing or by the infinitive with fo.
The meaning is the same. The construction with -rng is more common.
verb
-ing
verb
infinitive with fo
I like doing actiue things.

oR I like to do qctiue things.
playing
I hate
sport.
oR I hate to play sport.
I loue going to the coffee shop. oR I loue to go to the coffee shop.
o The verb enjoy can only be followed by -ing.
I enjoy usatching sporr. (Nor I enjoy to watch sport.)
(For the verb prefer + infinitive with fo or -lng see Unit 51.)
o When we say we like or don't like what someone else does, we normally use this
construction:
likefloae/hate/enjoy+noun/pronoun+-ing
I like
I don't like
CHTCK OUISTIONS
friends
people
coming round.
telling me I'm lazy.

I A lot of people/enjoy/go to the coffee shop/and/meet friends.
2 Some people/not like/go out much. They/like/read/and/listen to music.
3 Some people/hate/play football/but/enjoy/watch it.
inf in
itive
Another question was: 'What do you do to stay healthy?'

,t like to eat fruit and fresh vegetabls at leait nce a day. And I like to
take at least half an hour's exrcise every day. I like to look after myself.'
'l like to go to the doctor's twice a year. I like him to check my blood
pressure.'
When we use tike to say that something is a good idea, 1ke is followed by the
infinitive with
1o,
nol-ing.
I like to go to the doctor's twice a yeor.

(= I go because it's a good thing, not because I enjoy it')
Noie: 't tit<e going to the doctor's' = 'l enjoy going to the doctor's.'
When we say what someone else does is a good idea, we use this construction:
etc. + noun/pronoun +
him
I tike
lihe,
.HECK QUTSTIOI)IS
infinitive with fo
to check my blood pressure'

1 I like chocolate, but I don't like (eat) it every day.
2 I like (go) swimming. I really enioy it.
3 I like (go) to the dentist's regularly.
woutd like/would love/woutd hate + infinitive with to
Step 3
Tthe presenter
then asked: 'Wguld'you like to make'qny 'thanges in'you
life?;
'l'd like to take more exercise because l'd like to lose weight''
;would you ike to
ive up
He,asked the smskeis in theudience:
lcan't''
'l'd
but
love.to,
smoking?'Most of them said:
..
He
He then-asked a beer-drinker if held'l!ke to o1ve,yn,$rinking beer'
Would like, woutd loue, would hate arefollowed by the infinitive with fo, not the
-ingf.orm.
1' nne to lose weight. (Nor I'd like losing weight.)
I'd hate to giae up my only pleasure. (Nor I'd hate giving up)
o Note that sometimes after woutd like/loue/hate it isn't necessary to repeat the
complete infinitive. We just use o.
I' toae to, but I can't. (= I'd love to give up smoking')
o (For I'd tike/hate/prefer + obiect + infinitive with fo, see Unit 44')
( HE(K OUESf IONS
158
Put in usould like/would hqte + vetb.

I I'm too heavy. I ... weight. (lose)
2 I ... smoking.lt isn't good for me. (stop)
3 I love going to the pub. I ... drinking beer. (give up)
Step 4
Would like/love/hate + to have
past participle
The presenter then asked people if they.had any regrets. 'What would
rou'like to have done?',T[ese wer some olthir answers:
'l'd Iike to have played more sport when I was younger.'
'l've always worked in an office. l'd like to have had a more active job.'
'l'm lucky. l've never been ill. l'd hate to have had problems with my
health.'
o would like, etc. +

I'd like
I'd hate
haae
past participle
ployed more sport.
had problems.
We use this construction to talk about the present regrets we have about a past
to
to hque
to houe
situation.
I'd like to haoe had a more actiue job.

(= I didn't have an active job in the past. I regret it now.)
CHECK QUESTIONs 4
Put in would
I didn't eat well when I was young. I ... less junk food. (eat)
I gave up smoking last year. I (give it up) ... ten years ago.
In the 1950s London was polluted. I (live) ... in London then.
1 A lot of people enjoy gong to the pub and

meeting friends. 2 Some people don't like
going out (to go out) much. They like reading
(to read ) and listenlng (to listen) to music.
3 Some people hate playing (to play) football,
but enjoy watching it.
2
3
ANSWERs
IO
:ECK QUESTIONS
1,2,3\ND4
lihe/uould hqte to hqoe.
eating 2 going
(less common: to go)
3togo
3
1 l'd like to lose
weight. 2 l'd
like to stop
smoking. 3 l'd hate to give up drinking beer.

4 1 l'd like to have eaten 2 l'd like to have given
it
up
3 l'd hate to have lived
57
Justin and Raghei have on]y been rnarried for six months, butthey.lve
already discovered that they prefer doing different things. Rachel
doesn't like staying at home in the evening. She prefers going out and
meeting people. iustin prefers staying in t going out. He prfers to sit
in front of the television.
Rachel: Shall we go to Jake's party?
Justin: I don't want to go out thii evening. l'd prefer to stay at home.
OK?
Rachel: No, it's not OKI You always prefer doing nothing.
Justin: Thai's not true. But this evening l'd prefer to watch television
rather than go to a party.

'l'd prefer not to go out this evening.'
You're so boring!
Rachel: But you always say:
Prefer to do/prefer doing
would prefer
When we talk about what someone generally prefers, we can use either preler
-ing or prefer + infinitive with to. The meaning is the same.

They each prefer doing different things.
(= They each prefer to do different things.)
He prefers to sit in front of the teleuision.
(= He prefers sitting in front of the television.)
o When we're talking about a particular situation, we normally use would ('d)
prefer + infinitive with fo.
I'd prefer to stay at home.
Note'. Would preferis never followed by-rng.
o When we talk about two alternatives, we say:
Justin prefers staying in to going out.
onJustin prefers to stay in rother thon ga out.
When we use prefer + -ingwejoin the alternatives with fo.
When we use prefer + infinitive with fo we join the alternatives with rather than
followed by an infinitive without fo.
o Note that we can use a negative infinitive.
I'd prefer not to go out this euening.
o The verb preferis never used in continuous tenses. We can't say: 'l'm preferring
to stay at home.'
or would prefer + object + infinitive, see Unit 44.)
-. -<
QUESTIONS
Complete the sentences, using (uould) prefer to do/prefer doing.

I Tonight Justin ... (watch) a video.
2 He usually... (stay) at home to ... (go out)
3 This evening Rachel ... (go) to a party rather than ... (watch) television.
4 She always prefers ... (go out) with her friends rather than ... (stay) at home.
Would prefer to/would rather

Rachel: Well, if we don't go to the party; l'd rather go to a pub than stay
at home. Would ytu rather stay at home or come with me?
Justin: Oh, all right then, l'll come. But l'd rather not go to a pub. l'd
prefer togo to the cinema. Would you like to do that?
Rachel: No, l'd rather not. Listen, why don't we go to Jake's party? You
enjoyed,the party we went to last week, didn't you?
Justin: No, ot really. l'd rather have watched the football on
television.
Rachel: Well, l'm going outl
Justin]l,dratheryoudidn.tgo.l,dratheryoustayedherewithme.
Rachel: And l'd rather we went out together' But you don't want to.
To talk about what we prefer in a particular situation, we say:

I'd prefer to go to the cinema. oxl'd rather go to the cinemaThese two sentences mean the same.
Note: After would prefer we use the infinitive with fo.
Afler would ratherwe use the infinitive without fo.
o Note the question forms:
Would you rather stay at home or come with me?
oxWould you prefer to stqy at home or come with me?
o Note the negative
short answers:
Would you tike to do
that?
No,
I'd rather nof'
oR /y'o,
I'd prefer not to'
When we talk about two alternatives, we say:
I'd rather go to a pub than stay at home.

oxl'd prefer to go to a pub tather than stay at home.
When our preference includes another person, we use a verb in the form of a
past tense affer would rather.
I'd rather you didn't go. (on I'd prefer you not to go.)
I'd rather you stayed here. (oxl'd prefer you to stay here.)
I'd rather ue uent out together. (on I'd prefer us to go out together')
Although the verb has a past form, we're talking about the present or future.
o When we talk about regrets we have now about something that happened in the
past, we can use these constructions:
haue +
haue
uould prefer + to haoe +
to haue
I'd prefer
would rqther
I'd
rather
past participle
watched the football.
past participle
watched the football.
We use would rather haue more often.
Note: With these constructions we're talking about actions that didn't happen' In
the example Justin didn't watch the football.
CHFCK AUTSTIONS 2
1 What/Rachel/prefer/do? 2 She/rather/golto a pub.

3 Last night they went to a pub. Justin/rather/stay at home.
4 Rachel often says: llratherlwelgo out more.
ANSWR5 IO
CHFCK QUFSTIANS
1 AND2
1 would prefer to watch 2 prefers staying ..

to going out 3 would prefer to go ... rather
than watch 4 prefers to go out .. . rather than
stay
162
1 What would Rachel prefer to do? 2 She'd

rather go to a pub. 3 Justin would rather have
stayed at home. 4 l'd rather we went out mor
52
.rffiiflil,1*:,y:i:H-'fjX.
Gavin arrnitr,ons besan writins his firit

in ltaly. When he'got back to England he bought himse-lt a sec
complltet'and star:ted wiiting hjs book again, on streen, He was slow:
because he didntt bother to larn to type ' he only ued two,filger:: He
continued typing every evening after Work. He intended !o'f inish lhe
book before Easter.
followed
Some verbs can be followed by the infinitive with fo or the -lng form.
The meaning is usually the same. The most common verbs are: begin, bother,
continue, intend, start.
verb +
He begon
He started
He didn't bother
He continued
-ing
wriling
OR
writing
learning
OR
tYqing
OR
OR
infinitive
+
verb
to write
He began
to urite
He started
He didn't bother to learn
He continued to tYPe
to finish
He intended
OR
finishing
o We don't use the -ing form after a verb in a continuous tense (where the main
verb ends in-ing).
He intended
He
uqs beginningto think of ideas for his book.
(nor He was beginning thinking of ideas)

CHECK QUESTIONS
Step 2
choose from these verbs to complete the sentences: ue, buy, send, write.
1 He began ... when he was still at school.
2 He didn't bother ... a new computer'
3 He continued ... two fingers to type.
4 He was intending ... his novel to two or three publishers'
Co on, need, stop + the infinitive with to or -ing

Gavn went on writing for seven months. He was sure that if he could
finish this first novel, he could go on to become a famous writer' one
evening, just before Easter; he sat down and started writing. Now he
only neled to write the last chapter. He wrote for six hours. He only
;i;p"J;rting twice, First, when the cat needed feeding, he stopped
i" i" t ,orn"ihing to eat. Then, when he felt tired, he stopped to
make a cup of strong black coffee'
164
These verbs can also be followed by the infinitive with

meaning is not the same: go on, need, stop.
1o
or the -lng form, but the
o Go on to do oxgo on doing?
We use go on + infinitive with fo when a situation or an action comes later.
He could go on to become a famous writer.
(= Then, later, he could become a famous writer.)
We use go on + -rng when we continue doing the same thing.
He usent on writing for seuen months.
(= He continued writing for seven months.)
o Need to do oaneed doing?
We use need + the infinitive with fo when we say what it's necessary to do.
He needed to urite the last chapter.
(= It was necessary to write the last chapter.)
We use need + -lng when we say that something is in need of attention.
The cat needed feeding. (= The cat was in need of food.)
o Stop to do oRstop doing?
We use sfop + the infinitive with fo when we stop one action in order to do a
different one. The infinitive here is the infinitive of purpose. (See Unit 42.)
He stopped to mshe a cup of strong black coffee.
(He stopped writing in order to make a cup of coffee.)
We use stop + -ingIo say that an action finishes.
He only stopped uriting twice.
(FIe was writing, then he stopped. He didn't stop in order to write.)
.HT(K
AESTIONS 2
Step 3
Put in the right form of the verb.

I He needed ... the book by Easter. (finish)
2 For a long time he didn't stop ... (work)
3 Then he stopped ... something to drink. (have)
4 After that he went on ... for another three hours. (type)
Forget, remembe1 regret, try + infinitive with to or -ing

G.atin,wa,typigthe final page of th]ast e haptr of his book,wh,en , r,.,
ther:e wa s , power. ct.S uddniy ve ry-t fling: disa ppgared f t rn t h e
comp-ter 54r,een. Nrmally he rememberedt savhis work",blit'this ,:
time he'd forgotten:,to saVe,what he'd ritten.,Whg the py14gr came
bek, h.desperately tr-ied.t fnd the wok,he'd,done..He tied':prgssing:
Vr'y button' onthe Eomputer, llelte6, p:honing,ihe ioftar.cornpa ny.
But;hjs{ast,chapterhdsimplydisappeared, , ,l. ,' :,,' ,. ,.

He1[!'ngverforg,et.losing that ]ast chapterl'Helll'al*r.t1"get ntsavin
it;.Hettl,alwayf eern'ber s[ng,, the c puter, l!,r,9!n,g o, b lanA
,
,r,
The verbs forget, remember, regret, try can be followed by the infinitive with
1o
or
the-ing form, but the meaning is not the same.
o Forget to do oa forget doing?

We use forget * the infinitive with fo to say we
didn't do something we should have
done.
He'd. forgotten to saae what he'd written.
(= He didn't save what he'd written. He should have done.)
We use forget + the -ing
form (normally in negative sentences) when we talk about
memories of things we did in the past.

He'll neuer forget losing that last chapter'
(= He'll always=have the memory of losing the chapter')
o Remember to do o*remember doing?
that we have to do
We use remember + the infinitive witlifo when we remember
something.
Normally he remembered to saae his work'
(= He remembered he had to save his work')
we did in the past'
we use remember* the -lng form when we talk about something
go
blank'
screen
the
He'll always remember seeing
go blank')
(= He'll aliays have the m"-.y of seeing the screen
o If the remembering or the forgetting comes:
before the action remember/forge + infinitive with fo
remember/forget + -ing
after the action
o Try fo do on try doin$
effort to do something or
we use ffy + the infinitie with fo when we say we make an
see if we can do something.
He tried to find the work he'd done'
ftIe made an effort to find it.)
solution to a problem'
W" rr" fry + the -ingformwhewe talk about a possible
He tried phoning the software company
(= He phned thcompany to see if they could help him')
tried pressing euery button on his computer'

o Regret to do oxregret doingl
news'
We uJe regret + the iirfinitive with 1o to announce bad
I regret to ssy that I lost the last chapter'
done something'
We ,rs regret +ihe -ing form when we wish we had/hadn't
it'
saoing
not
He'll alwaYs regret
i-Ie
CHECK AUTSIIONS 3
Put in the right form of the verb.
2
3
4
5
ANSWERS IO
CHECK QUESTIONS
1,2
AND 3
't
Normally he remembered ... what he'd written' (copy)

(hit)
He tried ... his computer, but that didn't work'
(see)
screen'
computer
empty
the
...
forget
never
He'll
couldn't. (remember)
he
The next day he tried ... wrraitre,d written, but
(not
be)
Now he regrets ... more careful'
He began to write/began writing when he

was stillt school. 2 He didn't bother to
buy/didn't bother buying a new computer'
3 e continued to use/continued using two
'1
fingers to type. 4 He was intending to send his

novel to two or three Publishers.
1 to finish 2 working 3 to have 4 typing
t to .opy 2 hitting 3 seeing 4 to remember
2
3
5 not being
Anna Radford bought a second.-hand car f rom a man'who seerned

honest.
lHe sd it was a good car. He told nre he'd had lt for two year-s' He
thought it had a new engine,'
Step'l
Uses
of reported speech
We often report what another person said but we don't use exactly the same
words. This is called reported speech or indirect speech'
Directspeech
'lt's a good car.'
RePortedsPeech
He said it was a good car'
He told me he'd had it for two years'
'l've hd it for two years.'

we use' ... ' (inverted commas/speech marks) to show directspeech. we don't use
' ... ' in reporied speech. We don't write: He said 'it was a good car''
o We often leave out that afler the reporting verb.
(Less formal)
He said. it was a good car.
(More formal)
good
car.
a
it
uos
that
He said
o we can use both say and tel/ as reporting verbs. If we mention who we're talking
to, we use fel1 + indirect object (me, him, the man, etc')' We don't put fo before the
indirect object.
He told me it was a good car.
(Nor He told to me it was a good car.)
If we don't mention who we're talking to, we use soy.
He soid it was a good car.
(Nor He said me it was a good car.)
CHECK OUESTIONS
Change to reported sPeech.

1 'lt isn't expensive.' He said ...
2 'lt's got a good radio.' He told ...
Change to direct speech.
3 He said it had new tYres. 'lt .'. '
Step 2
He told her it was very reliable'
How verb forms change
'lt ..' '
reported speech
cay;t1{boqgb1,,ffir,9,,an,
a,nnewiilt:tglttni*ee k9t,y:, i,ta'l,e;'d
:hA
al:**lniiiianAa;iy.:lnad.giiea'tnn,n9it4t:,,sa\1*9,',",
,lionratiffi *boldseid:,Ealutn9"p.4ts..:Hl.1$).was!:.rtlgging':
:w|iaya,he;A:qevra4i;;;ry:pr*t
ii'a-6,a
:b
ig
168
;,,wr.ryn4h
If the reporting verb is in the past (He said ... He told me...), the verb
in reported
speech usually changes. It'goes back' one tense into the past.
Reported speech
Direct speech
Past simple
He said it was a good car.
Past continuous
He said he wasn't selling it
Present simple
'It's a good car.'
Present continuous
'l'm not selling

Past simple
it'
'... my company
Past perfect
He sqid his company hod giuen
him a new car.
gle
me a new cor.'
Past continuous
'l was hoping to keep
Past perfect continuous
it.'
Present perfect
'l'ue neuer had any
trouble with it.'
Future: will/shall
He said he'd been hoping to keeP

Past per{ect
He said he'd neuer had anY
it
trouble with it.

Would/should
He promised he would send me
'l'll sendyou all the

papers.'
all the papers.
Future: going to
'You're not going to
regret buying the car.'
Was/were going to
He said I wasn't going to regret
buying the car.
o Note that a verb in the past simple in direct
speech can stay the same in reported
speech.
'l bought it from an old lady.'
He said he bought it from an old lady. (ox: he had bought)
o Note that if we use the past perfect in direct speech, we use the same tense in
reported speech.
'When I bought the cqr, it hod only done 10,000 miles.'
He said the car had only done 10,000 miles.
CHECK QUESTIONS 2
Step 3
Change to reported speech.

1 'lt always starts first time.' 2 'lt doesn't use much petrol.'
3 'l've taken it to France a couple of times.' 4 'l'll take you for a ride in it.'
Modal verbs in reported speech

He to'ld rne,the'car.shouldnlt give rme Ry tr'ouble, lt:ought to last for
years. He also5aid lculq:ri.{,frim it I frO anv'pnobleri aftouEl'.h.e.
,might,not be at home:.He told me l'must pay:him assoon as'posible"
Reported speech
Direct speech
Could
Can
'Youcanringme
if you
haue any trouble.'
May
He said I could ring him if I had
any trouble.
Might
He said he might not be at home.

Note that the verbs would, could, should, might and ought do don't change in
'l may not be at home.'
reported speech.
'lt
shouldn't giue you
any trouble.'
'lt ought to last foryears.'
He said it
shouldn't giue me any trouble.
He said it ought to last for years.
to had fo. Musf is more

Musf either stays the same in reported speech or changes
common.
'You must pay me as soon as possible''

He told me I must (oxhad to) pay him as soon as possible'
CHICK QUESIIONS
Change to rePorted sPeech.

I 'You can pay me cash or give me a cheque'' He told her
"'
2 'You musl phone me if there's a problem''

3 'You should use unleaded petrol''
Step 4
reported sPeech
Other changes
wanted f 1'250 forthe t"';'Unfi:

'H.e s1i9 !r11na1e was Leach and he
the rest the following d
h.im
give
r.,,* ii,oo and said I would
who
next day the car wouldn;t start so I rang him' The wornan
police
r3n9 me
the
Then
bLfore.
day
,r*"ra said Leach had leftrthe
before.
week
irthe
stoten
he,d
him
uetons to
;;;;iJil'carldini
They also said
the,"i.|i*anted
his car back
-that dayl'
also
The pronouns (1, we, me,etc.) and possessive adjectives (my' our' etc')
change in reported sPeech.
Directspeech
'My name's Leach'
RePortedsPeech
He said his name was Leach'
The following words also change in reported speech:
that
this
She said there was nobodY

called Leach at thot address.
the following daY on the next daY
I said I would giue him the rest
the following daY.
the day before oR the Previous daY
'There's nobody called
Leach at this address.'
tomorrow
'l'll giue you the rest
tomorrou.'
yesterday
last week
'He stole it last ueeh.'
She slid he'd left the daY before.

the week before oR the previous week
They said he'd stolen it the ueeh before
today
that day
'He left yesterday.'
'He wants his car back
He said he wanted his car back
today.'
that day.
Note also these changes:

next week/next month, etc. the following week / month, etc'
now
this morning/evening,
tonight
three days ago
(11fCK QU[.5TIONS
etc.
then
that morning/evening, etc'

that night
three days before

1 'l fiist met Leach two days ago.' She said she
"'
"'.
2'l gotthe moneyout of the bankthis morning'' She said-shepolice
said she "'
3 'yu must return the car to the owner next weekend.' The
170
Step 5
Reported speech when the situation
exists
'And now l've spoken to a lawyer and he says he'll see me next week
but he doesn't think l'll ever get my money back. But my! boyfriend said
'
he'll find Leach and get the money. '
Note that words and phrases in direct speech don't change in reported speech if
it's still the same day or week, etc.
Direct speech
Reported speech
'I'll see you next ueeh.'
He says he'll see me next ueeh.
(lt's still this week when she reports what the lawyer said.)
o If the reporting verb is in the past but the situation still exists, we can keep the
same tense.
'I'll find Leach and get

monev.'
the
But my boyhiend said he'll find

Leach and get the money.
(Her boyfriend is still looking for Leach when she says this.)
o If the reporting verb is in the present, the future or the present perfect, the tense
of the verb in reported speech doesn't change.
Direct speech
Reported speech
'You'll neuer get your

money back.'
He says I'll neer get my

money back.

1 'l've lost 51000.' (Anna still hasn't got her money back.) She said she
2 'l don't think I'll buy another car.' She says she ...
1 He said it wasn't expensive. 2 He told her it

had a good radio. 3 " lt's got new tyres. "
4 " lt's very reliable. "
1 He said/He told her it always started first
time. 2 He said/He told her it didn't use much
petrol. 3 He said/He told her he'd (had) taken
it to France a couple of times. 4 He said/He
told her he'd (would) take her for a ride in it.
1 He told her she could pay him cash or give
him a cheque. 2 He told her she must/had to
...
phone him if there was a problem. 3 He told

her she should use unleaded petrol.
1 She said she'd first met Leach two days
before. 2She said she'd gotthe money outof
the bank that morning. 3 The police said she
must/had to return the car to the owner the
following weekend.
1 She said she's lost 1OOO. 2 She says she
doesn't think she'll buy another car.
54
N,iek, a Brltish
tourist,
is
telling his American,gir,lfiiend 66fi
questions he was asked at Kennedy Airport, ew York.
lfis ,,
,,
startwith the immigr,aton,ffi asked m where I was from and

why l'd come to the Sttes. That wasn't a problem. But then she wanted
to know how much money I had. When ltold hen she said $800 wasn't
enough for three weeks. jhe wondered why I hadn't brought more. She
then asked me if I intended to work. She wanted to know whether I
really planned to go back to the UK after three weeks.'
'To
Changes in reported questions
In reported questions, the word order is subject

the direct question.
Direct question
verb + subject
'Where are
you hom?'
'Why haoe you come?'
verb. This is not the same as in
Reported question
subject + verb
She asked me where I was from.
(Nor She asked me where was I from.)
She asked me why I had come.
(uor She asked me why had I come.)
Note: There's no question mark at the end of a reported question.

o Notice how questions in the present simple and the past simple change in
reported speech.
Direct question
Reported question
'How much money
She asked me how much
do you hoae?'
'Where did
you buy
money I had.
She asked me where
I bought my ticket. (on.I had bought)
your ticket?'
o If there's no question word like why, who, where, etc. in the direct question, we
use lf or whetherin the reported question.
Direct question
Reported question
'Do you intend to work?'
She esked me if I intended to work.
'Do you really plon
She wanted to know whether I
to go back?'
really planned to go bach.
o We often use these verbs in reported questions:
ask wanttoknow wonder (Norsay)
Direct question
Reported question
'How much money
She wanted to knou how much
do you haue?'
money I had. (on She asked ...)
'Why houen't you
She utondered why I hadn't
brought more?'
..K
QUESTIONS
brought more.
Change to reported questions.

1 'What's your name?'She asked me ...
2 'When are you returning to Britain?' She asked me ...
3 'Do you have friends in the USA?'She wanted to know
...
173
Step 2
reported commands, requests, etc.
The infinitive
to
trytogetajob.Shealsoaskedmetogivel.,"I.*yaddressin,theStates.l
be
tota r,r I ws staying with you in New York. She said New York could
me.'
on
money
of
lot
a bit dangerous, nd she avised me not to carry a
,Thn she told me to show her my return ticket. she warned.me not
requests
we normally use this construction in reported commands, warnings,
and advice.
subject +
She
verb
told
Direct speech
Commands
'Show me your ticket.'
object + infinitive with to
me
to show her mY tichet.
Reported sPeech
to get a iob!'
She told me to show her mY ticket'

She warned me not to trY
to get a iob.
Requests
'Can you giue me Your
address in the States?'
She asked me to gie her mY

address in the States.
'Don't try
Advice
She aduised me not to carrY a lot

of moneY on me'
You.'
sometimes use the
Note that in reported requests with the verb asft, we can
'You shouldn't carrY a

lot of money on
ask (someone) for something'

me
to giue her my address in the States'
She asked
(me)
for my address in the States'
oshed
onSfte
construction
(HICK AUTSTIONS

1 'Show me your PassPort!'
2 'Canyou fill in an immigration form?'

3 'You shouldn't go to some parts of Manhattan''
Other reporting verbs

,Then she offered to give me the address of the American Youth Hostel
hostels
organisation. she explained that there were hundreds of
,
carne from' l
she
over the States. She iuggested I visited Boston, where
g" i.", l hrd tir". she aoofo.sised fo. askins me so
all
;;;*i;-i;
*"nyqo"'tis.sheremindedmetobecarful.,
we use agree, inite, offer, promise, refuse, remind, threatenas reporting

verbs
' this construction.

with
subject
She
+ verb
offered
(+
object) + infinive with fo
b giue me the address.
@irect speech: 'l'll give you the address.,)
She
reminded
me
@irect speech: 'Don't forget to be careful.')
promised
@irect speech: 'l'll certainly go there.')
be careful.
go there.
o We can se qdd, admit, agree, comment, claim, complain, deny, explain, insist,
mention, promise, remind, suggesf as reporting verbs with this nstruction.
verb +
She
flafclause
suggested (that) I Disited
Boston.
@irect speech: 'Why don't you visit Boston?,)

She
explained
thqt there were hund.reds of hostels
@irect speech: 'You see, there are hundreds of hostels.')

o We use apologise for + -ing as a reporting verb.
She apologised for asking me so mony quesiions.
(Direct speech: 'l'm sorry I asked you so many questions.')
CHECK QUEST/ONs J
ANSWERS TO
CHECK QUESTIONS
T,2AND3

I 'l'll show you on a map.' She offered ...
don't you go to New England.' She suggested ...
? lWf,V
3
'lt's the most beautiful part of the States.' Shi added ...
4 'Remember. Don't try to get a job., She reminded me ...
1 She asked me what my name was. 2 She

asked me when I was reiurning to Britain.
3 She wanted to know if I hadriends in the
USA.
I She told me to show her my passport.
2 She asked me to fill in an immigration form
3 She advised me not to go to some parts
of
Manhattan.
1 She offered to show me on a map. 2 She
suggested I went to New England. 3 She
added that it was the most beautiful part of the
States. 4 She reminded me that I mustn't (on
shouldn't) try to get a job.
175
55
We noticed the advertisement in the travel agent's.
'Going to the USA? Go with the airline that rally looks after you, the
one that gives you real value for money. The honest airline. f ly USR|rt'
The price was so low we booked the tickets the same day.
'
pron
nciatio n of the
The definite article has only got one forml. the.lt is used before singular and
plural nouns:
the tickets the same day
The is pronounced/e/
before words beginning with a consonant (b, d, y, etc.):

the trauel agent's the price
before vowels that have a consonant sound:
o
1 QUESTIANS
the USA /e ju: es erl the one le wr,;.rl

The is pronounced /i:/ before words starting with a vowel sound (a, e, i, e|c.).
the aduertisement the eosy woy the honest airline
How do you pronounce the before these words? Write lel
Ithe/ /holiday 2theairportl l3thel
/UnitedStates
or
li:/.
4the/
/Americans
We phoned'for a:taxi; Thetaxj was.late. On,the way to,the airport there:

' 5 a' 1, ,6ic jam on, the,motor:wp Becusel of the traffic ja m we arrived'
,at-the airrpotfate. at,hlf past twelve, The fligftt left at quarter past
one.
We use fhe when we talk about a particular person or thing. Note the difference
between:
We phoned for a tqxi. (Any taxi. Not a specific taxi.)
and The tctxi wes late. Sh,e particular taxi they phoned for.)
See also: The tlight left at quarter past one.
(fhe particular Ilight they had tickets for.)
Note also that we use the indefinite article a, anwhen a noun is mentioned for
the first time. After that we use the definite article the wlIh that noun.
We phoned for a taxi. The taxi was late.
There was a traffc jam on the motorway. Because of the traffc iam we orriued
at the airport late.
.:r.
QUtsTlaNS 2
Complete the sentences with a/an or the.

I ... taxi they phoned for arrived late at their house, at quarter past twelve.
2 ... taxi-driver didn't say he was sorry.
3 ... traffic jam was caused by... accident on ... motorway. ... car had collided with
...
lorry.
177
Step 3
Other uses of the

It was the longest flight l'd ever been on (and also the most expensive!).
We left London in the afternoon. After an hour we were flying over the
south of lreland and after 7 hours we were flying over the centre of
New York - and it was still the afternoon! Out of the window on the
right we could see Manhattan, and on the
the Statue of Liberty.
left
We also use fhe
o
o
o
cHEC\ QUESTtot,ts
with superlatives:
the longest flight the most expensiue flight
with parts of the day to say when something happens:
in the afternoon in the morning
in the euening (eur at night)
with words which describe geographical position and place:
the south of lreland the centre of New York
the window on the right

I We sat at ... back of the plane.
2 ... best part of the flight was the in-flight movie, ... worst was the coffee!
3 New York is ... ... north-east of the United States.
4 At two o'clock... ... afternoon in London, it's nine o'clock... ... morning in New
York.
On the plane we had lunch an'd,dinner. When.we arivedin New York

we just wanted to go to bed. We went by bus to the centre of town. lt
was Saturday. so the streets of Manhattan werenrtoo crowded.'Most
New Yorkeri don't go to work on Saturdays; they stay ot horne in'the
suburbs. Our hotel was on 42nd Street. We took a taxi. The taxi-driver
was Puerto Rican and he spoke mainly Spanish. I didn't learn Spanish at
school.
We don't use t/e
in the phrases in bed/to bed, at uork/to work, at home.

we wented to go to bed they don't go to uorh
they stay qt home
o
o
o
o
178
before days, months and festivals in phrases like:

It was Saturday. They don't go to work on Saturdays.
in June at Christmas before Easter
before meals in sentences like: We had lunch and dinner.
before school subjects: I didn't learn Spanish at school.
before time expressions like: lqst week next month next Monday
in the phrases by bus, by train, elc.: We went by bus.
:HE'K
QU|STTQNS 4
Put in ffte where necessary.

I We had ... breakfast at ... home in London before we left.
2 ... bus station was on ... 38th Street.
3
4
We went
to
... hotel
by... taxi.
We're flying home ... next Thursday.
The taxi driver took us all over Manhattan. We saw the Hudson River;
'
the Empire State Building, the Metropolitan Opera Uouse.nJ f ttft
Avnue, Where the rich and the fanrous do their shopping. On the
sidewalks there were people from China, ttaly, the est lidies, Africa
and Asia. For:ty minutes later we arrived at the Wellington Hotel on
42nd Street and the taxi-driver asked for $781 Our room was on the
fifth floor. ln our room we looked at a map of New york for the f irst
time. The hotel was only 200m f rom the bls station I That taxi-driver
must think the English are stupid !
We use fe:
with the names of rivers, oceans, and groups of mountains and islands.
the Hudson Riuer the Atlqntic the Rocky Mountains the Azores
BUr not with the names of lakes and individual mountains and islands.
Lake
Ey'ie
Mount Euerest Mallorca
with the names of buildings like cinemas, hotels, etc.

the wellington Hotel the Empire state Building the Metropolitan opera House
BUT not with the names of churches, castles, palaces, squares, streets, etc.
St Patrick's Cathedral Windsor Castle 42nd Street
Buckingham Palace Washington Squore Fifth Auenue
o with the names of 'plural'countries like:
the United Stetes the West Indies the Netherlonds
and note also: ffte United Kingdom.
BUT not with the names of most countries and continents:
Puerto Rico Japan Spain Africa Europe Asia America North America
a'ltCK AUESTIONS 5a
Put in fe where necessary.
I ... United Nations Headquarters faces ... East River.

2 ...White House is probably... most famous building
3 ... Roc Mountains are in ... west of ... America.
in
...
United States.
We also use the
when we use an adjective (for example: English) to refer to the people of a
country.
the English the French the Dutch the Spanish the Japanese the Chinese
eur when we use a plural noun (Americans) to refer to the people of a country or a
continent, f/e is normally optional.
(the) Americans (the) Puerto Ricans (the) Itolians (the) Europeans
o with an adjective to describe groups of people.
the rich the fomous
with ordinal numbers: the first the third the fifth (Sth) floor etc.
not with positions in a race, a competition, etc.
BUT
He came
third in the race.

179
ct-tECK euESrroNS
5b
COmplete the SentenCeS, using fe where nece55ary.

1 ... first American we met said he preferred ... Irish to ... English.
2
3
Step 6
...
...
Americans seem to work harder than ... British.

Long Island is where many of ... rich and ... famous live.
When we don't use the bef ore school, hospital, church , etc.
On Sunday we went to church. We went to the church on Broadway. On
the way back to the hotel we saw a shooting at the university on 39th
and tw,o studenfs,were taken
hosnl]ul
!o
,, .,.
't1eet
. -
.,
,.'
We don't use f/e when we're talking about the main purpose or use of these
places: church, hospital, school, uniuersity, college, prison, court.
On Sunday ue tDent to church.
Two students were taken to hospital.
We use the bef.ore these words when we're talking about a particular church, a
particular university, etc.

We uent to the church on Broadway.
We saw a shooting at the uniuersity.
CHECK OUESTIONS 6
4,ry5!4,/FR5
rO
Complete the sentences, using ffte where necessary.

I Our hotel manager went to ... school in England, then went to ... university in the
States.
The New York police arrested a man for the shooting. He was a cleaner at ...
university.
He'll appear in
180
court next week. He'll definitely go to
/e/ 2 /i:./ 3 /e/ 4 /i:/
lfhe 2The 3The an the A a

l lhe 2 The ihe 3 in the 4 in the in the
2 The bus
CllLCK QUESTIONS 2
2 3,4,54ND6
...
station 3 the hotel
5a
'1
The the
... prison.
The the the
3 The Rocky
Mountains the west

5b I The the the 2 (The) the 3 the rich and
(the) famous
2the
Life isn't simple any more. The world is a dangerous place' Water and
t"oa .r" tt"n porrted. chemicals, additives and pesticid"t 3r" ...
uui,*"r". They,re in the water we drink and the food we buy. We
without
i;;";ui"i ,na .l"-n uir. w" need food that isrproduced
js_unhealthy
world
the
of
cities
big
.Jirr"i r^d pesticides. Life in the
Do we care
and.unsafe. The lakes and the rivers of Europe are dying'
not new
public
transport,
better
need
more auout nature or profit? We
need
We
jobs,
unemployment'
not
peopte of eritain need
t*Ot.
Party!
Alternative
the
g"^";.tity, noi self isfrness. We need
il;
if*
Step
Nouns without the
general sense:
don't use f/e when we use the following nouns in a
plural nouns. Chemicals, additioes and pesticides are euerywhere'
uncountable nouns. Water and food are often polluted'
We
o
o
o abstract
nouns. Life isn't simple any more'

We need genetosity, not selfishness'
CHECK QUESIIONS
Which is right, A or
B?
...
2
3
is becomlng more difficult. (A Life B The life)

... aredamaging our food. (A The pesticides B Pesticides)
People ur" *ioi"d about ... (A the pollution B pollution)
we mean particular people

We use fhe with plural and uncountable nouns when
or things.
we buy
Theieopte of Britain need jobs' the water we drink the food

The lokes and the riaers of Europe are' dying'
Here,wedon'tmeanallpeople,allwater,allfood'alllakesandrivers'Wemean
particular food (the food we buy), etc'
farticular water (the water we drink),
oNotethatwesometimestalkaboutaparticularthing,butuseitinageneral
sense. So we don't use fhe.
Life in the big cities of the world is unhealthy and unsqfe'
still a general idea')
(Not all life in the *orl, u"t all life in the big cities, which is
additiues'
without
We need food th(tt is produced
(Not all food, but all iood that is produced without additives)
CHECK OUESTIAN' 2
Complete the sentences, using ffte where necessary'

i AIi over the world ... cars cause "' pollution'
2 Is there room on ... roads of Britain for "' cars we're making?
i o*uauys ... people seem to prefer "' food with "' additives'
IO 1 1A 28 38
2 2 the the
ANsWE,Rs
CHTCK QUESrtoNs
1 AND2
Amy Clarke's a university student. She livesin a,house wi.th 1 dôzen

'
othr:ituents, Sheshaii arreorn with'a friend.'Moneyris u$llly' 4'
k 5 h e's a
wee
two'eveningi'
'
wotks
oO,,
Sft
pr b l"*,so amy's, tira' ;
"
a b o ut
" it,u' rt. a, pizza.resii iant' sh9' ea r.nii f 5 a n h our:! sh e makes
'
.flOn vning,.Stre.hsto We_ara uniform, '[ hav aneormous. ],., :
onth"u tunch.l'have.big:dnnerrat wo.lf,'.'a.huge.''1" '

meet.a lot'f::'t '
nd..a ice'aream, lt's'an irrteresting,iob'gnd'l
reatfasi,
Ezza
bt-,1
people.'
t,.'.,.t.
..
or an?
sound'
We use alel beforewords that begin with a consonant
q restaurant a part-time job s uniform

o We use anlatlbefore words which begin with avowel sound'
an ice cream an interesting job qn hour
We don't pronounce the ft' so
Note: The first sound in o,' i"'itt" vowel sound /aue/'
pronounce the h'
*" ,uy rr, hour.Bulnote o /ouse because we first
sound in these words is the
uniform.The
a
stii"l"r,
Note also a uniuersity
consonant sound lil nolthe vowel sound /'t/'
.HECK OUES/ON
Put a or an before these words:
1]ob2union3unusualname4enormousicecream5holidayGhonestman
Main use of a/an (lhe indefinite article)
Step 2
with singular countable nouns'
We usuall
thing for the first time' We don't

We use a,/an whenwe talk about a person or a
use a/an
ahouse afriend aneaening
identify the Person or thing.
don't say which house')

friend.)
foe aon't ruy*hi.h room or which
shares a room *;;;;i;"r.
She-liuesin
She
CHICK QUTSTIONS
Step 3
house. (We
Put in a/an where necessary'

I She works in restaurant in street near the station'
i For lunch she only has apple and glass of milk'
Other uses of a/an

We use a/anbeore occupations, jobs and religions'
.She's a student. She's a waitress' He's a Muslim'
etc'
o/onwhenwe talk about numbers or quantities'

pounds)
a dozen other students-*i iof p""pte St00 ( hundred
We can use a/an with the meaning per'
two euenings a week 54 qn hour 52 a kilo
We also use a/an in exclamations like:
What a huge pizza! What on interestingiob!
We use
ct few
friends
iECK QUESTIOI'I'
Put in a,/anwhere necessary.

Amy's friend works in pub. She's barmaid. She works three evenings week. She
earns 54.50 hour.
We
don't use o/an:
o before uncountable
nouns (see Unit 59).

Money is usually a problem for students. (Nor A money)
o before the names of meals (breakfast, lunch, dinner, etc.).
I don't haue /unc. (uor I don't have a lunch.)
But if we use an adjective before the meal, we must use a/an'.
I houe q big dinner at roork. (Nor I have big dinner)
'HFCA
QUTST/ONs 4
Put in a/anwhere necessary.

Amy likes good food, but food's expensive for student, and she doesn't like
spending money. She has big breakfast; she only has apple for lunch, but she has
dinner at work.
plural
a/an:
nou n,
ln the street where Amy lives there are some people who don't like
students. They say students have an easy Iife and don't do any work. ls
this true? ln fact, students usually have very little money. Some students
get jobs to pay for their food and accommodation. Some students
borrow money from their parents. A lot of Amy's friends are students.
They don't all have rich parents. And they can't all find part-time jobs.
We often use some as the plural ol o,/on when we mean a certain number.
There are some people who don't lihe students.
(A certain number of people, but not all.)

Some students borrow money from their parents.
Q\ot all students borrow money from their parents.)
We don't use some:
when we're interested in the things or people themselves, not the number of them.
They get jobs to pay for their food and qccommodation.
They don't all haue rich parents.
o when we talk about things or people in general.
They say students haue an eosy life. (= all students)
Students usually houe uery little money.
(For the use of some with uncountable nouns see Unit 61.)
lECK
QUESTIONS 5
Put in some where necessary.

1 There are people who say that students have an easy life.
2 There are very nice students who live in our house.
3 People understand students'problems, and people don't.
ANSWERS TO
1 lajob 2aunon
3anunusual name
4 an enormous ice
6 an honest man
cream 5 aholiday
.HECK QUESTIONS
1.2. 3.4
AND 5
'1 a
restaurant a street 2 an apple a glass
3 apub abarmaid aweek an hour

4 a student a big breakfast an apple
5 1 (some) people 2 some very nice students
3 Some people some people
58
ROBBERY IN
STAPLETON ROAD
FIGHT IN CITY CENTRE
........:::::::......
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
Two police offlrcers were injured in

a fight last night. One policeman
lost four teeth.Three other people
were also injured.The police were
called to the Central car park where
there was a fight involving about
two dozen young men and women.
Dozens of cars and two buses were
Thieves stole cameras and

videos from two shops in
Stapleton Road yesterday.
They also took several
boxes of video cassettes
and hundreds ofaudio
cassettes.
damaged.
plural
Most nouns have a plural ending in -s.
a camera > two cameras an officer, two officers

(For the spelling of plural endings, see Appendix 3.)
o
lsl
lzl
This final -s is pronounced in two different ways:

atter the consonanls c, p, t, k, f and th: shops, cassettes
after all other consonants and after vowels (a, o, etc.):
thieoes cameras uideos cqrs
When the plural ends in -es (after c, s, x, z, ss, sh, ch) -es is pronounced lrul:
boxes buses
A few common words have irregular plural forms.
Singular
man
uoman
person
Plural
men
women
Singular
foot
feet
tooth
teeth
Plural
people
child
children
(Persons is very formal.)
mouse mice
o These are sometimes part of other words:
policewoman > policewomen grandchild, grandchildren
a Frenchman > Frenchmen (eut o German > trDo Germans)
o In compound nouns the more important word takes the plural form.
police office> police officers credit card, credit cards
uideo cassette
uideo cqssettes car
park,
car
parhs
Some nouns (usually numbers) don't change in the plural.

a dozen > two dozen a hundred > two hundred
a thousand > two thousand a million > two million
eur when these words are used to talk about an indefinite number, they have the
plural -s.
Dozens of cqrs uere damaged. hundreds of audio cassettes
:HECK eu:SrtoNs
Put in the plural forms.
3
5
a policeman, two ...

a young person, two ...
an Englishman, two ...
2
4
6
a businesswoman, two ...

a police station, two ...
a thousand, ... of people
Step 2
Nouns: singular or plural?

Government says
New shop opens
United buy Baresco

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa
Manchester United have

paid d8 million for
Clothes are cheaper at Stax. Ifyour

family need new clothes, why not
try Stax?'I bought some trousers
for {,25,'said Benny Sampson.
'Nowadays f"25 isr,'t a lot to pay for
a pair oftrousers. Jeans are cheap
too. And my wife bought some
tights for oily f,2.99!'
Baresco, the Italian
goalkeeper.'People in
Manchester want to see
the world's best players,'
commented the manager.
:::'::":i:.::::::
The government has
formed a new
committee.The
committee have
produced a document
called'Politics in Britain
is an honest profession'.
A few nouns look singular, but are used with a plural verb.
people police Manchester United (or any sports team)
People uant to see the world's best players. (Nor wants)
Manchester United haae bought (Nor has)
Collective or group nouns can be followed by a singular verb (if we're thinking of
the group as a single unit), or by a plural verb (if we're thinking of the group as a
number of individuals). The most common are family, gouernment, team, crowd,
army, audience, company, group.
If your family need new clothes My family isn't uery big.
The gouernment has formed a committee.
The gouernment haae discussed the problem.
o When we think of a certain quantity of money, distance or time as a single unit,
we use a singular verb.
525 isn't a lot of money to pay for a pair of trousers.
Slax s two miles from town. Two miles is a long way to walk.
o Some nouns are only plural. The most common arel. belongings, clothes, confents'
headquarters, sauings, surroundings, thanks.
Clothes are cheaper at Stax.
o There's another group of nouns that are also only plural: glasses, pants, knickers,
pyjamas, jeans, scissors, shorts, tights, trousers.
I bought some trousers for 525. (Nor a trousers)
Jeans are cheap. She bought some tights. (Nor a tights)
Before these words you can also use the phrase a pair of * a singular verb.
A pair of trousers costs 525.
o Some nouns end in -s, but are followed by a singular verb: news, politics,
mot
ematics, phys i cs,
e c
onomic
s.
Politics is an honest profession.

CHECK QUI.'TION' 2
ANSWERS TO
CHECK QUESI/ONS
1 AND2
188
Choose the correct form of the verb.

1 Clothes (isn't/aren't) cheap nowadays.
2 People (doesn't/don't) buy clothes that are too expensive.
3 560 (is/are) a lot of money for a pair of ieans.
4 The government (is/are) trying to keep prices low.
1 polcemen 2businesswomen 3young

people 4 police stations 5 Englishmen
6 thousands
1 aren't 2 don't 3
is 4istrying/are trying
59
been several accidents on the roads. A number of people were hurt in
'an'a:cidetni:thl'A.3;2':mslirwgyuihentw:a'cats:hednarJuniitioo
. '4:',Andthi,ete ard:4,few problems tor rail'Trateitlt9,:,,,t91ny.;trais,,befween
cities in the west and London are running twenty to thirty minutes late.
Countable nouns: car, problem, etc.
Countable nouns are people or things which we can count. They have both a
singular and a plural form.
Singular
train
city
problem
Plural
trains
ctttes
problems
We can use o or cn or numbers with a countable noun.

a mnute tuenty mmutes
a car two clrs
We use these words and phrases
onlywith countable nouns:

many several a few a number of both a couple of
seaeral accidents a number of people a feu problems
Note the use of the exclamation What ...!

Singular: What a terrible morning! (Nor What terrible morning!)
Plural: What terrible driuers!
CHECK OUESTIONS
Which are the eight countable nouns in this news report?
'Four cows escaped from the market at Winford this morning. It took three police
officers and several farmers over an hour to catch them. Two old women were hurt
when the cows ran down the main street.'
Uncountable nouns: air, coLtrage, etc.

An explosion ha5 destr:oyed a chemical fac1ory in Brislington' Thanks to
the courage of the f iref ighters no-one-was,hurt. The air rsund th
factor.y is still thick with smoke, and, for their own safety, esidenti have
Ueen iotO ot to drihk the water. Residents are worried about their
children's health and the damage to the environment caused by the
explosion.
Uncountable nouns are things that we can't count. They have no plural form. Air,
for example, is an uncountable noun. We can't say one qir, two airs.
o Most uncountable nouns are:
materials or substances: air, water, smohe, eLc.
feelings or qualities: couroge, loue, anger, etc.
abstract ideas: safety, justice, freedom, etc.
190
The exclamation What ...! (see Step 1) can be followed by an uncountable noun
without a, an.
What terrible damage! (Nor What a terrible damage!)
*:.<
QUESTIONS 2
What are the eight uncountable nouns in the news report of the explosion at
Brislington?
uncountable
less violence in the St Paulis district of Bristol than there was two
ago But'many young people still have nothig to do in the
' even'inEs; Severral,yoth leaders have ask-d for a nqyu youth club.
A nl.mber of localcourncillors hav accpted.the ide'butrthe counciI
has very little money and the government hasn't offered financial
trppori. So there is't much hpe that the youth club will be built.
There's
year:i
,,,i
We can't use o or an with uncountable nouns, even if there's an adjective before
the noun.
o
o
financial supporf (Nor a financial support)

We can't use numbers with uncountable nouns. We can't say'two violences'.
We can't use these words and phrases with uncountable nouns:
many several a few a number of both a couple of each every these those
many young people (countable)
But Nor many violences (uncountable)
These words and phrases can only be used with uncountable nouns:
(a) little very little much less

less uiolence uery little money there isn't much hope
@ut some people use less with countable nouns nowadays.)
o For the use of some, any, no with countable and uncountable nouns, see Unit 61.
-::K
QUESI/ONS .,
Choose the correct word.

1 The council hasn't got (many/much) money.
2 The young people of St Paul's like (a/-) loud music.
3 That's why (a few/a little) local people don't want a youth club.
Countable
ncou ntable?
ome interesting research has been done recently in the.food industr:y.

One piece of research is particularly interesting. icientists have looked
at spaghetti, which normally takes 15 minutes to cook. They've
produced a spaghetti that takes only a minute to cook. They've also
workd. on beer. There's sme good hews for beer-drinkers who drive.
You can now have several glasses of beer and drive your car safely
afterwards. A new beer has been produced which is non-alcoholic, but
which tastes like real beer.
Some words are countable in most languages, but are uncountable in English and
are used with a singular verb. The most common aye: accommodation, aduice,
baggage, behauiour, bread, damage, equipment, euidence, furniture, garbage,
homework, informqtion, knowledge, luck, luggage, money, neus, nonsense, progress,
re search, rubbish, spaghetti, traffic, transport, weather.
Some interesting research has been done. (Nor have been done)
spaghetti which normally tahes l5 minutes to cook (Nor take)
There's some good neros. (Nor there are)
o The following words are normally uncountable, but can also have a plural use:
business, grass, hair, trauel, work.
Business in St Paul's is getting better. (uncountable)
Seueral neu businesses haue been started. (countable)
(uslnesses = 'companies, firms')
If we want to talk about a certain
quantity of these things, we normally use
countable noun + o/+ the uncountable noun.

One piece of research is particularly interesting.
You can nou hae seueral glasses of beer.
These words are often used in this construction:
A cup of tea/coffee, etc. A glass of beer/milk, etc.
A bottle of whisky/wine, eLc. A bowl of soup,/solad, etc.
A pachet of sugar/flour/washing-pouder, elc.
jar of jam/marmalqde, etc. A tin of salmon/soup, etc.

A loaf of bread A slice of bread/ham, etc. A piece of toast/cake, ercA piece of furniture/ information/ adu ice, elc.
All these phrases can be used in the plural.
Two cups of tea, a few tins of soup, etc.
o Note that with words like tea, coffee, beer, whisky we can say:
I'd like a glass of beer ox I'd like a beer.
Do you uJant a cup of coffee? ox Do you ant a coffee?
o Many words in English for food and drink can be used sometimes as uncountable
nouns (when used in a general sense), sometimes as countable nouns (when used
to talk about a particular type of something).
They'ue looked at spaghetti. (spaghetti in general: uncountable)
A
q spaghetti that tahes only a minute to cook

(a spaghetti = a particular type of spaghetti: countable)
They'ue worked on beer. (beerin general: uncountable)
A new beer has been produced.
(A beer = a particular type of beer: countable)
Here are some other words that can be countable or uncountable: cheese, wine,
mel[ soup, coffee, tea, whisky.
CHE'A QU'SIIONS
AA/-SVvtRS IC)
CiECi( QUE5I/O/!5
1,2,]AND1
192

I There (isn't/aren't) any more information about the new beer.
2 Progress Qras/have) been made on producing non-alcoholic beer.
3 The English like (cheese/cheeses), but there aren't many different
(cheese/cheeses) produced in Britain.
1
2
cow, market, morning, police officer, farmer,

hou woman, street
courage, air, smoke, safety, water, health,
damage, environment
1 much money 2 loudmusic 3afewpeople

1 There isn't much information 2 Progress has
been made 3 The English like cheese
many different cheeses
60
lttatiaa lndian.andrlhineselfood,,.qnd lots of
junk food. Nowadays there aren't many people who have a traditional
English breakfast (eggs and bacon). Many people eat cereals like
cornflakes instead. They also eat a lot of things with sugar in. Shops sell
plen of biscuits - the rish spend f 500 million on bisiuits every'year!
Therers plenty of food for cats in the supermarkets too. The British don't
spend much on their children's shoes, but they spend a lot on cat food f250 million a year! The British drink a lot of wine nowadays. But
because of the climate there aren't many vineyards so they don't make
much wine. But they import 500 million litres each year!
Br1ish.peqp.[e,eat1,a,,fo1of
Step
A lot, much, many, plenty
We use muchwllh uncountable nouns (food, wine, etc.) to talk about a quantity of
something. We use it only in questions and in negative sentences.
Do they make much wine? They don't make much wine.

We use manywith plural nouns (people, uineyards, etc.) to talk about a number of
things or people. We use it in questions and in negative sentences. (lt's sometimes
used in affirmative sentences, particularly at the beginning of a sentence.)
Do many people eat a traditionel English breakfast?
There aren't many uineyards in Britain. Many people eat breakfast cereals.
o We use a lot ofilots ofwith countable and uncountable nouns to talk about a
number of things or people or a quantity of something. They are used mainly in
affirmative sentences, but can also be used in negative sentences and questions.
lofs of means the same as a lot of.lt's more informal.
They eat a lot of Chinese food. (Nor mucft Chinese food)
Do they eat q. lot of Indian food? (oxmuch Indian food)
They eat a lot of things with sugar in (More common lhan: many things)
They don't make o lot of wine. (oxmuch wine)
o We use p/e nty of wilh countable and uncountable nouns to talk about a number
o{ things or people or a quantity of something.
Plenty (of means 'more than enough', but it's often used with the meaning of 'a lot
o
CIlCK QUESTIONS
There's plenty of food for cats. Shops sell plenty of biscuits.

Much, many, a lot, lots, plenty can be used alone, without a noun.
They don't spend much on children's shoes, (= much money)
but they spend a lot on cat food. (= a lot of money)
Note the question forms:

How much? (with uncountable nouns) How many? (with countable nouns)
Put in much, mony or a lot.

1 Do the British eat ... Italian food? Yes, they eat ...
2 How ... do they spend on their children's shoes? Not ...
3 Are there ... vineyards in Britain? No, there aren't ...
4 How ... people have a traditional English breakfast? Not
Step 2
Little/very
little
few/very few a little/a few
Many British people are unfit. They take very tittle exercise, and do few
active sports. They eat very little fruit and very few vegetables. lf you
want to be healthy, you should eat a little fresh fruit every day and a
few fresh vegetables. You should also take a little exercise.
We use little/uery littlewith uncountable nouns to talk about a small quantity. We

use few/uery few wilh plural nouns to talk about a small number. Very little and uery
fewhave a negative meaning. We use them more often than little and few.
They take oery little exercise,/little exercise.
(= not much exercise, not enough exercise)
They eat aery few uegetables,/feu) uegetables.
(= not many vegetables, not enough vegetables)
lECK QI.JESTIONS 2
Step 3
A little and a few have a more positive meaning.

You should take o little exercise. (not much, but enough to be healthy)
You should eat q feus fresh uegetables. (not many, but enough to be healthy)
Are these positive or negative things to do?

I Ieatveryfewvegetables. 2 Itake alittle exerciseeveryday.
3 I do a few active sports. 4 I eat little fresh fruit.
So much/so
many too much/too many
5o much,food
is wstedowadays beca5ewe:thro\/ aay so much. It',s

terrible when you think that so many people in the world don't have
enough food. Many adults and children in the rich countries are
overweig ht because ther'at too rnch,nd beause'theret'too much
trgrr an-d fat in their dit. Vtany children have got bad teeth because
tggmany,sweets andtoo mSh junkfood,:1,
'
:
, ,'
,,thV,et
We use so much to emphasise that we're talking about a big quantity, and so
many lo emphasise that we're talking about a large number of people or things.
So much food is wasted. So many people don't haue enough food.
We use too much and foo many Io mean 'more than necessary'.
Too many people eat too much. (An excessive number eat more than is
necessary.)
o
al^
QUESr/ON5
ANSWERS IO
QUESTIONS
-lCK
1,2AND3
So much and foo muc (unlike much) can be used in affirmative sentences.
So much food is u;asted. There's too much sugar.
Answer these questions using so much/too much,/too mqny.

1 How do we waste food? We throw away...
2 Do British people eat many sweets? Yes, they eat far ...
3 Do they eat much junk food? Yes, far ...
1 much/a lot
3 many/alot
lot
of a lot 2 much much ( a lot)

of many/alot 4 many many/a
2
3
1 Negative 2 Positive 3 Positive 4 Negative

1 We throw away so much/too much. 2 Yes,
they eat fartoo many. 3 Yes, fartoo much.
195
61
Joss and.Anna have arrived at a camp site. Joss is
going to the shop.

need some milk too.
Joss: l'll get some burgers and some fruit. And we
Anna: OK. Have we got any cooking oil?

Joss: Yes, there's some in that bag. Oh no, I didn,t bringr any matches.
'
Anna: You'll have to buy some.
Joss: What about bread?
Anna: We haven't got any. Get some bread rolls.
of some,
Some and any can be used with uncountable nouns:

Get some fruit. Haue ue got q.ny coohing oil?
and plural countable nouns.
Get some burgers. I didn't bringany matches.
we usually use some in affirmative sentences and, any inquestions and negative
sentences. @ut see Steps 3 and 4.)
we need some milk. Haue we got any cooking oil? I didn't bring any matches.
c Some and any can be used alone, without a noun.
There's some in that bag. We hauen't got any.
. -<. QUESTIONS
Put in some or qny.
I
2
3
Joss bought ... burgers from the shop.

He also bought ... milk, because they didn't have ...
Did they bring ... cooking oil with them? No, but they need ...
cp- site,isnt vAfy:g9,.d..fhere are no,showers; and there,s no hot

water in the washroom. lt's got no publictelephone. lt,s difficult at
night because there are no lights at the entrance and there are none in
.The
i.ii:l:r.r:,i:i:lii:rlirrr.i:
^/Vo
li:,rl
lr
rlirr:triii:rii.:llrli:,i:l:::i.t',iirll1r'.tti,rllr
and none are used with a verb in the affirmative.
There are no showers. (= There aren't any showers.)

There are none. (= There aren't any.)
No/none with an affirmative verb = anywith a negative verb.
1[o is used
with countable and uncountable nouns.
There are no shouers. (= There aren't any showers)

There's no hot uater. (= There isn't any hot water.)
None is used alone, without a noun.

There are none in the toilets. (= There aren't any in the toilets.)
We often luse
no/nonewith there is/there are and haue got.

There's no hot water. It's got no public telephone.
With other verbs we normally use not + any.
197
Put in no oY none.
1 This camp site is awful! There are ... doors on the toiletsl
2 There's ... paper in the toilets, and there's ... room in the rubbish bins.
3 We've got ... camping gas left and they've got ... at the shop.
CHECK OIJESTIONS 2
uestions
Jossistalkingtothepeopleinthenexttent.
Joss:
Man:
Joss:
Man:
Have you got any camping as?

Yes,
we have.
Could we have some, please?

Yes, no problem. Would you like some coffee? We've just made
some.
We use some io questions when we expect the answer Ies.
Could we haue some, please?

(Joss knows that they've got some camping gas, so he expects the answer )'es.)
r,ut: Haue you got any camping gas?
(Flere Joss doesn't know if they've got any camping gas or not, so he uses ony.)
o
CH[( A QUESIION
We also use some in
offers.
Would you like some coffee?
Anna and Joss are having supper with the people in the next tent. Complete the
sentences witlt some or any.
1 Would you like ... spaghetti, Joss? - Yes, please.
2 Have you got ... cheese in your tent? We haven't got ... here.
3 Yes, we have. Shall I go and get...?
affirmative sentences
A notice in the camp site office said:
Any campers making a noise after 11 p.m. will be asked to leave the
,a p slt''tf yo,need any: information, ask at the eam,B offite. 1f you
Any can be used in affirmative sentences where it means it doesn't matter

which/how much/when, etc. It's o{ten used after If...
Any campers mahing a noise after l1 p.m. will be asked to leaue.
If you need any information, ask at the camp office.
(HTCK QUESTIONS
AA/5WER5
IO
CHECK QUESTIONS
1,2,34ND4
198
Complete the sentences with some or any.

I If you need extra blankets, there are ... in the camp office.
2 Don't damage ... equipment on the camp site. ... damage must be paid for.
3 Please leave ... money or valuables at the camp office.
some 2 some any 3 any some
1no 2no no 3no
none
'1
some 2 any any 3 some

some 2 any Any 3 any
62
Natasha's a refugee. She's escaped from the war in her own country and
to live in Eccleston, a village in theiouth of Eirland. She's
has come
Everything is new. Everything is different. But everybody is very kind to

her. hey give her everything she needs. They do atl they can to help
her. She thanks everyone for their kindness with a smile, because she
can't speak English. All she can,say is'Hello'. She isn't happy because all
she wants to d is go home.
Step
'!
Al
I or everyth
in
g/ everybody / everyone?
When we mean'all the things'we usually say euerything, not all. When we mean
'all the people' we use euerybody or eeryone, nol all.
Eaerything is new. (Nor All is new.)
Eaerybody is hind ro er. (Nor AII are kind to her.)
She thanks eaeryone for their hindness. (Nor She thanks all ...)
o Euerything and euerybody/eueryone are followed by a verb in the singular.
Euerything's Qs) different. (Nor Everything are different.)
Euerybody is kind. (Nor Everybody are kind.)
o But we use they, them, their afler euerybody/eeryone.
Eaerybody is uery kind to her. They giue her euerything she needs.
She thanks eeryone for their kindness. (Nor: his kindness)
o Note that we can use a// followed by a relative clause. It has two meanings:
'everything' or 'the only thing(s)'.
They do all they can to help her. (= They do everything they can)
All she uants to do is go home. (= The only thing she wants to do)
We usually leave out the relative pronoun that after all.
AII (that) she can say is'Hello'.
Note: We sayA11 she can say or All that she can say, but Nor AII what she can say.
CIiECK QUESTIANS
Rewrite the sentences, using all, eaerything or eoerybody/eeryone.

1 All the things Natasha sees are new. 2 All the people want to help her.
3 The only thing she can do is wait for the war to stop.
or each?
offered'fo,hlp Natasha., Peop e have
been.to every house to collect monelfor hr.rAll the rnoRey ges into a
spil banktcount: There are three pbs in,the village, The:owner of
eachrpub'is coltecting moneyto. They've each eolleeted about f 100.
rhe ewsageni'has'also asked e-ach:f ,his customis to give money.
'.
'some'peopi are dec.or,atingatasha's flat.'Theyfie,painti'every ''
national
her
is,part
of
Each
cOlour
roorn. Each roomts,a differentrOlour,
Al l th e f ami f ies i n,Ecc[eston,have
lag.
Al1 and euery often mean the same.
All the families in Eccleston = Eaery family in Eccleston

all the houses in the uillage = eery house in the uillage
Note: euery is followed by a singular noun.
But we use all nol euery wilh uncountable nouns.

a special bank accounf. (Nor every money)
o We use eery and,each + a singular noun when we talk about all the people or all
the things in a group. We can often use either.
Eoery family in Eccleston ho,s offered to help Natasha.
op.Each family in Eccleston has offered to help Natasha.
o But, if we see the people or the things individually, if we talk about them
separately, we normally :use each.
All the money goes into
They're painting eaery room. (= all the rooms)

They're painting each room a different colour. (= the rooms one by one)
We can use each (Nor every) on its own or with of
They'ue eqch collected about 5100.
The newsagent has asked esch of his customers to gie money.
:I]'CK QU5I/ONs
Putin eaeryoreach.
2
3
Natasha needs ... penny she can get.

The council has asked ... shop in the village to give money.
They've asked ... shop to give S30.
... ofthe two farmers in Eccleston has given S50.
hole
Natasha's whole life has changed. She had sp-ent the whole of her life in
Akabi, a mountain village. But now the whole of Akabi has been
destroyed and she's lost her whole family. On the day she arrived in
Britain she was very hungry and tired, They gave herbread, fish and
milk. She ate a whle Ioat f bread and a whole tin of tuna and she
drank allthe.mitk.
We use whole malnly with singular countable nouns.

Natasha's whole life has changed. (= Her life has changed totally.)
She's lost her uhole family. (= all her family)
She ate a whole lo(tf of bread. (= She ate a complete loaf of bread')
We don't use whole with uncountable nouns.

She dronk all the mllft. (Nor the whole milk)
We can use the phrase the whole of + a noun:

She had spent the uthole of her life in Akabi' (= her whole life)
We must use this phrase with the names of places.
The whole of Akabi has been destroyed. (Nor the whole Akabi)
K QUESTIQAIS
Rewrite the sentences, using uhole.

I She drank all the bottle of milk.
2 Natasha's village has been completely destroyed.
3 All Eccleston is trying to help Natasha.
Step 4
preposition
all about
There are r;efugees like Natasha all:over the world' They know.
crjes all
war and suffering. Natasha's.still so unhappy that she often
.
all
iii;.;ihe nigt. She'd like tortell her friends in Eccleston about
herliinAkb,B,utshe'can',.tspeakEnglishyet.,,
CHECK QUTSf IONS
tound' through)'
down' ouer'
We can use all before prepositions (about, along'
world)
whole
the
(=
over
world'
the
There are refugees olt- ooir
about)
(=
everything
qbout
suffering'
and
war
They know all
Rewrite the sentences, using all + apreposition'

I There are refugees living everywhere in Britain' her experiences'
2 Natasha wants to tell people the whole story of
,1
step 5 Ll,yyyttnn whole in time expresslons

atash a d rea ms a bout h er terri ble
"-0" l.nTshe's awake atl night. Her doctor has giv-"
N
'
:H?ls[;
il]"rx:,,,
see a
thre"e hours. And every two weeks she goes.to
i. t"["
comes
day',lTt""t:r
"""iy
every
lesson
prviiuttitt.ish" h", an English
to
thev spe,1,?i'I":lins tosether'
iji;;;;;, ;",;i;s J i'o '*' 'nd day at college' She has a busy
Every Wedn"sd"y s"-rpends the whole
li;;;.*; u.riui1 "y srr thinksof her familv and frfends,
week' month' yeor' Monday'

In time expressions with words like minute, hour' day'
happens'
Tuesday,etc. we use eery lo say how often something
flat'
the
to
comes
teacher
faey morning at l0 a.m. her
night'
She reams abut her terrible experiences euery
psychiatrist'
a
see
goes
to
she
ueehs
two
Eaery
year' elc' to say
or the whole wilh morning, euening, day' week, month'
We use all
how long something lasts.
Theypend att morning together' (on the whole morning)
She'spends the whole day at college' (on all day)
night)
Somtimes she's awahe oll night' (on the whole
.HFCK AL)ESTIOI5
Putin alloreaetY.
1 She goes to college ..' Wednesday'

2 She'i at college ... day on Wednesdays'
3 Her English teacher comes to see her "' day'
4 Yesteray they spent ... evening listening to music'
AA/5Wf,R5 IO
LHICK QUFS//OA/5
1 ). l. I
A^!D
2
3
202
2 Natasha's whole village/The whole of

Natasha's village has been destroyed .
3 The whole of Elcleston is trying to help
1 Everything Natasha sees is new'

z pvervbodv (Evervone) wants to help her'
3 All se .u do it *rit for the war in her
country to stoP.
1 every fienny
2 every
shop 3 each shop
4 Each
1 She drank the whole bottle of milk'
Natasha.
There are refugees living all over Britain'

2 Natasha wants to tell people all about her
experiences.
5 levery 2all
3everY 4ali
63
Most British people watch a lot of television. Most young people watch
mr than 20 hours a week. Most of the yurg people nterviewed'
reeently in.a surveyr said they walched 1 [p5f 24 hours a week. And
some of them watched up to 28 hours.
Some old people watch 0 hortt a week. Some of them aren't really
interested in half-the programrnes. Most of the time they watch
Many viewers have special interests. Some watch all the wildlife
programmes, for example; and some watch all the sport,
Some people sy that all violence.on TV shoqld be bnned. They say
that some of it encourages children to be violent. But the TV companies
Say:that all parents should contr,ol what their children watch- All'of
them are responsible.
Most of us see television as a problem. But none of the viewers
interviewd recently have thrown their televisions awayi None of them
has stopped watchig !
,
We use:
all, most, some, any, many, a feu + plural noun

all, most, some, any, much + uncountable noun'
most people some old people all uiolence all parents
('Most' = 'nearly all'. 'Some' = 'a part, but not all'.)
o All, most,
etc. have a general, unlimited meaning.

All of, most of, etc. have a more specific, limited meaning.
Compare:
Most young people watch 24 hours a week. (= most young people in general)
most of the young people interuiewed (= a specific group of young people)
o But we often leave out o/after all and half.

all (of) the sport half (of) the programmes
o With all, most, some, elc.we must use of before a pronoun (it,
some of it (= some of the violence. Nor some it)
us,
you, them).
most of us (= most of the people in Britain. r',tor most us)

all of them (= all (of) the parents. Nor allthem)
all most, some, etc. as pronouns on their own.

Some watch all the uildlife programmes. (= some viewers)
o We can use a singular or plural verb after none of.
None of the oiewers interaieued haae thrown their teleuisions away! None of
them has stopped watching! ftlere, we could say has thrown or haue stopped.)
(For all, see also Unit 62.)
CtltCK t)UESrlt)NS
204
We can use
Put in of the ornothing at all.

I Some ... people think there's too much violence on television.
2 Many ... people I know don't watch much television.
3 I don't watch any ... programmes my friends like.
4 Not all ... television programmes are of high quality.
Both (of), either (of), neither (of)

Both Mr and Mrs Hopewatch terevision
They all enjoy soaps and wildlife prograr
ffilllljl;tX|fr lliX;l?lfl'#,
tfrathe ctritren watch too much. gth ther children watch television
i;;i.;; ri' " arv-"ii.il; *;, u"rv much. And neither or turn
them has other interests. lf Mfs Hope asks either of the'children to
the television off, there's usually an argument''For both of them

i;;i;i,r;-i;; '. "i1'i vt' fuop" or his wife.know what to do'
They've both talked about the problem a lot..with_other parents. lt
seems theyrre a[l experiencing ihe ,r*" pro1"m.'They can either force
to watch ess often, orthey can get r d of the television
the ch
ldrn
we use both, either, neitherwhenwe talk about two people or things. Note the
possible constructions:
both/either/neither
+ (of) + (the,etc)
Both
Both
Both
Both
Either/Neither
Either/Neither
Either/Neither
of
of
the
the
noun/pronoun
parents
Plrents
Parents
rhem (Nor both them)
child
of
children
the
them
of
o We can say both X and Y neither X nor Y either X or Y.

Both Mr ond Mrs Hope uatch teleision regularly.
Neither Mr Hope nor his wife know what to do.
They can either force them to watch less often, or they can "'
o After Neither of ... and Neither ... nor ... we can use a singular or plural verb.
Neither of them has other interesfs. (on cue)
Neither Mr Hope nor his wife hnow what to do. (on knows)
sut Neither + noun is always followed by a singular verb'
Neither child reads uerY much.
o ,4/1 and ofh, used on their own, usually come in mid-position (before the main
verb or between the auxiliary verb and the main verb)'
They all enioy soaps and uildlife programmes.
They'ae both talhed about the problem a lot.
-4LCK QUTSTIQNS 2
Put in both, either of or neither of-
I ... children watch television too often.

2 ... them reads books.
3 There are two possible solutions. Mr Hope doesn't
like "' them'
Add the words in brackets to the sentence.
ANSWERS TO
HFCK QUESTIANS
1,2 AND 3
4
5
They want to solve the television problem. (all)

The two children have agreed to watch less television' (both)
'1
1 Some people 2 Many of the people 3 any

of the programmes 4 Not all television
programmes
2 I Both children 2 Neither of them 3 either of

them
4 They all want to solve the television

5 ihe two children have both agreed
problem.
to watch
less
television.
205
64
Polly and James are at the beach: James has just had a swim"
James: Can I borrow that towel?
Polly: No, this tow"lls *ine. ifratt your towel over there.
James: Oh, OK.
Polly: Do you want one of these chicken sandwiches?
James: l,,lo ihanks. But l'd like one of those apples. ... Thanks. Did you
see? I swam out to those rocks.
Polly: Which rocks?

James: Those over there. Where that man
is
now.
Polly: Which man?

James: That man with the mask on.
demonstratives th is,
those
We use this + a singular noun for something which is near the speaker.
This towel's mrne. (Ihis towel here.)

We use faf + singular noun for something further away.
Can I borrow
that towel? (fhat towel there.)
We use these + plural noun for things near the speaker.

Do you uant one of these sandwiches?
(Ihese sandwiches here.)

We use those + plural noun for things further away.
o
o
I'd lihe one of those apples. (fhose apples there.)

Note that /s, that, these, those can be used as adjectives or pronouns.
This touel's mlne. (adjective)
This is my towel. (pronoun)
We use them as pronouns when it's clear what we're talking about.
Which rocks? Those ouer there.
(He doesn't repeat rocfts because they've already been mentioned in the
question.)
This is only true if we're talking about things, not people.

That mon with the mask on. (Nor That with the mask on.)
BUT
.ilECK QUTSTIONS
we use this/these on their own when we introduce people:

This is my wife, Polly. And these are my children, Marh and Anna.
in this, that, these or those.

1 What's in ... sandwich you're eating?
Put
2 Look at ... people over there.

3 I can't use ... towel. It feels wet.
4 Ugh! I can't eat ... sandwiches. They've got sand in them.
207
of this,
'
Polly: . That sandwich was nice; Are you sure you don:t wnt one?
James: Quite sure, thanks.
Polly.: This is the life! I know we're very busy these days but we should
spend more time like this. Do you remember when we were
students? ln those days we spnt a lot of time just doing
nothing.
James: What'sthat noise?
Polly: lt's your mobile phone!
James: Hello? Who's that?
Simon: This is Simon. Listen, this is important. You must come into th
office this afternoon. l've got a problem with this new
computer program.
James: Sirnon, thatt your problem, not mine, This s mY daY oO,,,
We use ls and fhese when we're talking about a present situation or something
near in time.
This is the life. We're uery busy these days.
We should spend more time like this.
You must come into the. office this afternoon.
o We can also use fhs to refer to a subject we're going to talk about.
Listen. This is important.
o We use that and fhose when we're talking about something further away in time.
Thot sandwich was nice. (Past: She's finished eating it.)
Compare: This sandwich is nice. (Present: She's still eating it.)
In those days we spent o lot of time doing nothing. (Past)
Compare: We're uery busy these days. (Present)
o We can also use that lo refer back to a subject or an idea that's already been
mentioned.
I'ue got a problem with this new computer progrom.
That's your problem, not mine.
o Note that when we speak on the telephone in British English we use fls to
introduce ourselves and fhaf to ask who the caller is.
This is Simon. Who's that?
In American English f/is is used for both.
This is Simon. Who's this?
t.
l-tfaK
Alll\1 lof'ls
Put in this, these, that or those.

I A: Hello. Who's ...? B: ... is Simon. Is ... James?
2 Do you remember ... computer programs you bought last month?
3 Can you help me? I can't solve all ... problems on my own.
4 I can't help you now. I'm very busy ... week.
AA/!tl/lH5 /O
atltc.K QUE,inoi'i5
208
,\i',]D
I '1 that
2 l that
2 those 3 this 4 these

This that 2those 3these 4this
65
Mrs Betty Withers is 89 and lives alone,Lat week she fell and hurt' , ,
hersetf bdly, But shedosnltwat to o,irnf,3n,old peoprlls home" '1
may be'89; btt can still,lok afte mrself, The'm'exd,ooj5 q'ly g0,
but he canlt even make:a pice.of tast with,out,briin, himself !'l to.ld ,:
him the other, dy: lRe Dwyil,youllikilrlrurelf ne,dy if,you a!:en't
more carefi.' Men arenlt veryigod t l,oking,,after themse,lve;,are ,
they? Women are much better.:We know how to lok after:'surselve5,,,',
don't we?'
,
Step
The main use of reflexive pronouns
We use a reflexive pronoun (myself, himself, etc.) when the subject and the object
of the verb are the same person. The action is directed back to the person who
does it.
subject
She
verb
hurt
object
herself.
(She and herself are the same person.)
You
'U
kill
yourself.
(You and yourself are the same person.)
The reflexive pronouns are:
Singular
I
myself
You yourself
He himself
She herself
It
itself
We
Plural
ourselues
You
yourselues
They
themselues
Note that when there is more than one person, the ending of the reflexive pronoun
changes from -self to -selues:
yourself -- one person (singular)
yourselues = two or more people (plural)
I can still look after myself (singular)
We know how to looh after ourselaes. (plural)
CHECK QUESTIONS
Put in reflexive pronouns.

I Betty Withers thinks she can look after ...
2 She thinks the man next door might kill ... one day.
3 Most old people prefer to look after ...
Step 2
Common reflexive verbs Preposition + reflexive pronoun

'l wake up at about half past six every morning. I get up at seven. I wash
and dress and then I make myself a good breakfast. I keep myself busy
by doing the housework. Of course, by the evening, I feel tired and I go
to bed early. I don't enjoy myself very often - I don't go out much. But
ne\rer feel sorr'y for: myself, l.never cornpla;in; l don"t mind living b4
myself,' said Mrs Withers.
I MrsWithers'social worker blames himself for,her accident. Hets angfiJ
with hirself ,s6u5erhe didn't insstthat sh went nto an old peopf e's
home. 'She's too old to be responsible for herself. I worry that one day
she miOht kill,herself if,she has another accident"'
I
,
I
A few verbs in English are often used with a reflexive pronoun. The most
common are:
to ornuse yourself to behaue yourself to blame yourself to burn yourself
to control yourself to cut yourself to dry yourself to enjoy yourself
to help yourself to hurt yourself to hill yourself to look after yourself
to make yourself something to keep yourself busy, uarm, etc.
I mahe myself a good breakfast.
I heep myself busy by doing the housework.

I don't enjoy myself uery often.
She might kill herself if she hqs another occident.
Many verbs are reflexive in other languages, but not normally in English:
to change
(clothes) to dress
up
to get up to go to bed
to shaue to wash
to stand up to sit down to lie down
to feel (+ adjective) to relax to rest
to complain to concentrate to remember to worry
I uahe up at half pasf six. (ruor I wake myself up)
I feel tired. (ruor I feel myself tired)
I neuer complcin. (Nor I never complain myself)
I worry that she might kill herself (Nor I worry myself)
to wake
We sometimes use a reflexive pronoun after an adjective + preposition:
to be angry with yourself to be ashqmed of yourself to be pleased with yourself

to be proud ofyourself to be responsible foryourself to be sorry foryourself
I'm neuer sorry for myself.

The social worker's angry uith himself.
Note the expression by myselfwhich means 'on my own'or 'alone'.
I don't mind liuing by myself.
We can use it with all the reflexive pronouns: by herself, by themselues, etc.
I.K OUESTIONS 2
Put in reflexive pronouns if necessary.

I Mrs Withers gets ... up early.
2 She doesn't often enjoy...
3 But people like her prefer to live by...
4 The social worker blames ... for Mrs Withers' accident.
Emphatic pronouns: myself , yourself , etc.

Mrs Withers doesnt want to go into an old people's home, and the
social worker himself admits that she's very independent. 'Why should I
go into a home?' asked Mrs Withers. 'The doctor himself said I was still
very healthy. I can do most of my housework myself. And look at this
cake l've made. Could that social worker make a cake like this himself?'
i,
We often use these pronouns as emphatic pronouns to emphasise that someone

does something without help. We put the pronoun at the end of the sentence.
I can do my housework myself. (= No one helps me.)
Could that social worker mctke a ceke like this himsel? (= without help)
o We sometimes use the emphatic pronoun to emphasise a noun or pronoun. We
put it immediately after the noun or pronoun.
The doctor himself said thet I was still uery healthy.
(She's emphasising that it was the doctor who said this.)
o
CHTC( QU5TIO5
Step 4
When we speak, we stress the final syllable (-self or -selues).
Add emphatic pronouns.
I
2
Mrs Withers can't do all her housework.

Mrs Withers admits that she finds some things difficult.
Ourselves, yourselves, themselves on each other?

Mrs Withers continued: 'The old people in the village are very
independent. They prefer to look after themselves. But they look after
each othertoo, ln fact, we often do things for: each other. I cook hot
mealsfor Reg Dwyer next door and he does the shopping for me. We atl
,
help one another when it's necessary.'
o Compare these two sentences.
They don't mean the same.

AThe old people in the uillage look after themseloes.
B They look after each other too.
A means that they do things independently, on their own.
B means that one old person helps another old person. It's a two-way action
involving different people.
o We can say each other or one another. (But one another usually means we are
talking about more than two people. It is also more formal.)
We all help each other. = We all help one another.
CI'It:CK QLJESTIONS 4
AN5WERS TO
(..HFCK QUESTIONS
1,2,}AND4
212
Rewrite these sentences using eqch other.

1 Reg helps me and I help him. We ...
2 He does things for me and I do things for him. We
2
3
herself 2 himself 3 themselves
2 herself 3 themselves 4 himself

1 Mrs Withers can't do all her housework
...
herself. 2 Mrs Wthers herself admits...

1 We help each other. 2 We do things for eacother.
66
Paul and Beth stopped at a small petrol station in Scotland. No-one
came to serve them. They couldn't see anyone. 'somebody must be

here, because they've teft tfre office door open. Perhaps tiere's
someone in the office. Go and see, Beth. lf you find anybody, tell them
we want some petrol.' Beth knocked, but nobody answered. She went
in, but she couldn't see anybody. 'ls anybody there?' No-one answered.
lf nobody's hre, n.'r. closed, it said.
Then she saw a notice.
Someone/ samebody, anyone/ anybody, no-one/ nobody
Someonelsomebody both mean the same, as do anyonelanybody, no-onelnobody.

They couldn't see anyone. = They couldn't see anybody.
Someone, onyone, no-one are used with a verb in the singular.

Perhaps there's someone in the office. If nobody's here, we're closed.
BUT we use they, them, theirwhen we refer to someone, etc.
Somebody must be here, because they'ue left the door open.
If you find anybody, tell them we want some petrol.
We usually use someone in affirmative sentences and anyone in questions and

negative sentences.
Somebody must be here. Is anybody there? She couldn't see anybody.

we can use anyone in affirmative sentences. It means 'it doesn't matter who'.
If you find anybody, tell them we want some petrol.
No-one is used with a verb in the affirmative. No<tne came to serue them.
BUT
o
CHE( K AL}ISTIOINS
Step 2
Put in someone (body), onyone (body), noone (body).

1 Was there ... at the petrol station? 2 ... had left the office door open.
3 Beth didn't find ... in the office. 4 When she called, ... answered.
Someth i ng, anythi ng, noth
in
Atlunchtime.,PaulandBethstoppedatacaf-Paul.wasn,thungry.'
'Paul, are you going to eat anything?'
'No, there;s notfring I like on the mnu. lwon't have anything.'
'But you must eat something. You've eaten nothing all day.'
'Oh, all right. l'll have something like a sandwich. hat about you? Are
you going to have something hot?'
'Yes, l'm starving. lcould eat anythingl'
Something, anything, nothingfollow the same rules as someone, anyone, no-one.
(See Step
l.)
o Note that we can use onything
in affirmative sentences, where it means 'it doesn't

matter what'. lcould eat anything!
o Note thal somethine (like someone and somewhere) can also be used in polite
questions, offers or suggestions.
Are you going to haue something hot?
214
4E{K AU['TtON\
Put in something, anything or nothing.

1 Paul doesn't want ... 2 Is there ... he likes on the menu?
3 He's eaten ... all day. 4 He wants ... light.
Step 3
Som ew
h e re,
anywh ere, n owhe re
The next morning Paul and Beth were deciding what t do.
.:
'Where shall we go this,mornin g?'' .
.
1l don't mind. We can go anywhLre you like.r '
",
'shallwe go somewheie bylhe seai'

'OK,Where's the map? Have you seen it anywhere?'
'lt must be somewhere in our room.'
'No, it isn't there. And it's nowhere in the car. I can't find it anywhere.
o Somewhere also follows the same rules as someone, onyone, no-one. (See Step l.)
o Note that somewhere (Nor anywhere) is used in suggestions. (See Step 2.)
c
Shall ue go someuthere by the seo?

Anywhere can be used in affirmative sentences. It means 'it doesn't matter where'.
We can go anyuthere you like.
Put in sometohere, anyuhere or nouhere.

I Beth wants to go ... by the sea.
2 Paul hasn't seen the map ... 3 It's ... in their room.
) UESIIO5 J
Step 4
Something, etc. + infnitive or adjective
Paul and Beth are in lnverness, They're looking at the tourists, quide.
'Nolhing to do today? you want sohewhere n"ce goi So;;;";
different? come to lnverness. There's nowhere moreleautiful in
Scotlnd,.Jhere,sso-rnethngite r'estingi:6a the f;,i.,ft,u''',: ,''
som eth in g .slecia ! 61 11're Ciil e SouveiTr S h op. H a ve,rom"t f,igll
to.drt
at craigie's 5-star restaurant. you won't find anything better inscotland! And you might meet somebody famolsr rf"you n"J .oru
information, you'll find someone to helpyou at the Tturist office.,-
Afler someone, something, somewhere, etc. we often use:

o an infinitive. Nothing to do? you'll always find someone to help you.
an adjective or an adjective + an infinitive.
Somewhere
:JTSTIONS 4
-/5V1/[R5 rO
,QUFSTIONS
'.?.lAND4
different? something interesting somewhere nice to go
Paul and Beth didn't enjoy Inverness. put in anything, anybody or nobody.
1 They didn't meet ... famous at Craigie's.
2 They couldn't buy ... special at the Castle. It was closed.
3 And there was ... to help them at the Tourist Office.
(-body) 2 someone (-body)

(-body) 4 no-one (-body)
1 anything 2 anything 3 nothing 4 something
1 anyone
3 anyone
1 somewhere 2 anywhere 3 nowhere

1 anyone (-body) 2 anything
3 no-one (-body)
215
67
The multi-mi,llionaire, Mr Barney,Varley,r is dead..A maid found Mr
Varley's body at his luxury flat in tondn. The dog's lead was tied round
Mr Varley's hands, but the dog had disappeared. The millionaire's
children, Anna and Seth, wern't with him. Anna and Seth's motheL
Mrs Fay Varley, is in hospital suffering from shock. The children's
grandmothel Mrs Ena Varley, is now looking after them. The police are
refusing to answer reporters' questions.
Main uses of the apostrophe: 's and s'

o
We use 's to show that something belongs to someone, or that something is

associated with someone. We use it with singular nouns (people and animals).
Mr Varley's body the dog's lead
o With plural nouns, we add an apostrophe after the final s.
The police are refusing to onswer reporters' questions.
o
o
-:ak
QUTSI/ON5
With plural nouns without a final s (men, women, etc.) we use

the children's grandmother
With two or more names, we put 3 after the last name.
Anna and. Seth's mother
's is pronounced lsl aiter c, f, k, p, ph, t, th: Seth's lselsl,
lzl afler all other consonants: The dop's ldogzl lead,
lizl after ch, s, sh'. The boss's I tbosizl daughter.
's.

1 What was found round Mr Varley's hands?
2 Who is Mrs FayVarley? She's ... wife.
3 Who is Mrs Ena Varley? She's ... grandmother.
Today's newspapers all report Mr Varley's death. He was the chairman

of Blitainli biggest tompny and ne,f the Counlry.t'richest men. The
company's employees were shocked by his death. He had just returned
from three weeks' holiday in Greece. The night before his death he
stayed at his brother's in north London. lt seems he went to the
chemist's to buy some aspirin. He didn't have his own car; he was
driving his wife's.

s'form:
on its own, when it isn't necessary to repeat
We can use the 3 or
a noun.
He didn't haue his own car; he was driuing his toife's.
o on its own, when we talk about someone's
home or a shop.
brother's. (= at his brother's house or flat)

He went to the chemistb. (= the chemist's shop)
He stayed at his
with organisations or groups of people (company, government, etc.).

The company's employees were shocked.
Here, we can also use the noun + of+ noun construction.
The employees of the company uere shocked (See Step 3.)
o with places/countries.
the country's richest men. Britqin's biggest company
o
(H'CK
OUESTTONS
with expressions of time (today, Monday, a month, elc.).

today's neuspapers three ueehs'holiday in Greece

1 What's special about Mr Varley's company?
2 Who was shocked by his death?
3 Did Mr Varley stay at his own flat the night before his death? No, he stayed
4 Whose car was Mr Varley driving?
5 Why had he been to Greece? For ...
2-
Mr Varley's body was found in the kitchen of his London flat. The
kitchen windowwas open: Therewas a glove on the table. The maid
r,,"i"i oi*,li."n". rhe car keys and one or
Mr Varley's thre cars were missing. The maid is the wife of the man
who loos after Mr Varley's cars. S'he hasn't seen her husband for two
...
;;;i";;;'"il;r;i"
,,,
days.
When we talk about things, rather than people or animals, we usually use noun +
noun rather than 'sls'to say that something belongs to something, or that
something is associated with something.
the kitchen of his flat. (Nor his flat's kitchen)
the horuor of the scene. (Nor the scene's horror)
o We can often simplify noun + ot+ noun and use just noun + noun.
the car keys (You can also say: 'the keys of the car')
the hitchen uindou (Nor the window of the kitchen)
Sometimes both constructions are possible (see car keys above), but not always.
There's no clear rule that tells you when you can or can't use the noun + noun
construction. If necessary, use a good dictionary.
o When the noun is accompanied by a descriptive phrase or clause, we must use o/
(and not 3).
of
She's the uife of the msn uho loohs after Mr Varley's cars.
We can't say'She's the man's wife who looks after Mr Varley's cars' because
clear who looks after the cars.

cHfcK QUrsrloNs
218

1 The police want to find (owner/glove).
2 They want to find (husband/the maid who works for Mr Varley).
3 They also want to find (keys/car).
it isn't
A friend of mine/a friend of Mr Varley's
A friend, etc. ofcan be followed by a possessive pronoun mine, yours, hers, elc.
(see Unit 68) or by 3.
a tennis racket of his q friend of mine
a friend of his daughter's
We use a friend, etc. + o/when we want to describe something by saying who it
belongs to, or someone by saying who they're associated with.
.'CK
OUESTIONS 4
ANSWERS TO
: aK QUTSIlON5
1,2,34ND4

I Did Ralph Digby know Barney Varley well? Yes, he was ...
2 Does his son Alex know Mr Varley's daughter well? Yes, he's
...
1 A dog's lead. 2 Barney Varley's wife 3 the

children's grandmother on Anna and Seth's
'1
grandmother
1 lt's Britain's biggest. 2 The company's
employees. on The employees of the company.
3 No, he stayed at his brother's.
4 His wife's. 5 For three weeks' holiday.
maid who works for Mr Varley. 3 They also

want to find the car keys.
I Yes, he was a friend of his. 2 Yes, he's a
friend of hers.
The police want to find the owner of the
glove. 2They wantto find the husband of the
58
Helen has j.ust,got married Ar rrer,famiry have come
to the weddng" At
the party afterwards she's teiling a frien *ho ,u Jitr";;;r';:;;;.
'That old lady's my grandmother. She,s 9,l, but she,s
very inO"p"naent.
on her own. rhe girt by the wnowl;d.;t got h",
lf-111 L,r.s company. And
that,s her brother, Jack. Tffi,re
-oy.l,:oT?rter
cousins. The man standing next to them is their father.,
'So, he's your uncle.,
my"
'Yes.'
'How old are your cousins?,

'Jack's 17, and Maggy's 25.,
'What about the'couple by the door?,
'They're our neighbours. They're quite rich. They've.got their own
swimming pool.'
'ls that their dog?'
'Yes. Have you seen its legs? lt's only got three!'
Step
Possessive adjectives: my,
I
You
He
She
It
We
You
They
my
your
his
her
its
our
your
their
your,
etc_
I lihe my brother.
Do you like your uncle?
Does he
She
like his slsfers?
doesn't like her father.
The dog likes its food.

We
like our neighbours.
Do you both lik your porents?

They like their grandmother.
o- Possessive adjectives are always followed by a noun, either singular

or plural.
The form of the possessive adjective is the same before a singular"or plurai
noun.
my grandmother my cousins
your uncle your cousins
o We use possessive adjectives to make it clear that one person or thing belongs to
another, or is associated with another.
o we use the possessive adjective lfs when the possessor is an animal or a thing.
Don't confuse it with ,fi (= it is on it has).
Haue you seen its legs? It,s (= it has) only got three!
o we use a possessive adjective + oun when we say that something belongs
completely to someone.
She's got her oun computer company.
They'ue got their oun swimming pool.
o Note the expressions on my oun, on his own, on their own, etc.
She still liues on her oun. (= She lives alone.)
CHECK QESTIONS
Look at the text above and complete the sentences using the correct posses.sive
adjective. Use own where necessary.
I l*!, 'Maggy's ... sister.' 2 Helenr

3 'Is Helen granddaughter?'
,Jack
and Maggy are ... cousins.,
Grandmother: ,yes, she ls.,

What a strange dog! What,s ... name?' .... name,s Tripod.,
Maggy's got ... computer company. 6 she doesn't live with anyone. she
lives
...
4
5
...
221
Step 2
Possessive pronouns: mine, yours,
etc.
Whose?
Itls late, One of the ue,sts attheweddinb W:aritS t leave.'but he canlt

move hisfar.because another car is in the way' HefstalkinE:to anothr
man.
'Whose car is this? ls it yours?'

'No, it isn't mine. Mine's a Ford.'
'What about Daniel? ls it his?'
'No, it isn't his. His is a Volkwagen.'
'What about the neighbours? ls it theirs?'
'l'llask Janet. Perhaps it's hers.'

'No, it isn't hers. She hasn't got a car.'
?h. hrg are Jack and Maggy. tll
ask thrrn,'H!; 1lou,tw
- o yq
know
whose car this is? ls it yours?'
lN,o;it'isn|turj.ldon,.tknowho.jtis;|
mine
yours
You
He
his
hers
She
This cor belongs to me. It's mine.

Does this car belong to you? Is it yours?
This car belongs to him. It's his.
This car doesn't belong to her. It isn't hers.
It (no possessive pronoun)
We ours This car belongs to us. It's ours.

You yours Does this car belong to you two? Is it yours?
They theirs This car belongs to them. It's theirs.
o
We use possessive pronouns on their own without a noun. We use them when it
isn't necessary to repeat a noun (singular or plural).
Whose car is this? Is it yours?

(Ihe speaker doesn't need to say'ls it your car?' His first question has already
made it clear that he's talking about a car.)
Note: There isn't a possessive pronoun for 11.
o We use the question word Whose to ask who something belongs to. There are
two ways to ask the same question.

Whose car is this? (= Who does this car belong to?)
Whose is this car? (= Who does this car belong to?)
We use Whose without a noun when we don't need to repeat the noun.
Whose is this?
(ilhen the speaker asks this question, it's clear he's pointing at the car.)
Note how we say that we don't know who something belongs to:
I don't know whose it is.
on plural: I don't know whose they are.
Answer the questions, using a possessive pronoun.

I Does the car belong to the other man? No, it isn't ...
2 Does the car belong to Janet? No, it isn't ...
3 Does the car belong to the neighbours? No, ...
4 'Who does this car belong to?' Ask this question in another way.
CHECK QUESTIOI'|' 2
A,rysWERs
IO
{HE( K QIJESTIONl)
1,2
222
AND
'l
my
my
6 on her own
your 4 its lts
5 her own
1 No, it isn't his, 2 No, it isn't hers. 3 No, t

isn't theirs. 4 Whose car is this? on Whose is
this car?
69
Sphie's bu,yiig e lothes. Shers talking to a shqp Assist? o,1',.:
'llm looking for a T--shrt with lon sleevqs. Have you got one?'
tVlfhat eolouf doyu'wnt?' '':
'
'Have you got a blue one?'
,.ldont-thinksa.;;:.,l|e,got.aigreenon.:.,.
lNo,,[relly',wanted.a,hlue one.' ': " ,' :.:
= a/an
We use one when we don't want to repeat a singplar n6un. We already know what
the noun is.
Haue you got one?
(Sophie doesn't need to repeat 'a T-shirt with leng sleevet')
o
CHECK QUE,STIONS
When we add an adjective, we use v'n

Haue you got q blue one?
dieetive +.cne.
arReplace a word in each of these sentere*r*tth *tr-*irt

she likes.
1 Sophie wants a T-shirt, but they haven't got a
T-shirt.
b$ue
green
wants
a
Sophie
T-shirt, but
2 There's a
The one/the
ones Which one(s), etc.
'Which ones do you mean? The blue ones?'

'No, these black ones.'
'Ah, thos are f39.99.'
.
'And how much is that red skirt?'
'Which one? Do you mean the one with pockets?'
,:
'Yes.'
'Er,
that one's f45.99. The green one ithout pockets
is
f39'00-'
When we compare or select things and don't want to repeat the noun, we use
one/ones with f/e, this, that, which.
Do you mean the one with pockets?
(Ihe shop assistant doesn't need to repeat'the red skirt'.)
Which ones do you mean?
(She doesn't need to repeat 'jeans'.)
o Note that we don't usually use ones after the plural forms these and fhose. We say
these rafher than these ones.
But if rhese and f/ose are followed by an adjective we use ones.
Ah, those are 539.99. These black ones.
224
.f iECK
OIJESTIONS 2
Rewrite these sentences so that the noun is not repeated. Use one or ones where
necessary.
1 Sophie wants some jeans; she likes the black jeans.
2 She prefers the red skirt to the green skirt.
3 Those jeans are S50.00, but these jeans are a lot cheaper.
can't
one/ones
Sophie doesnt earo,much money, and she spends the money she earns
'
on clothes.
It's Saturday morning. She's going shopping in town. lt's raining. She
can't f ind her umbrella.
'Mum! I can't find my umbrella. I can see yours, but I can't find mine.'
'OK. You can take mine.'
Sophie wants some new shoes, so she's come into town to buy some.
She wants some red ones. She's seen a few that she likes, but there
aren't any in her size. The trouble is, she's got qute big ieet.
We never use one to replace an uncountable noun (like money, music, water,
etc.).
Sophie doesn't earn much money, and she spends the money she earns on clothes.
(Nor She spends the one she earns on clothes.)
We don't use one/ones after the possessive adjectives my, your, etc. Instead, we
use a possessive pronoun, mine, yours, elc. without one/ones.
I can see yours, but I can't find mine.
(Nor I can see your one, but I can't find my one.)
We don't use one/ones

three, fifteen, elc.
after'number'words like some, any, a few, many, a lot,
She's come into toun to buy some. (ruor some ones)

She's seen a few that she likes. (ruor a few ones)
There aren't any in her size. (Nor any ones)

But if there's an adjective after these words, we must use one/ones.
She's looking for some red ones. (Nor some red)
-:a(
OUErlOtu J
Rewrite these sentences so that the noun is not repeated.

I Sophie can see her mother's umbrella, but she can't find her umbrella.
2 Sophie wants to buy some shoes, but she can't find any shoes in her size.
3 She doesn't really need any more shoes, but she's going to buy some shoes.
4 She doesn't want black shoes; she's looking for some red shoes.
5 Most girls don't have big feet, but her Ieet are big.
,AN5W,q5 IO
'.CK QTJESTIANS
1,2AND]
'1 but they haven't got one she likes. 2 but

Sophie wants a blue one.
'l she likes the black ones. 2 to the green one
3 but these are a lot cheaper.
'1 but she can't find hers. 2 but she can't find
any in her size. 3 but she's gong to buy some.
4 she's looking for some red ones. 5 but hers
are big.
7A
Martin Paxnran is rich.rHe had rich,parents.who left.him a fortune when
they died. He lives in a big house in the town of Modbury. But that isn't
his only home. He also owns a farm in a neighbouring village.
Nowadays the rich sometimes feel embarrassed when they see the
homeless on the streets and when they read about the unemployed in
the newspapers.
But Martin isn't ashamed. His life is good. He rarely gets ill. He's never
alone. He just thinks he's been lucky and he's glad to be alive.
Step
Adjectives used before a noun or
not
Adjectives as nouns
o Adjectives are used to describe things or people. They're the same before
singular and plural nouns. Most adjectives can be used after a verb and before a
noun.
Martin Paxman is rich. (used after the verb e)

He had
rich parents. (used before
a noun - parents)
The following adjectives aren't normally used before a noun:

afraid, aliue, alone, apart, ashamed, asleep, awake, auare, glad, ill, pleased, ready,
sure, unable, upset, well.
Martin isn't ashamed (You can't say'an ashamed person')

He rarely gets iIL ffou can't say 'an ill person')
Some adjectives aren't normally used alone after a verb. The most common are:
euentual, existing, countless, indoor, main, maximum, neighbouring, occasional,
only, outdoor, principal.
It isn't his only home. (You can't say'The home is only')
a neighbouring aillage. (Nor The village is neighbouring)
o Sometimes when we talk about a group of people in general, we can use r/e +
adjective as a noun. I/re + adjective is followed by a plural verb.
The rich sometimes feel embarrassed (= rich people)
when they see the homeless (= e-""ss people)
when they read about the unemployed. (= unemployed people)
Some common examples of adjectives used as nouns are:
the blind, the dead, the deqf, the disobled, the elderly, the English, the Spanish, etc.,
the handicapped, the homeless, the injured, the old, the poor, the underpriuileged,
the unemployed, the young.
::1ECK QUESTIONS
Complete the sentences, using each of these adjectives once: alone, lonely, glad,
happy.
2
3
Martin's got lots of friends. He certainly isn't a... person.

He's always ... when his friends come to see him.
He really enjoys life. He's a very ... man.
Martin isn't ... in the house tonight. Jessica's with him.
Step 2
The order of adjectives

Martin's 25 rears old, Hefs a pleasant young ma:o' Ht honest 9nd ,
l-Jis glrlfriend .ssica is a beEutiftll slim dark'haired American
lgenerous.
;i;;li;;",;i;;;;i;lr.-i".âlxb.n'iueslver
|we1tery..She,slive|y,warmndintelligent'
Last week Martin bought himself a big new wooden bed. ltrs 2.5 m long
a;am;iJJ.ir'".*-"trssis75cmtict.rt.e'a1so,boughtaredand
he's
old duvet cover to go on th bed. He wanled a long _bed because
early 2 m tall. But noW fie aoesn't know where he"ll;be sleeping in a
few weeki' time, This morning he had some sudden r1rrrVrg ne1v1, The
bank wher.e he keeps ail his money is having serious financial'problems
when we use more than one adjective, we put the adjective that gives our
opinion before the adjective that gives factual information'
He's a pleasont young mcn. (xor a young pleasant man)
Martin's pleasant = an opinion. Martin's young = a fact'
o Adjectives usually go in a particular order:
1234567
(opinion) (size) (shape) (age) (colour)
tS
'
slim
a beautiful
long
serious
o Two adjectives together
neu
(origin)
(material/type)
wooden bed
girl
darh-haired American
black
's1ft
dresses
financial Problems
are often joined by and'.

adjectives.
two
colour
are
there
when
He also bought a red and gold duuet couer to go on the bed.
when there are two adjectives alone after a link verb.
Heb always pleasant and generous.
o When there are three adjectives alone after a link verb, we usually put a comma
after the first, and andbetween the last two.
She's
liaely, warm and intelligent.
When we give measurements, we put the adjectives deep, high, long, old, tall,
thick, wide after measurement nouns.
Martin's 25 years old. He's nearly 2 m tqll.
The bed's 2.5 m long and 3 m wide.
The mattress is 75 cm thich.
Note: We don't say'l'm 65 kilos healy.'We say'l'm 65 kilos in weight.
CHF(K OUESTIONS 2
Put the adjectives in the best order. Add and where necesary.
1 That (tall/younginice) man is Martin Paxman.
2 He's got a (blue/grey) Mercedes.
3 His girlfriend's got (round/big/brown) eyes.
4 She's about (tall/lm 60).
A,\i5WFs
7C,
CTlT'K QUESTIOI''
1 ANDz
1 lonely 2 glad on happy 3 happy 4 alone

1 That nice tall young man 2 a blue and grey
Mercedes 3 big round brown eyes 4 She's
about 1m 60 tall.
71
Hre are the rsults of a survey of the differen,ces betwee!"r'rRen and -r'
women in Britain.
r Wornen ar cle-aner than men. 6 A% of women,,but ooly 42% of men,
have a bath or a lhwei every day. The cleanest women (7%) have a
.'bathor'ashoertwiceadayl.....
o Men are faster drivers than women. On motorways they're faster by

17 k.p.h., in town by 11 k.p.h.
o On average, adult men are taller than women (by 5 cm), because they
usually:have longer legs; The tallest man in the world was Rober[ ,
He.wai 2,m 7zt .ftre tllestwomn (Zeng jinlian) was 2m 481
Wadlw,
'
lA man'S brin is bigger than a woman's, but'Neanderthal manls brain
was bigger than modern man's.
Uses of the comparative and superlative

We often compare people and things; we say how they are similar or different.
o If there are two things or people or two groups of things or people, we use the
comparative.
A man's brain is bigger than o uoman's.
Women are cleaner than men.
If there are three or more people or things, we often use the superlative.
The tallest man in the world was Robert Wadlow.
We generally use /e with the superlative. Sometimes fhe isn't used in informal
speech. But we must use the lf the superlative begins the sentence.
Women who haue a bath twice a day are (the) cleanest.
The cleanest uomen haue a bath twice a day.
The comparative is often followed by than.

A man's brein is bigger than a tDoman's.
Women are cleaner thqn men.
CHECK QUESTIONS
230
Complete e sentences with a comparative or a superlative.

1 What's the difference between men and women drivers? Men are ... . (fast)
2 Young men between 17 and 20 are ... drivers. (fast).
3 Modern man's brain is ... than Neanderthal man's. (small)
tep 2
Comparative and superlative forms: short adjectives

We form the comparative by adding -er to the adjective, and the superlative by
adding -esf.
Comparative Superlative
clean
fast
cleaner
faster
tall
taller
(the)
(the)
(the)
(the)
cleanest
fastest
tallest
long
longer
longest
Note the spelling changes in adjectives like these. (See also Step 3.)
(the) biggest
big
bigger
(the) fattest
fat
fatter
(the) largest
large
larger
(the) driest
drier
dry
"E, l, a)UtST,C,tls
Step 3
Write the missing forms.

1 old
the oldest
2 ... cleaner
3 wet
4 ... nicer
Adjectives with two syllables

o Men:hae dirtier hair-'than 1r,,romen-On average, women wash their ' :
hair twice a week, men only once.
lWomen arg'more honest than men. 460/o o, men say the4often d the
cooking. 32% of women agree.

healthier than unmart iedi:men.'The healthiest '
people are unmarried womenl
r,itrlornen, arei'more afr:aid of sp.iders than rne n::69n/9 of women, 160/o of
b:,,11nz0 ?nd 40 are the most afraidt;
r' o'Marr.ied,rrlt'r dr
,*uol'*omen
;.'.::.
::":'
We usually form the comparative and superlative of adjectives with two syllables
ending in y, -le, -er, -otD like this:
(the) dirtiest
dirty
dirtier
(the) simplest
simple
simpler
(the) cleverest
clever
cleverer
(the) narrowest
narrow narrower
o We form the comparative and superlative of other two-syllable adjectives with
more and (the) most.
honest
more honest (the) most honest
(the) most afraid
afraid
more afraid
:. olfsrlOlv ]
I ...
healthier
2 easy
more careful
3 ...
4 modern
the healthiest
231
adjectives
o Men are more interested in sport than women. 30% of men talk
about it often, but only 5% of women.

than men. 620/o of women keep old love
letters, and only 22Vo of men.
o Women are more religius than men. 8% go to chui"ch regularly, and
6% of men. Women o-r"r 65 are the most ligio-rt.
o Men are more untidy than women, Only 18lo of men hang up their
clothes at night, compared to 370/o of women' Boys between ten and
eohteena1ethemostuntidy.,.
o Woman are more romantic
We usually form the comparative and superlative of long adjectives (with three
syllables or more) wilh more ar'd (the) most.
interested more interested (the) most interested
(the) most romantic
more romantic
romantic
(the) most religious
more religious
religious
o with
adjectives that have a negative form beginning with un- (e.g. tidy - untidy),
we can form the comparative and superlative using eilher -er/-est or more/(the)
most.
untidy
(the) untidiest/most untidy
untidy
untidier/more
unhappy
unhealthy
unhealthier/moreunhealthy (the)unhealthiest/mostunhealthy
unhappier/moreunhappy (the)unhappiest/mostunhappy
i
CHFCA QUESI/ONS 4
Step
I intelligent
2 ... more dangerous
the most interesting
3 ...
lrregular comparatives and superlatives

a
52Vo
of men pass the driving test first time, but only 39% of women.
I ,But does:thismean thet're:b'e.tGr, diileslthri wgme,n? ln fact the

..bst dr,ivers'(nd,the safest driver:s)'are omen b-eten '30 and 40'
The, wo rst d'riv r's rre youn g ;me n, betr,yg e:n 1 8 and' 75; beca us e th ey' re
..,thmostdangerous.,-..:..,'..,...,...|;
A few adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms.
(the) best
better
(the) worst
bad worse
(the) oldest/(the) eldest
older/elder
old
far farther/further (the)farthest/(the)furthest
good
We use elder, the eldest onlywhen we talk about members of a family, in phrases
like:
my elder brother my eldest sister
We don't use elder + than. We can't say: 'He's elder than his brother.'
232
Farther a\d further refer to distance . Further can also mean 'additional'.
Liuerpool's I 0 miles away. Manchester's farther/further.
Haue you got any
further questions?
Complete the answers asing better, toorse, the best, the worst.
I Are men better drivers than women? No, they,re ...
2 Are men between 18 and 25 the best drivers? No, they,re ...
3 Are women between 30 and 40 the worst drivers? No, they're ...
4 Do men think they're worse drivers than women. No, they think they're
CHTCK QUISTIONS 5
Ste 61The
...
comparison of adverbs
o ln general women drive better and more carefully than men. They
have 25Yo fewer accidents. They drive most carefully when they have
children in the car.
o Women get up earlier
than men and go to bed later. (Six minutes

earlier in the morning and ten minutes later at night.)
o Women work harder than men in the home. Wom-en aged between 45
and 60 workthe hqrdest (They spend2, 25hours a dayln housework )
we form the comparative and superlative o{ most adverbs wirh more and mosl.
carefully more carefully (the) most carefully
They driue most carefully when they hnue children in the car.
There are some irregular adverbs:
well/better/(the) best badly/worse/(the) worst

farlfarther (further)/the farthest (the furthest)
Women driue better than men.
we form the comparative and superlative of the irregular adverbs
hard, high, near, long, late, early with -er and -es/.
fast, soon,
Women get up earlier than men.

Women work hctrder thon men in the home.
..K
QUESTIONS 6
,N.5WRS
IO
( QUfSrioNS
:1,5AND6
Complete the sentences, using a comparative or a superlative.

1 Do women really drive ... than men? (well)
2 Who gets up ... in your family? (early)
3 Women drivers wait ... than men at traffic lights. (patient)
4 In general men sleep ... than women. (long)
2
3
fasler 2 the fastest 3 smaller

2 clean the cleanest 3 wetter the
wettest 4 nice the nicest
t healthy 2easier theeasiest 3careful the
most careful 4 more modern the most
1
1
1 more
older
modern
intelligent the most intelligent
2 dangerous the most dangerous

3 interesting more interesthg
1 worse 2 the worst 3 the best 4 better
'l better 2 (the) earliest 3 more patiently
4 longer
233
v2
You can now go from England to France by plane, by train through the
Channel Tunnel ('Le Shuttle'), by ferry, or by hovercraft. The plane is
four times as quick as the train, but a train ticket doesn't cost as much as
a plane ticket. And nowadays going by train is just as comfortable as
gpirig by plane. The,hovercraft is twice as fgst as the:ferryrbut it isn't as
fast a1 ll Shttle', The ferry costs about the same as thhovercrafi,'but:
the hovercraft doesn't have the same facilities as the ferry.
We use os ... as ... to say that two things are the same or similar.
"/usladds emphasis.
Going by train is just as comfortable as going by plane.
We use not os ... os ... to say that two things are different.
A train ticket doesn't cost as much as a plane ticket.
(= A plane ticket costs more than a train ticket.)
The houercraft isn't as fqst qs 'Le Shuttle'.
(= 'Le Shuttle' is faster than the hovercraft.)
We can use twice, three times, etc. to show the difference more precisely.
The houercraft is ttoice as fast as the ferry.
We use the same/not the some cs ... to say two things are or are not the same.
The ferry costs obout the same as the houercroft.
The houercraft doesn't haue the same facilities s the ferrv.
o
o
-.aK QUISI/ONS
Make complete sentences.

I The hovercraft/nearly as fast/'Le Shuttle'
2 A train ticket/cost as much/a plane ticket
3 Travelling by ferry/not the same/travelling by hovercraft
'Double' comparativesi bigger and bigger

Every year more and more people travel from England to the continent.
The cross-channel ferries are getting bigger and bigger. And they're
becoming more and more luxurious.

:,r.,, :r.r, .irl,.rr.rr i:r.:ir..l,liirr al,: l'.,:,rilj.,r''r:rri:r:ril,li,:1,.::r'I
If something is increasing, we can use a comparative + and + a comparative.
More q.nd more people ffauel from England.

The ferries are getting bigger and bigger.
They're becomingmore and more luxurious.
]{
QUFsIIONs
Complete the sentences with a'double' comparative form.

I Holidays on the continent are becoming ... (popular).
2 Nowadays ... English people travel abroad.
3 The English Channel is getting ... (busy).
The bigger the better

. T.he ferry companies are building bigger ferries - the b,ig.ger the better.
:
they think that the more comfortabte theferries are; the happier their
passengers will be. But passengers want cheaper tickets - the cheaper
the,,b'etter. With the artival of,'L ShuttLe', there's more Competition.
' Trt more'competition'there is,,the mor quickly prices.willcome {own'
o Note this construction: the + a comparative

The bigger the
better.
+ the better.
The cheaper the better.
When we want to talk about a change in one thing causing a change in another,
we use the + acomparative followed by the + a different comparative.
The more comfortqble the ferries are, the happier their passengers will be.
ThLe mofe competition there is, the more quickly prices will come, down.
-.,
_. i- .-l
3'r
cHc(.oufs/oNs
i.i
Complete the sentences, using comparatives.

I ... ttie lerries are, ... they are. (big/comfortable)
2 ... they are, ... people will use them. (cheap/more)
3 ,Priires must come down soon. ... ... ! (soon/good)
Moiel(the) most, less/(the) least, etc.

*lWhat'3 the least expensive way to cross the Channel? By ferry. At the
moment it's less expensive than 'Le Shuttle'.
. W.n ii"iing i"klr the most tirme? The ferry. Which crossing takes
the least time? 'Le Shuttle'.
* Ferries can carry the most trucks. They can carry more foot passengers
than 'Le Shutt'. 'Le Shuttle'takes leis freight and fewer cars than the
ferry. The hovercraft takes the fewest foot passengers.
" tvloit business travellers go by plane, although it costs the most.
.
less,/the least
The
less
ferry's
the
.
They carry
Which takes
o
It takes
Which takes
o
least
more,/the most
more
the most
less,/the least
adjective
plural/uncountable noun
eipensiue than the train.

expensiue uoy to cross the Channel.
foot passengers.
time?
uncountable noun
/ess
freight
the least
time?
fewer/the fewest
than the ferry.
plural noun
cars
than the ferrY.

passengers.
foot
the fewest
It tqkes
o Note that mosf isn't always a superlative. It can be used (without fhe) with the
meaning nearly all. Most business trauellers go by pLane'
It takes
CHECK OI,}ESTION' 4
Use a comparative or a superlative.
2
3
4
236
fewer
The
The
The
The
ferry is ... expensive way to cross the Channel.

hovercraft takes ... time than the ferry to cross the Channel.
hovercraft carries ... passengers than the ferry.
ferry carries ... freight and ... cars than 'Le Shuttle'.
Step 5
Slightly, a bit, much, a lot, etc.
a comparative
the channel on a p&o ferry! our new ferries are now far more
luxurious. They're also a bit faster than they were. There,s a lot more
space for the children to play. And we offei you far more
entertainment. Theret a casino and a cinema on,board. Welre now
--'
much bigger and much better! And weire siitiv.rr""p"ii..l
Cross
can use slightly, a bit, a little, much, fqr, o lot before a comparative to say how
"we
different
things or people are.
And we're slightly cheaper too!

(Slightly, a bit, o littlehave approximately the same meaning.)
Our new ferries are now far more luxurious.
(Much, far, a lothave approximately the same meaning.)
lECK OUESTIONS
Add the word in brackets to the sentences.

I P&O think their new ferries are more luxurious. (far)
2 Their ferries are bigger now.
(a
lot) 3 They
say they're cheaper. (a little)
The superlative + in or of or a relative clause

*Travel by lL" Shuttle'through the longest
railway tunnel in Europe!
The most exciting of all thelhannel ctssingsl
*Travelwith P&O - the biggest ferry company
in Britainl
*Sail on 'Stena Europe', the
newesi ferry in t-he Stena fleet!
*You'll have the best holiday of your lif
when you cross the channel
with 'Sealink'l The most experienced of allthe ferry companies.
*The smoothest channel crossing you'll
ever havet why noi tty to France
with British Airways? tt'll be the best decision you,ve r"r, ,".
After superlatives we can use phrases with in or o/. we use in with the names of
places and with words like c1ass, school, team, family, fleet, elc.
the longest railwoy tunnel in Europe the newest ferry in the stena fleet
the most exciting of all the Chonnel crossings
o We can also use a relative clause.
The smoothest crossing (that) you'tt eaer haoe.
The best decision (that) you,oe eaer mqd.e.
..K QUIS
IONS 6
AfusVYR5 TO
:i( QUESI/OA/S
| 3,4,5AND6

1 Which is the longest railway tunnel ... the world?
2 Dover is the busiest ... all the channel ports.
3 Which is the biggest ferry company ... Europe?
4 If you fly to France, it'll be the smoothest Channel crossing that
f he hovercraft
is nearly as fast as ,,Le
Shuttle". 2 Atrain ticket doesn't cost
as much
as a plane ticket. 3 Travelling by ferry isn,t the

same as travelling by hovercraft.
1 more and more popular 2 more and more
3 busier and busier
...
3 I The bigger the more comfortable 2 The

cheaper the more 3 The sooner the betterl
4 1 the least 2 less 3 fewer 4 more more
5 1 far more luxurious 2 alotbigger 3 a little
cheaper
6 1 in 2 of 3 in 4 you'll ever have on you,ve
ever had
237
73
Two people are watching television
'This pr,ogrammers boring. Can we change chanrrels?,
'No, it's interesting.

'Well, l'm bored wtf, t. l'm not interested in the destruction of the
Brazilian rainforests. I mean, it isn't exactly fascinating, is it? ljust find it
depressing. Cant we watch'something morq exciting? here,s a gameshow on lTV.'
'l'm surprised at you I You only want to watch rubbish.'
'Why's that surprising? l'm tired when I get home.r
'You're so boring I Why don't you just g to bedZ'
Use of adjectives ending
QUESTIONS
in -ing
We use these adjectives to describe what something, or someone, is like.

This programme's boring. No, it's interesting.
You're so boring! I just find it depressing.
Choose the best word to complete ese sentences: amusing depressing,
surprising.
I Programmes about the destruction of the environment are often ...

2 It's ... how many programmes about the environment they have on TV.
3 The film was very... . We laughed a lot.
.
Step 2
Use of adjectives ending in -ed
We use these adjectives to describe how we feel.

Well, I'm bored. I'm not interested..
I'm surprised ot you. I'm tired..
The most common adjectives with -ed and -lng endings are:
omazed/amazing amused/amusing annoyed/qnnoying astonished,/astonishing
bored/ boring confused/ confus
ing
depressed,/depressing
disappointed/disappointing disgusted/disgusting embarrassed/embarrassing

excited/exciting fascinated/fascinating frightened/frightening
interested/interesting shocked/shocking surprised/surprising tired/tiring
worried/worrying
-
'1U FSTtONS 2
A/5VyFR5
rO
QUE5I/O/V5
1 AND)

I I think game-shows are very... (amused/amusing)
2 l'm .... that you like them. (surprised/surprising)
think they're
I
2
depressing 2surprising 3amusing
...
(bored/boring)
lamusing 2surprised 3boring
74
Laura was Spanish. Matthew was Enslish., He Was extremely interested
in cricket. She wasn't. She thought it was an absolutely stupid game. He
asked her rather nervously if she'd like to go and see a match between
England and Australia. ShL answered polily that she knew notfring
about cricket. Matthew said that he could easily explain the rules to her.
Unfortunately she couldn't think of another

so she sad yes, bui
"r.rr",
didn't say it terribly enthusiastically.
The next day, at the match, Matthew explained the rules to Laura very
carefully. She listened patiently, but she didn't really understand a
thing
she
Use of adverbs
of manner, adverbs of degree, sentence adverbs
o We use an adverb of manner to describe how someone does something- The

adverb modifies the verb. It tells us more about the verb. It answers the question
How?
She answered politely. (FIow did she answer? Politely.)
She listened patently. (FIow did she listen ? Patiently.)
o Remember, an adjective describes someone

a noun (a person, place or
or something. It tells us more about
thing).
Laura was polite. (Polite tells us more about Laura.)

Note: After the verbs look, feel, sound, smell, taste we use an adjective, not an
adverb. She sounds polite. (See Unit 33.)
o Adverbs of degree (extremely, uery, etc.) can modify an adjective.
verb+adverb+adjective
He wos
It was an
extremelv
interested.
absolute,lv
stupid pame
They can also modify another adverb.
+
adverb +
rules uery
She didn't soy it
terribly
o Sentence adverbs like unfortunately,
verb
advertr
He explained the
carefully.
enthusiastically.
fortunately, octually, clearly, perhaps modify a
whole clause.
Unfortunately she couldn't think of another excuse.

.
QUESr/ONs
What are the adverbs here?

Laura wasn't really interested in cricket; she thought it was a silly game, but clearly
Matthew wanted her to go, so she reluctantly said yes.
Forms of the adverbs of manner
To form an adverb of manner we normally add -/y to the adjective.
adjective
pltient
polite
adverb
patiently
politely
241
But, note these spelling changes:

easily Qt, after a consonant.)
corefully (l , ll
easy
careful
terrible
terribly
(le, I
enthusiastic enthusiastically (ic > ically)

('1F(K OItFSTONS )
Form adverbs from these adjectives.
I rude 2 noisy 3 horrible 4 automatic
Wel
5 quick
l, nearly, hard / hardly, late/ lately
It was a good match. The ground was nearly full - there were hardly any
empty seats. England hadn't been playing well lately, but they were
playing very well today. Laura tried hard to concentrate, but she could
hardly keep her eyes open and once or twice she nearly went to sleep.
Then she had an idea. 'Matthew can we go now? l'm not well. l've got
a really bad headache. And I've just remembered that l've got an
English lesson at 4.45 and I don't want to arrive late.'
o Note: Adjective: good , Adverb: rle11 (r'uor goodly).

It was a good match. England were playing uery
uell.
We can also use well as an adjective meaning'in good health'.

I'm not well. (= I'm ill.)
Note the meaning of. nearly.
The ground was nearly fu11. (= 1-ora 1r,,,
She nearly went to sleep.
(= She didn't go to sleep, but she almost went to sleep.)
o Note the difference between
the adverbs hard and hardly and late and lately.

She tried hard to concentrate. (= She made a lot of effort.)
She could hardly keep her eyes open.
(= She could almost not keep her eyes open.)
There were hardly any empty seats. (= There were almost no empty seats.)
She didn't want to arriue late.flate = the opposite of early)
They hadn't been playing well lately. flately = recently)
o See also: high (= a long way above something) and highly (= very).
The ball uent high into the air.
Cricket is a highly popular sport in Australia.
and,: hee (= without paying) and freely (= with no restrictions).
Some people got into the ground free.
You don't haue to stay in your seat; you con moue around freely.
rHr,' QUESII()S
242

1 Matthew has been out with Laura several times (late/lately) ...
2 But he doesn't know her very (good/well) ...
3 He used to have a girlfriend called Anna, but he (hardihardly) ... sees her now.
4 Matthew and Laura didn't arrive (late/lately) ... at the match.
tem glggtives
and adverbs with the same form
Matthew didn't want to leave the match early. He wanted to watch it

right to the end. Laura wanted to go straight home. He had to think
fast - what was he going to do? He found some aspirin in his pocket.
'You don't need to go t your English lesson. you've been working too
hard, that's why you've got a headache. Here, take some aspirin q'ri.t.
We won't stay'long, I promise. Just anothertwo hours.,
The words early, fast, late, high, low, right, urong, free, hard., long, straight can be
used as adjectives and adverbs.
Matthew didn't want to leaue early. (adverb)
Loura wanted to cotch an early frain. (adjective)
He wonted to watch the match right to the end. (= exactly: adverb)
For him it wasn't the right time to leaue. (= correct: adjective)
Laura wanted to go straight home. (= directly: adverb)
Laura had long, straight alr. (adjective)
Matthew had to think fast. (= quickly: adverb)
Cricket isn't a uery fast game. (adjective)
You'ue been working too hard. (adverb)
Cricket's a hard. game to understand (adjective)
We won't stoy long, I promse. (= for a long time: adverb)
For Lauro it was a long day. (adjective)
Note that in informal English we often use the adjective f.orms cheap, quick, slow,
loud as adverbs:
Take some aspirin quick! (= quickly)
Don't tolk so loud! I'm trying to watch the game. (= loudly)
Matthew got the tickets cheap. (= cheaply)
Go
ailLsTt()tn,;4
slou!(= slowly)
Choose the right word to complete the sentences. Use sfraiglr t, long, early, hard.
I Matthew thought ... for a moment.

2 Laura wanted to leave ...
3 She wanted to go ... back to her flat.
4 They'd stayed at the match too ...
of adverbs of manner/degree, and sentence adverbs

Laura looked at Matthew angrily. He sadly realised that he had nor
choice, Clearly he had to leave the match early. She certainly wouldn't
wait till the end. He got up slowly. He could hrdly take his Lyes off the
game. At least rnglaid had playd well. He picke up his jaclet
impatiently. He nearly changed,his mind, but then he saidsadly: 'Let's
go. l'll probably come again tomorrow, Fortunately the match:goes on
for another four days!'
Note that we can't put an adverb between a verb and its object. We can't say:
He could take hardly his eyes off the game.
on: He picked up impatiently his jacket.
o There are three normal positions for adverbs:
front position (at the beginning of a clause).
Clearly he had to leaue the match early.
mid-position (before the main verb, or between an auxiliaryverb and the main
verb).
He nearly changed his mind. I'll probably come again tomorrow.
end position (after the main verb, at the end of the clause).
Laura looked at him angrily. He picked up his jacket mpatiently.
Adverbs of manner normally go in mid-position or end position.
He picked up his jacket impatiently. (end position)

oe.He impatiently picked up his jacket. (mid-position)
sur they go in end position when we want to emphasise the adverb.

Laurq looked at him angrily. (1Me want to emphasise her anger.)
He got up slouly. (Me want to emphasise the way he got up.)
o Sentence adverbs like fortunately,
unfortunately, clearly, actually, perhaps usually
come in front position.
Fortunately the match goes on for another four days.

BUr
the sentence adverbs probably, certainly, definitely don't come in front position.
We usually put them in mid-position.
I'll probably come tomorrou.
o Note that in negative
sentences with the contracted form

definitely, probably, simply before the auxiliary.
She
-n 7
we put certainly,
certainly wouldn't wait till the end.
We put the adverbs of degree nearly, almost, hardly in mid-position.

He could ho.rdly take his eyes off the game.
We put the adverbs well and badlyin end position.

At least England had played usell. (ruor England had well played.)
Note: It is not always possible to give precise rules about the position of adverbs in
the sentence. But if you follow the rules in this Step you will not be wrong.
CHECK AL]ESTIONS 5
AN5WERs
IO
CHECK QUESTIANS
1,2,3.1AND5
Put in the adverbs.

I Laura wasn't interested in cricket. (clearly)
2 Matthew had explained the rules to her. (patiently)
3 She didn't want to stay at the match. (definitely)
4 She'd fallen asleep once or twice. (nearly)
1 lreally 2clearly 3reluctantly

2 lrudely 2noisily 3honibly 4automatically
5 quickly
3
244
l lafely 2 well 3 hardly 4late

t hard
2 early 3 straight 4 long
1 Clearly Laura wasn't interested in cricket. on

Laura clearly wasn't nterested 2 Matthew had
patiently explained the rules to her. on
Matthew had explained the rules to her
patiently. 3 She definitely didn't want to stay
at the match.
4 She'd nearly fallen asleep once or twice.
foreign visitors were asked: 'What do you like best about Britain?,
fact that people always say'plese'. They.re very rarely rud,e.
- The old people. They're friendly and they often call you 'Love' or
'Dear'.
- The television. There's always something good to watch every evening.
- Carpets in pubsl ln Gre'ece you hardly ever find a carpet on the floor i
a bar. But there are usually carpets in English pubs.
- British gardensl They're bautiful. Oo w usually have gardens in the
USA? Yes, we normally do. But we don't usually have so many flowers.
l've never seen so many lovely flowers.
- The weather! Every summer in Turkey it's always hot and dry, and we
don't normally have any rain. Here in Britain it's generally warm.
Sometimes it rains, of course. And occasionally I miss the sun. But it
doesn't rain every day, and British weather is always interestingl
Some
- The
Step
Adverbs of frequency often, always, sometimes, etc.
We use adverbs of frequency when we say how often something happens. The
most common are:
100%
always
usually/normally/generally
often/f requently
0%
sometimes/occasionally
rarely/seldom
hardly ever
never
People always say please. We don't normally haue roin.

I'ue neoer seen so many louely flowers.
Frequently = often.But often is more common.

Seldom = rarely.But-rarely is more common.
Usually, normolly, generally all mean the same, but usually is the most common.
Occasionally and sometimes mean approximately the same, bul sometimes is
more common.
Note: It is not always possible to give precise rules about the position of adverbs in
the sentence. But if you follow the rules in Steps 2 and 3 you will not be wrong.
CHTCK AUESTIONS
How often do you find carpets in Greek bars?
2 How often do British people use the word 'please'?

3 How often can you find an interesting programme on British TV?
Position of adverbs of frequencY
Adverbs of frequency normally come in mid-position'

They come before a main verb'
adverb +
alwaYs
oftei
main verb
auxiliary * adverb +
main verb
People
Thiy
srY
call
'Please'
You'Loue'or'Dear''
They come between an auxiliary and the main verb'
I'ue
We don't
o
neuer
normallY
seen
haue
so many louely flowers'

anY rain'
sut adverbs of frequency come after the verb be'
be
Their answers were
(is)
adverb
often
different
something good to watcho In questions and in short answers, adverbs of frequency come just before the
main verb.
There's
adverb
alwaYs
main verb
gardens in the Stqtes?

haue
usually
do.
normallY
Yes, we
e' But in short
In questions with the verb o e these adverbs come after the verb
answers they come before.
Do we
+
be
1s there
Are old people
adverb
usuallY
alwaYs
a car7et on the floor?

friendly? - TheY usuallY are.
usually, generally'
We usually put the adverbs sometimes, occasionally, often,
normally in mid-Position.
It sometimes rains, of course. I occqsionally miss the sun'
But we can put them in front or end position to emphasise them'
Sometimes it rains, of course. Occasionqlly I miss the sun'

Does it rain often? - It rains occasionally'
o Note that we don't usually put the adverbs always, neuer' rarely' seldom' hardly
euerinfront position. We cant say: 'Always people say'please''' to say
(sur we musi put always and, neuerbefore an imperative: 'Never forget
'please'!')
come in
Adverb phrases like euery day, eery year, euery euening' etc' usually
emphasise
to
you
want
position
if
front
in
end positin. But they.u., lro iome
them.
There's somethinggood to watch on TV eoery eoening'
Ersery etsening there's something good to watch'

These phrases are never used in mid-position'
.<
QUESTIONS 2
Which sentences are correct?

1 I've visited olten Britain.
2 I don't usually come in the winter.
3 British gardens normally have lots of flowers in them'
It rains in Turkey hardly ever in the summer'
247
place:
- The postal service is the best thing about Britain. lf I post a letter
:today;it,Il.almost''certqinly',arrivetomorroW.The.letters:llendvery
rarely arrive late.
- Clean air! Nowadays most English people have stopped smoking. Now
you can go into restaurants and offices and breathe clean air.
- Car drivers usually stop at pedestrian crossings here. But it's different
Adverbs of time answer the question 'When?'The most common are: agoin, nou,
then, recently, once, nowadays, suddenly, immediately, finally, afterwards, today,
tomorrow, yesterday, late, early.
+ adverb phrases like: on Monday/last week/next summer, etc.
We usually put them in end position, at the end of a clause.
If I post a letter today, it'll almost certainly arriue tomorrous.
o Now, then, recently, once, nowadays, suddenly, finally, ofterwards, tomorrolD,

yesterdoy and the adverb phrases above can also go in front position for emphasis.
Nouadays most English people haue stopped smoking.
o
Adverbs of definite time likeyesterday, tomorrow, last weeh, etc. don't go in midposition, but they can go in front position for emphasis.
I posted a letter
yesterday. Yesterday I posted a letter.
xor I yesterday posted
alltcA
QUISIi ONS 3a
a letter.
(mid-position)
Now, then, recently and once can come in front, mid or end position.
Noto you can go into offices and breathe clean air.
You can now go into offices and breathe clean air.
You can go into offices and breathe clean air nou.

I Nowadays very few English people smoke.
2 I went into a restaurant last week and no-one was smoking.

3 I posted yesterday a letter and it today arrived.
o Adverbs of place answer the question 'Where?'. They include words
like here,
there, nearby, opposite, upstairs, etc. and phrases like in Britain, at home, eIc.
These adverbs normally go in end position.
Car driuers usually stop at pedestrian crossings here. But it's different in France.
But they can come in front position for emphasis:
There, driuers uery rarely stop.
o
It
.HECK OUEST|ANS
]b
Note that if there are several adverbs in a sentence, the normal word order is:
rained
degree+manner+place+time
ery
heauily
in London
I I arrived in Britain yesterday.

2 I like Britain and I here come every year.
3 Next summer I'm coming here again.
AJ5WER5
IO
CHECK QUISTIONS
1.)AND3
248
1 Hardly ever on Rarely/Seldom. 2 Frequently

oa Often. 3 Always
)?
3a 1,2
3b 1,3
yesterday
76
Now itls time for the weather forecast hel'e on Radio 5: Thereill be quite
.'
a big (hange'in theweathertoday. Most of the countrywill be
cold, with temperatures b-etween 5" and 8c. Winds from the sou'th east '
qite
will be fairly strong.ln the north it'l| be a fairly wetiday, and it's likely to
rain quite heaviiy on'the north west coast.
fairly
Quite,
We use the words quite, pretty and fairty lo change the strength of an adjective or
an adverb.
35"
Hot
Quite, pretty
Fairly
hot
hot
28'
25"
pretty cold. (adverb + adjective)

It's lihely to rain quite heauily. (adverb + adverb)
It'll
be
Pretty usually means the same as quite but it's more informal. Fairly isn't as strong
as
pretty or quite.
Note that if we stress the words quite, pretty and fairly and not the adjective
which follows, we make the adjective less strong.
It'll be quite cold. (= 4' perhaps)
It'tl be quite cold. (= not as cold as 4", perhaps 8")
o We often use quite belore an adjective + noun.
There'll
It'll
be
be
quite + a/an + adjective +

quite
big
0
drY
quite
a
But with fairly and prettylhe word order is different.
It'll
CI4ECK AUESTIONS
Step 2
a/an + fairlY/Pret$t + adjective

uet
fairly
be a
noun
change in the weather.

day
noun
day.
fairly or pretly.
1 It'll be... cold tomorrow, about 8".
2 Thursday will be ... a fine day.
3 It'll also be a... windy day.
Put in quite,
Other uses of quite

The weather in the south will be quite different. ln the south it'll be
quite a dry day, with quite a few sunny periods and only one-or two
,.shoiivers;.But'it:,I1 b:p'retty coJd:with tgrnp,aturel rnever'higher than 7l'
Winter hasn't quite finished yet, l'm afraid, although I must say I quite
enjoy cold, clear days like todaY.
250
rr'hen rte use it rrith soire

Quite can also mean'completely' or'absoluteh''
adjctives. The most common are: alone, amazing. brilliant. cerlo.n. dtfiereni
dradfut, extraord.inary, right, sure, terrible, true, unnecessorrl usele-ss- u'rong
The weather in the south will be quite different.
(= completely dilferent from the weather in the north)
o we can also use quite (bulnol pretty or fairly) with these verbs: agree. enLo)
finish, forget, like, understand.
Quife sometimes means'a little/moderately'.
although I quite enioy cotd, clear days (= enjoy a little)
It can also mean 'absolutely/completely'.
The winter hasn't quite finished yet' (= hasn't completely finished)
o
':it
(K otJEtTtOl\S
''
Note the expressi on quite a few which means 'quite a lot of
uith guite a feu sunnY Periods
Complete these sentences with quite, pretty or fairly'

1 Te weather this winter has been ." extraordinary, hasn't it?
2 Yes, I ... agree. We've had ..' a lot of sunshine'
Now the forecast
fortomorrow.lt'll o" ,:lT":::X
ilfl:::'J;[
," -"- - - - iJ11*,

in the north.,But the weather will be rat,.-'
it;ti u" rather a warmrdy for the time of year. the kind of day I rather
like, with temperatures reaching 14''
When we use rather, it usually gives the adjective a negative meaning'

It's rqther warm today' (= too warm' not pleasant)
It's
quite warm today. (= pleasantly warm)
But we can also use ratherwhen a positive adiective is surprising'

It'Il be rather a u)arm day for the time of year'
(= This is surprising. It's ot normally warm at this time of year')
o We can use rafher (n or quite, fairly or pretty) before comparatives'
The weather will be tather better in the south'
o Rather can come before ot affer a/Qn.
It'tt be rather a tt)arm day for the time of year'
oxlt'tt be a rather warm day for the time of year'
o Rather can also be used with certain verbs like enioy, hope, like, thinh.lt means
'moderately' or'to some degree'.
the kind of day I

1E(K QUtsflo\s
'rather'to these sentences?

The weather tomorrow will be ... good'
h ... rains in the north of England.
lt's been ... a wet month.
Can you add
2
3
rather lihe
uesueh' a cold'day.' fn the. -, '

'w16s glad'to,h'ear thls
there
epfe,up
b:so'wet.
it
wonlt
nrth, an
andrsuch twtmpefatures'.,
,' becuse thevlve had such bad,we!,ther
theyf1e had.,swh,ailot of rain
eoas!
recentl.y.,ln,fact,on,thelnorth.west
','that ,,,,ny:ho,uses,hal'bee.f tooded., nrs,aind{or,so,!onglin Barrow
lo a pe o pi h aven lt left,the ir, h-mer fr dars. e,ut ih e ra i n
, ifi;t .o r"
, h snJl beeo rrch a p r.oblrn in othei,Parti.of, th. reE o n'
*oo fiottlthe forecasttoi rriday'tiwolt
+ noun'
we use such before a noun (countable or uncountable) or an adjective
word
the
Note
foliows.
+
that
noun
adjective
Sucft emphasises the noun or ihe
order:
such + a/an
been such
such
It uon't be
It hasn't
They'ue
had
adjective
such
such
nOUn
problem.
cold
low
day.
bad
weather.
temperatures
of (but nor before much and many).
we can use such before a 1of

They'ue had such a lot of rain.
o We use so before an adiective without a noun, or before an adverb'
It won't be so uet. (adjective)
It's rained for so long. (adverb)
o We can use so and sucl + a fhaf clause when we talk about a result'
left their homes'
It's rained for so long (that) some people hauen't
haue been flooded.
houses
many
(that)
ofoin
a"tit
They,ue hctd such
Note: We often leave ovl that.
o We use so (Nor such) with many and muclr' (See Unit 60')
(HECK OESTIONS 4
Put in so or sucft.
I The north of England hasn't had "' a lot of rain for months'
2 The wind was ... strong that trees were blown down'
3 In the east of England they haven't had "' much rain'
IO
CHECK QUESTIANS
ANSWTRS
1,2,lAND4
1 quite/fanly/pretty 2
1 quite 2 quite quite
quite
fairlylpretty
lYes 2 No 3Yes
lsuch 2so 3so
Practice
quite:
rather:
fairly/pretty:
with adjective with adverb
slow
rather slow
fairlylpretty slow
with comparative
with verb
quite slowly
t quite agree
rather slowly
t rather like
fairlylpretty slowly
X
quite
X
rather better
so + adjective on its own: l'm so hungry.

so + muchlmany + (adjective) + noun: so many interesting people
such + alan (+ adjective) + noun: such a good film
such (+ adjective) + plural noun: such difficult questions
such (+ adjective) + uncountable noun: such terrible weather
such + a lot of (+ adjective) + noun: such a lot of empty seats
borrow it?'
Complete this school report, asingquite + a

and, rather + a negative
adjective.
positive adjective
Science: Katherine is
(l)
'No, it's (9) ....................... all right thanks.I'm

reading a (10)
...................... good at
.. .. ...... weak.
Complete the following text, using sucft orso.

Truck driver Ed Johnson from Red Oak, Texas,
French: Katherine's pronunciation is
(l)
ill he went to the Glenwood
(3) ...................... poor but her writing is
felt
(4) .. ... .. ... ..... alot better.
hospital in Fort Worth. Doctors there decided
English: She writes
(5)
.................... interesting
essays but her spelling is
he was (2) ..................... a difficult case they
needed to consult a heart specialist from
still
Dallas. He told Mr Johnson it wasn't
(6) ...................... bad.
History: She finds History (7) .......... ...
more interesting
book at the moment.'
Physics but her Chemistry is

(2) ........
...........
.......
(3) .. .. .............. a serious problem after all and
difficult although she is obviously
he only needed a minor heart operation.
(8) ...................... intelligent.
Two weeks later Mr Johnson was feeling
Complete this dialogue, using quite, rather,

fairly or preffy. It is sometirnes possible to use
more than one of these words.
I m reading
(l) . .. .... ............ a good
book at
(4) ..................... much better the doctors

decided he could go home. He thanked the
nurses for being (5) ..................... kind and went
to the desk to ask for the bill. There they told
:he moment. It's about the historv of the
him that he'd spent (6) ..................... a long time
railways in Britain.'
in hospital and he'd had
li sounds (2) .. .................... boring to me.'
\o. in fact it's
(3)
interesting.
- tere's (4) ........ ... .. ....... a lot about social
r:story which I (5)
..........
(7)
lot of
tests, that the bill came to $27,964. Mr Johnson

was
(8)
shocked he dropped dead
of a heart attack.
enjoy. I haven't
i.l ....................... finished it yet. I can lend it to

-,
ru when I've finished. I think you'd
-r ....................... enjoy it. But I'm afraid it's
i,
........................ a long book. Do you want to

253
77
The American Marianne Rich is only 16, but she's ahleady a tennis star.
'l started playing when I was 5. My father helped me a little, but then I
got my own tennis coach when lwas 6. I played a lot between the ages
of 7 and 14. at least four hours a day.'Life wasnrt esy. I didn't like it
vey much, t wa getting arbit bored wfthtennis- And I didn't see my
friends much. Last year I'injured my back. lt hurt so much I had to go
linto hospital, For six months after the injury l couldn't play as much, and
at last t could relax a'bit. I enjoyed that very mueh. and after those six
months I felt a lot stronger and very much happier. And I started to play
much more positively.'
A lot, much, etc. used alone or before an adjective or adverb
We can use a 1o a littte, a bit, much, uery much, so much, as much on their own, as
adverbs. They tell us something more about the verb.
My father helped me q little.
(tlow much did your father help you? He helped me a little.)
o We normally put them a{ter the main verb and its object.
main verb + object +

me
father helped
it
didn't like
I
my friends
didn't see
I
My
adverb
a little.
uery much.
much
o Note that we can use uery much in positive or negative sentences. But we can
only use much on its own (without uery) in negative sentences.
I enjoyed that aery mucft. (Nor I enjoyed that much.)
I didn't like it aery much. I didn't see my friends much.
o we often use o 1o1, a bit, a little, much, uery much, so much before a comparative
adjective or adverb.
I fett q lot stronger and oery much happier.
I started to play much more positioely.
Note: Much + adjective or adverb can be used in positive sentences.
A bit aod a tittte (buf not a lot, much, uery much, so much) can also be used with an
adjective not in the comparative form.
I was getting o bit bored with tennis.
o A loI means the same as ery much. A bf means the same as a little but it's less
formal and is used more often.
CHFCK QUESTIANS
Add the words in brackets to the sentences.

I Marianne didn't Iike practising. (very much)
2 When she was in hospital, her friends didn't visit her. (much)
3 She sometimes feels tired (a bit).
254
But generally she feels happier now. (a lot)
rlNowadays I practise less, per.hap only f,o_.urtee,hur a'week.,l havent

gottime io [i".tir", becase ]traVl a tot m,re,L,play in tour'n:ments
,Iu.tfl.orld' IJike WirnUtedon miost''l love tiiegratseourtsrthre- I
-n gia5i, ftls:strange, bt the tor,nament,l lke east,is tl* ,

,
*rican, on at f lrsh,i ng-M e-ad -ow, l always p al ost there, l donlt',
...:....--...-..;:...:.'....,.-,.il',','...t:i.--;l:.
'
'rknow why Perhaps l'll do betterthisyear'l ,
play best
forms mosf,
The comparative forms more, less, better, worse and the superlative
put
usually
We
of
degree.
as
adverbs
own,
their
on
used
least, best, iorst canbe
them after the main verb and its object'
NowadaYs I Practise less.
(= I don't practise as much as I used to')
the tournament I like least
(= I prefer all the other tournaments')
I tike Wimbtedon most' (= Wimbledon is my favourite')
I alwaYs PlaY usorst there'
(= I play better at all the other tournaments')
o we can use o /of, a bit, much, uery much, so much before more, less, better, worse'
I trauel a lot more nou' op'l trauel much more notD'
sentences,
Note that we can use much in positive sentences as well as in negative
when it comes before more, less, better, worse'
past
Most, least, best, u)orst calalso be used with adjectives formed from the
ParticiPle of verbs.
wateon is the best hnoutn tennis tournament in the world.
MarianneisthemostphotographedtennisplayerintheUSA.
:.(
eursr/oNs
!5W[R5 rO
Q UF-S ll OA/5
1 AND2
Rewrite the sentences, using less, least an'd utorse'
now' She practises "'

other tournaments to the American open. she likes ...
"
played better in the
She ptayea two sets against the wimbledon champion. she
played
She
"'
first set than in the second'
1
2
3
She doesn't practise as much
'1
didn't lke practising very much

2 ... her friends didn't visit her much.
She prefers
iil tt
1 Marianne
3 She sometimes feels a bit tired.

4 But generally she feels a lot happier now.
1 She practses less now 2 She likes the

American Open least. 3 She played worse in
the second set than in the first.
78
Bill Myers
is 82, but he still acts like a 50-year-old. He still plays tennis.

He still drives a car. He's still interested in women and he's got a
'girlfriend'called Doris, who's 79. He asked her to marry him five years
ago. He's stllwaiting for her answer!
Step
Stillin affirmative sentences and questions
We use slll/ (= up to now) to talk about an action or a situation that is continuing

longer than we expected.
He still plays tennis. (We don't expect an 82-year-old to play tennis.)
In affirmative sentences we put sflll after the verb be,before a main verb on its
own, and between an auxiliary and the main verb. In questions we put sfl/I after the
verb be and after the auxiliary.
the verb
be
He's
Is he
auxiliary + still
He
Does he
He's
Is he
-ICK
QUESTIONS
Put
sfill into
still
still interested in women.
still interested in women?
+
still
still
still
still
main verb
plays tennis.
play tennis?
waiting for her answer!
waiting for her answer?
these sentences.
I Bill's interested in tennis.

2 He's got a'girlfriend'.
3 Doris is his 'girlfriend'.
Step 2
Still and yet in negative sentences

Bill lost his.glasses lst night; His daughter,s phoniing h,im:
'Have you found your glasses yet?'
'No, l've looked everywhere in the house, but I still haven't found them.
Of course they may be in the car. I haven't looked there yet.'
'Have you phoned the optician's?'
'l can't read the number in the phone book, so I haven't phoned them
,
yet.'
IHow's Doris?'
'She's fine. She's coming to see me this morning, but she hasn't arrived
yet.'
'Has she said "yes" yet?'
'No, she still hasn't given me an answer.'
We use yel (= 'up to now') in negative sentences and in questions when we talk
about something that hasn't happened, but that we expect to happen in the future.
We normally put yef at the end of the sentence or clause. (See also Unit 8.)
She hasn't arriued yet. Has Doris said 'yes'yet?
In negative sentences, if we want to emphasise that something hasn't happened

up to now, we use sfill, nolyet.
Bill hasn't found his glasses yet. He's loohed euerywhere but he still hasn't found
them. Q1e hasn't found them, even after looking everywhere.)
Here, we put sfl11 before the auxiliary (hasn't, doesn't, eIc.).
( i1i:{.K QUL\1 IONS
Put in yef or
3
4
t*p
sfi/I.
Doris hasn't said'yes'to Bill ... 2 She ... hasn't answered him.
Bill lost his glasses last night and he's ... looking for them.
He hasn't phoned the optician's ...
Any more, any longer, no longer

Things have changed for Bill. He and Doris don't see each other any
more. Three weeks ago he told her: 'Doris, if you can't decide, I can't
wait any longer.' He sees her occasionally in town, but they no longer
speak to each othel and Doris doesn't visit him any more.
At f irst Bill missed Doris, but he doesn't miss her any more and he's no
longer lonely, Two months ago he met Gladys, who's 81, in the club. He's
no longer got a girlfriend. He's got a wife! He married Gladys yesterday!
We use any more and any longerin negative sentences to say that a past situation
has now finished. We put them at the end of the sentence. Any more is more
common than any longer.
They don't see each other any more. (oaany longer)
I can't woit any longer. (on any more)
We can use a positive verb + no longerinstead of a negative verb + any more/any

longer. No longerisn't used as often as any more,/any longer and is more formal.
They no longer speah to each other.
don't speak to each other any more.)

longer misses Doris. (= He doesn't miss Doris any more.)
(= They
He no
We put no longer alter the verb be, before a main verb on its own, and between an
auxiliary and the main verb.

the verb e + no longer
no longer
He's
auxiliary
no
Al.Jst4/fti5 IO
( t1E( K ()tJtSTta^lt
lonely.
+
no longer
no longer
They
He's (has)
CHL{ K QtjtSl tOlts
longer
main verb
speak to each other.
got a girlfriend.
Put any more,/any longer or no longerin these sentences.

1 Bill speaks to Doris. 2 They aren't going to get married.
3 Bill couldn't wait for an answer. 4 Doris visits him.
1
tennis. 2 He's still got a

still his girlfriend.
4 yet
1 Bill's still interested in
girlfriend. 3 Doris
1
is
yel 2 still 3 still
1 Bll no longer speaks to Doris. 2 They aren't

going to get married any more/any longer.
3 Bill couldn't wait any longer for an answer. c:
Bill couldn't wait for an answer any longer/anr
more. 4 Doris no longer visits him.
79
This is part of a speech given at a political meeting.
lThiglgove-rnnr-en[,has been in power for a'v-erylo,ng:tirne; l0,fact lhey've
been in power for too long. They've made too many mistakes and
wasted too much money. But they're much too proud to admit it or
they're too stupid to relise it. lt'i too easy for ministers to say "Be
'pqti ent. TJi i ns are gettin g,bettei :',We|v he rd:th at,f a r,to6 y
times. lt's too late for them to say that now ...'
Too means 'more than is necessary'. It doesn't mean the same as uery. Too
always has a negative meaning. Very is neutral. It can have a positive or negative
meaning, depending on the word that follows. We can say uery good or uery bad.
This gouernment has been in power for a aery long time.
(a uery long time = a simple fact)
In fact they'ue been in power for too long.
(too long = a criticism, a negative comment)
We often use foo before an adjective or an adverb.

They're too proud to admitif. (adjective)
The gouernment has been in power for too long. (adverb)
Note the use o{ oo in this construction:
too +
They're too
h's
h's
o
too
too
adjective/adverb
(for
object)
easy
late
infinitive
to realise it.
stupid
for ministers
for them
to say.
to sqy.
We also use foo many + a countable noun and too much + an uncountable noun.
(See also Unit 63.)
They'ue made too many mistaftes. (countable noun)

They'ue wasted too much money. (uncountable noun)
We can put the words much, far, a little, a lot, a bitbetore too.
far too many times they're much too proud

CHECK AUESTIONS
260
Put in foo+ one of these words: many (x 2), much, easy, long.
1 15 years in power is ... for any government.
2 Some people think governments have ... power.
3 And it's ... for them to say things will get better.
4 ... ministers have made ... mistakes.
Step
'... The country's in a rness. Some people don't have enough to eat.
There's never enough money for schools or hospitals. But there's always
enough for motorways and nuclear submarines. This government has
been in power for long enough. Even some of its supporters are honest
enough to admit it. Government ministers Say,,"Give us more time." lt's
easy enoughfor.them to say that,'But they've had enough time.
They've had enough opportunities. And now we've heard enough of
their promises. The people of this country have had enough of this
government!'
Enough means 'a sufficient number or amount'. It normally comes before a noun
(countable or uncountable).
They'ue had enough opportunities. (= a sufficient number)
They'ue had enough time. (= a sufficient amount)
o Enough comes after an adjective or adverb.
It's easy enough for them to say that.
This gouernment has been in power for long enough.
We use enough + noun.

There's neuer enough money. (ruor enough of money)
But, we use enough + of before pronouns (him, them, etc.) or words like the, this,
my,etc.+anoun.
And now we'ue heard enough of their promises.
The people of this country haue had enough of this goemmenL
Enough can be used on its own when the noun is understood.

There's always enough for motorways. (= enough money)
Note the use of. enough in these constructions:
Ils
supporters
ore
adjective
+ enough +
honest
ezsy
enough
enough
They'ue had
They don't haue
.aK OUESTIONS
enough
enough
to adm it.
adjective + enough + for
h's
infinitive with
enough
object
infinitive with to
for
them
time
to improue the situation
to say that.
(noun) + infrnitive with fo

to eat.
Add enough to these sentences.

It's easy for ministers to make promises.
2 They don't understand the country's problems well.
3 There aren't hospitals or schools.
4 There's always money to build more roads.
Rewrite the sentences, using enough of.

5 We don't want this government any more. We've had ...
6 We don't want to see their failed policies any more. We've seen ...
.:(
A,N5WE,Rs IO
QUESI/O,ryS
1 AND2
too long 2 too much 3 too easy

many too many
4 Too
1 lt's easy enough 2 well enough 3 enough

hospitals or schools 4 enough money
5 We've had enough of this government.
6 We've seen enough of their failed policies.
261
80
ln the 1930s a lot of people tried to break flying records. At that time
Douglas corrigan was a young pilot, and in 193g he decided to try to f ly
solo, non-stop across the USA. He planned to leave early in the
mor"ning, and on the morning of MondayJuly 1:6th. 19jg, at dawn, '
corrigan took off from an airport near Nlw york, exactlyon time. He
expected to land in california in about twenty-three hors, just in time
to celebrate his birthday on July 17th. ln the zummerthere re usually
clear skies over the usA, but in July that year the weather was bad ad
corrigan had to fly in thick cloud. it rcio on Tuesday ,rt"rnoon,
t"
"i
end of a heroic flight, he landed - in lreland, not california! He'd made
the flight in twenty-eight hours, but he'd flown east, not west! After
the f light he wa5 lways calted Douglas ,Wrong Way, Corrigan ! I ,' i
Step
ln bef ore periods of

We use n with periods of time:
o parts of the day: early in the morning, in the afternoon, in the euening
o months: in July, in October
. seasons: in (the) summer, in (the) autumn, in (the) ainter, in (the) spring
. years: in 1938, in 1995, in 2001
o decades and centuries in the 1g30s, in the 2lst century
o 1n can mean 'during or within a period of time,.
1n
He'd mode the flight in twenty-eight hours.

can also mean 'at the end of a period of time'.
He expected to land in California in about 23 hours.
o Note that the phrase
in time means 'early enough for something' or ,not too late

for something'.
just in tme to celebrate his birthday on Juty 17th
: ,.
-,.CK QUESTIANS

1 When did a lot of people try to break flying records?
2 In which year did Corrigan make his famous flight?
3 In which month?
days/dates
We use on before particular days or particular dates:
o days: on Monday, on Tuesdoy, on his birthday, on Christmas Day
o dates: on July l7th, on Nouember 2nd

o with parts of days/dates: on Tuesday afternoon,
o
on Friday euening,
on the morning of Monday, July l6th
Note that the phrase on time means 'at exactly the right time'.
Corrigan left exactly on time.
"t
^''
..
ali[a( (]Llf\
Put in or on before these words and phrases.

1 Monday morning 2 Tuesday 3 July 16th
IlOrV5
1938
exact
We use af:
with clock times: ot 16.20, at six o'cloch

But we don't normally use af in questions like:
What time did he leaue New York?
(At what time did he leaue New Yorh? is very formal.)
o
o
o
with single words meaning a time of day.

at dawn, at midday, at lunchtime, dt night
with beginning, stlrt, end.
qt the end of a heroic flight at the beginning of the flight
with the words time, moment.
at thot time he was a young pilot at the moment (= now)
with public holidays and festivals.
at Christmos (eur on Christmas Day)
at Easter (sut on Easter Sunday.
See Step 2
above.)
at the weekend ('onthe weekend'in American English.)

./r.(
.tr-1r!r/N5
Put in or on or af before these words and phrases.

I 10.15 2 dawn 3 the winter 4 l9l1 5 the start of the
flight 6 breakfast
o We don't use n, on or atbefore the words eery, next, this, last and tomorrow,
yesterday.
Corrigan's making his flight next Monday. (Nor on next Monday)
He thinks about his flight eaery dcy. (Nor on every day)
He left New York this morning. (Nor on this morning)
He hopes to ctrriue in California tomorrotD morning.
(Nor on tomorrow morning)
He lqnded in lreland last Tuesday. (Nor on last Tuesday)
CI.ILCK QLJE'TIONS
.1
Put in, on or qt or no word at all before these words and phrases.
I everyevening 2 theevening 3 yesterdayevening 4 thisevening

5 tomorrow evening 6 the evening of July 16th 7 next Christmas
8 three o'clock in the morning
AAJSir'TR
IO
.-HLCK QLJ[:;I IANS
'1
) IANDl
'1 ln
the 1930s.
1 on
6 at breakfast
264
2ln 1938.
3 ln .luly.
Monday mornng 2 on Tuesday

3 on July 16th 4 in 1938
3 1 at 10.15 2 at dawn 3 in the winter
4in 1911 5 atthe startof the flight
4 I everyevening
2 intheevening 3yesterday
evening 4 this evening 5 tomorrow evening
6 on the eveningof July 16th 7 next
Christmas 8 at three o'clock in the morning
81
There was an arilcle in the Daily Mail recently about the number of
homeless people in Britain.
lason Mitiheli lives in a tent in the park'in the middle of a square in
London, He sleeps in a sleeping bag. He hasn't slept in a bed since he
was in hospita! last year. His dog sleeps with hm in a corner of the tent.
He used to live in the country, but it's easier to find food in the city.
He finds food in the waste bins in the street, outside restaurants. But
when he's got some money in his pocket. he eats in cheap cafs.
o In general, we use n when we talk about an enclosed

all sides.
He liues in a
in
sleeping bag.
We use it with buildings and areas surrounded by walls, etc.

in cheap cafs in the parh in a square in the street
with larger areas like cities, states, countries, continents.

in the city in the country in London in Britain
with words that describe the relative position of something.
in the middle of the square in q corner of the tent
in the south of England
with words llke hospital, church, school.
He was in hospital last year.
with newspapers and magazines.
an article in the Dqily Mail
o
o
1
He sleeps
(.,HECK QUESTIONS
tent.
space that is surrounded on
Add in where necessary.
1 There are lots of homeless people Britain, especially London'

2 You read about them every day the newspapers.
3 Jason doesn't live a house. He lives a tent.
Alexander Berrisford, an nternational art dealer; lives on the top floor

of an apartment building on the north bank of the River Thames.
There are Persian rugs on the floor of his apartment and valuable
paintings on the walls.
Alexander often sits on his balcony. On the left he can see Tower Bridge
and on the right Westminster Bridge. On the other side of the river he
can see the National Theatre.
He's got two other homes - a castle on an island on the west coast of
Scotland, and a villa on a lake on the border between ltaly and Austria.
He does most of his work on the phone and on his computer. He's quite
famous. He's often on television and this morning his photograph was
on the front page of the newspapers.
In general, we use on when we talk about a horizontal or vertical surface.

on the floor on the front page on the ualls
We use it with any kind of line.
on the north bank of the Riuer Thames
on the border betueen ltaly and Austria
on the uest coast of Scotland

with machines.
on the phone on his computer on teleuision
with the positions right and left and the word sde.
on the right on the left on the other side of the riuer
-ECK
euESnaNS: Add on where necessary.
I Alexander's apartment's the top {loor.

2 He's quite famous and he's often the radio and television.
3 His castle's the north coast of the island.
267
Step 3
The Perring family also live in London; at 89, Elm Road, Balham. Alan
Perrin'g works at the garage near,h|s house. Carol Perring works at the
newsagent's at the end of the road. Their two children are at the local
primary school. They meet their friends at the children's playground at
the bottom of the hill.

At the front of the Perrings' house there's a small garden. At the back,
there's a bigger garden.
The Perrings spend most evenings at home. But sometimes they meet
their friends at the Ten Pin Bowling at the corner of the street. And
Alan sometimes sees his friends ati football match on Saturday.
o In general, we use of when we talk about a particular point.

The playground's qt the bottom of the hill.
The Ten Pin Bowling's at the end of their road.
At the back of the house there's a gorden.
We use af with a building when we're thinking about what normally happens
there, and not about the building itself.
Alan works at the garage. Carol works qt the newsagent's.
Compare: 'There's a dog in the newsagent's.' (= inside the four walls of the shop')
Compare also:
The Perrings liue in Balham. (= surrounded by houses, etc.)
The train stops at Balham. (= a point on the railway line.)
o Note that we say at the corner of the street (a point) but in the corner of the room
(a place surrounded on all sides).
We use af with social activities:

Alan Perring sometimes sees /s friends ot a football match.
I'll meet you at the theatre/qt the cinema/at the parly.

slons'. at home, at uork, at school.
The Perrings spend most euenings at home. Alan doesn't haue lunch qt uorh.
o Note these expres

o
With addresses, we use at if we give the house number.

They liue in Elm Road. eut They liue at 89, Elm Road.
(ln American English we say'They live on Elm Road.')
CHICK O.ESTIONS
Add af or in where necessary.
There's
a Ten
Pin Bowling Balham, the corner of Elm Road.
2 During the day, the Perrings' children are school.

3 The children have got friends who live 16, Elm Road.
I()
tsTtaft\
,|
Al'lD
A/V5WTR.S
c
it[(
K QU
1,
.).
1 in
Britain in London 2
tent
newspapers
3
radio on television
in the
3 in a house in a
1 on the top floor 2 on the
3 on the north coast

1 in Balham at the corner 2 at school
3 at 16, Elm Road.
lwantedto.liveoutsdeLondon,andl,waslookingfor'a;f|.atin.'
nch:mond, The estate agent took me to see'ne, The flat was,opposite a
church, near Richmond Park. lt was above a Chinese restaurant. We
stbod on,the pav-ement i n front of th e rest;tl !,a nt, lt' waq rain! n g so: I
held'arnewspaper over my head. The entranc to,the f lat ws iound the
side of the rliirrrrt, I ated the agent w64t 'iould park my cr.rnl'
said there was a parking place behid the restaurant.
'NoW would you like to see inside the flat?' he asked me.
Step
Outside, inside, behind, in front of, above, over, near, round, opposite
It was aboae a restlurant
a parking place
behind
the restaurant
I held a neusplper oaer

my head.
I wanted to liue outside

London.
in front of the restaurqnt
Wouldyou like to see
inside the flat?
n
It was opposite a church
270
neqr Richmond Park.
The entrance wqs round

the side of the restaurant.
AboDe and ouerusually have the same meaning: 'higher than'.

The flat was aboue (ox oaer) a restaurant.
But ouercan sometimes mean'covering'.

I held a neuspzper oaer my head.
o
. "
QUE5//ONs
tep 2
We use nsde rather than ln to emphasise the interior of an enclosed space.

A flat in Richmond. Would you like to see inside the flat?
Complete the sentences with prepositions.

I Richmond is ... London.
2 The flat was ... a restaurant.
3 It was ... Richmond Park.
4 She could park her car ... the restaurant.
Among, between, under, below, on top of , nextto, beside, by

There were four rooms in the flat. The bathroom was between the
bedroom and the living room. The kitchen was next to the living room.
ln the living room there was a table and two chairs under an old sheet.
'All included in the price!'the agent said. The flat was by the Thames,
on top of a hill, and there was a lovely view. I stood beside the estate
agent at the living room window. I could see Richmond Park below,us.
There were some deer among the trees in the park. And I could see the
river between the trees. Suddenly we heard a loud crash below us and
people shouting in Chinese. 'Have you got any other flats?' lsaid. '
a table and two chairs
under
I could see the park
belou
us
an old sheet
some deer qmong the trees
I could see the riuer betueen the trees.
271
The flat u)as on top of a hill.
The kitchen uas next to the liuing

room.
m.fi
The flat was by the Thames
I stood beside the oqent
and, under often have the same meaning: 'lower than'.

The restaurant kitchen was below (oxunder) the liuing room-
Below
But we use below and not underwhenwe mean 'lower than', but not necessarily
'directly under':
I could see the park belou us. (Nor vertically under them)
We use underwhenwe mean'covered by'.
There was a toble under an old sheet. (Ihe sheet covered it.)
o Among and between don't mean the same. We say something or someone is
betueen two or more things when we see these things as separate objects.
I could see the riuer betueen the trees.
(She could see it in the space that separated one tree from another.)
We say that somethingis omong a group of things or people when it's surrounded
by them. We don't see these things or people separately.
There were some deer among the trees.
(Ihe deer were in the middle of the trees.)
:HE.K QUEsnoNS
ANS\/1i LI?5 TO
CIlL'K
QUESTIA[,15
1 AND2
272
By, next to and beside all mean 'very close to'. Compare:
The flat was by the Thames. (= very close to the river)
The flat was neqr the Thames. (= close to - further away than try)
Complete the Sentences with prepoSitiOns.

I The agent stood ... her and showed her the view.
2 They could see Richmond Park ... them, because they were
3 There were some children playing ... the trees in the park.
outside 2 above/over 3 near 4 behind

1 beside/next to 2 below on top of
3 among
1
... a
hill.
83
Yesterday Miss Ada Jenkins of Cardiff tried for half an hour to catch her
cat Floss io give it some medicine. But it ran away from her. lt ran out of
the kitcherl.upthe stairs,'round and round,the bedroom;,down the ..
stairs a gain; in aiid out of the 1 ivin g roorn, from the llving room'into tle
kitchen and finatly into'the back garden, She chasd it rond the garden
pond. Then the cat ctirnbed up a treand cou,tdnlt get don: So Miss , '
Jenkins wentto the phone and Ialg the Fire Brade. Ten minutes,lal.gl:
they arrived. The f irefighters took a ladder off the fire engine. They then
carii"ditthr:ough'theh|landthe]kitchenahdintothebaqkgarden.
Step
out of,
rou nd,
'f\+:1
4l-,4
t f
The cat ran
--=:71
through,
--
auay from
her.
It ron out of the kitchen
down the stairs
up the stairs
..@-"
from the liuing room
into the back garden

ffi
-lF,iil
lffil"<
Ii-FJ
round the garden pond.
They took a ladder
off the fire engine.
She
went to the Phone.
They carried it
We can join some of these prepositions wilh and:

round qnd round, up and down, in snd out of, on and
(<@
round ond rounilhe
altFCR QUtSilONs
274
bedroom
/x
off
through the halL
to and from
in and out of the liuing-room
Complete the sentences with prepositions of movement'

1 Miss Jenkins followed the cat ... the stairs and ... the bedroom.
2 The cat ran ... the house and ... the garden.
3 The firefighters had to carry the ladder ... the hall and the kitchen because they
couldn't get ... the side of the house.
Step 2
Along, towards, onto, past, across, under, over

One of the firefighters climbed up the tree, then along a branch
towards the cat. Floss moved onto another branch ! Bul twenty minutes
later the firefighter climbed down with Floss in his arms. Just as the fire
engine was leaving, Floss ran past Miss Jenkins and jumped over the
garden fence. The cat then ran across the road and under the wheels of
ihe f ire engine. Unfortunately, the driver couldn't stop in time.
ilfil@
along a branch
.-"hY
touards the
clt
Wiii'ttv
onto a branch
.i].].il.l-
The cot ron past Miss
and jumped oaer the
The cat ren qcross the
.lenkins
garden fence.
rood
and under the wheels of

the fire enpine.
cu5 r/04/s
Complete the sentences with prepositions of movement.

I The firefighter climbed up the ladder ... the cat.
2 They walked ... the road to their fire engine parked on the other side.
3 They put their ladder back ... the fire engine.
] J5 W]R5 IO
al l/F5ri oN-s
.1
AN)
'l 1 up into 2outof into 3through

2 1 towards 2 across 3 onto
round
84
Every year students at Bristol Univer:sity have a competition to see who
can travel the furthestin 24 hours, without spending any money on
transport. Last year the winner was Danny Green.
'l couldn't travel by air or by rail, because you need a ticket to go by

plane or by train and we weren't allowed to spend any money on
transport. You can't usually travel free on a plane or on a train, so the
only solution was to go by road and to get a lift in a car or a truck.'
Co by air, by train, etc. on a bus/ in a car
To talk about different ways of travelling we use by + air, reil, road, sea and
train, bus, coach, car, plane, boat, taxi, etc. with the verbs go, come, trauel.
I couldn't trauel by air or by rail. You need a ticket to go by plane or by train.
o We use on with different kinds of public transport: on a train, a plane, a boat, a
ferry, a houercraft, a tram, a bus, a cooch. (But we also use on with a bike, a
motorbike, a horse.)
We use n with other forms of transport: in a car, a truck, a tqxi, a small boet or
+
plane.
You
...K
QUESTIONS
can't trauel free on a plane or on a
troin.
to get a lift
in a car or a truck
Put in prepositions.
I
2
3
Danny knew he couldn't go ... air or ... rail.

He couldn't go ... a bus or ... a coach, because that cost money.
He had to go ... road, ... a car or ... a truck.
Cet into/out of a car, on/off a train Co into/outof

Arrive in atown/a country Arrive at a place
a building
Da,nny contnued;,,1 did,the f ifst two kilometres of my trip on foot - |

went out of the university building and into the first shop I could find to
buy some food. Then t wlted to the beginning of the motorway. I got
into the f irst car that stopped for me. The driver was going to London.
We got to London at 2.1 5. I got out of the cal and my ne*i lift was even
better - a motorcyclist. I got on his motorbike and I arrived in
Folkestone, on ,the,south'coast, at 4.30. When'l,got off the motorbike, I
walked for a bit and arrived at the Shuttle Terminal ten minutes later.
Now I needed to get to France as quickly as possible. I had to get on a
train and through the Channel Tunnel - without paying l'
Note that we say on foot and not 'by foot'.

I did the first two kilometres on foot. (= I walked.)
We use out of and nfo when we're talking about buildings or rooms.
I went out of the uniuersity building and into the first shop I could find.
We say to get into (on in) ,/out of a car, a taxi, a truck, etc.
I got into (on in) the first car that stopped for me.
I got out of the car, and my nexf lift uas euen better.
We say to get on/off a train, a bus, a plane, a boat, a bike, a motorbike.

I got on his motorbike. I got off the motorbike and walked for a bit.
We say to get to a town or a country.

We got to London at 2. I 5. Now I needed to get to France.
o But we say to arriue in a town or a country.

I arriued in Folkestone at 4.30. When will he orriue in France?
And we say to arriue aI a place.
I arriued at the Shuttle Terminal ten minutes later.
(See also In, on, at, Unit 81.)
( Ht:a
k o!)i\t i()NS )
Put in prepositions.
I He got ... the car and they got ... London two hours later.
2 When he arrived ... Folkestone he got ... the motorbike.
3 He soon arrived ... the Shuttle Terminal.
Step
'At the terminal I found a car driver who had room for another
passenger. We arrived in France half an hour later! My next lift was in a
French truck. I told the driver I wanted to go to the south of France.
Fortunately, the driver had been to England several times and he spoke
English. He said he'd also been to Scandinavia, to Russia, to ltaly and to
Greece. He took me to Paris. l'd never been to Paris before. ln fact l'd
never been to France. Next, a woman in a big Mercedes took me all the
way to the south coast. We got there just before 12 o'clock the next
day. I went to the post office and posted a card to prove where I was
afler 24 hours - Marseille, 1,411 kilometres from Bristol! And it hadn't
cost me a penny! Now it was time to go home again. But I didn't have
to get home in 24 hours!'
We say to go to a place, a town, a country, a continent.

The truck driuer had been to England seueral times.
I told him I wanted to go to the south of France.
I'd neuer been to Paris before. I went to the post office.
o Note that we don't use a preposition before the word home wilh verbs like go,
get, come, arriue, leaue.
I uanted to go home. I didn't haue to get home in 24 hours.
ct-t[cK Q][sTtoNS )
AA/5it/FRs 7O
aHLt-K QUt5nONS
'i
.2 /',ND J
278
Complete the sentences, using prepositions where necessary.
I Had the truck driver been ... Scandinavia?

2 Had he been ... Greece?
3 After 24 hours Danny was ... Marseille.
4 He didn't know how to get ... home.
11 l:y by 2on on 3by in in
21 into to 2 in off 3 at
3r to 2to 3 in 4-
85
The British have had the'metric'sy:stem for nearly 30 years. Some of; ,
them use it for two or three weeks a year when they go on holiday to
continental Europe.'B'ut-most of 'them stil'l dont understand litres,
kilometres and kilograms, ln the,1970s, when the system ws first
introduced, theyr6 used pints and gallns, miles and pounds for a long
time, and they didn't.want to chaige. One old man.said:.'When I was
young, lllived in.Francg for atear,'but I cquldn't understand kifometres
and kilograms. l've used miles and pounds alt my life. I cant change
'
now. t'l!o on using them for the.rest of my:life"
preposition for
We use for to answer the question 'How long?'
a period of time, often a number of hours, days, weeks,

years,
etc.
months,
The British haue had the metric system for nearly 30 years.
I liued in France for a year.
o Forcan be used with past, present and future tenses.
Present simple: They use it for two or three weeks a year.
Present perfect: I'ae used miles and pounds for sixty years.
Past perfect: They'd" used pints and gallons for a long time.
Past simple: I liaed in France for a year.
Future: I'll go on using them for the rest of my life!
o We don't use forwith expressions like: a1l morning, all day, all euening, all year, all
my life,elc.
I'ue used miles all my /ife. (Nor for all my life)
Foris usually followed by
{HECK QUESTIANS
Use
2
3
for in your answeni.
How long have the British had the metric system?

How long did the old man live in France?
How long will he continue to use the word 'gallon'?
Since
The British have had the metric system since the 1970s, and ever since
then they've b,en unhappy abot it. The old man said: 'lt's a long time
since I was in France..When I was there I always asked for "a litre" of
beer. But then I came back to England, and I haven't used.the word
"litre" since. Of course, young people in Britain have used the metric
system sincethey started school, so it's not a problem for them.'
We use since * a point in time to say when something started:

The British haue had the metric system since the 1970s.
on (with a negative verb) to say when something stopped.

The old man hasn't liued in Frence since 1952.
Since is often followed by a subject + a verb to show the point in time.

Young people haue used it since they started school.
We usually use srnce with the present perfect.

The British houe hed the metric system since 1971.
We use euer since when we want to emphasise that something has continued
without stopping for a period of time.

Eaer since then the British haue been unhappy about
o Since and euer since can be used on their own.
it.
I hauen't used the word'litre'since.
o Note these common expressions
with slnce.
It's a long time since I was in France.

Hou; long is it snce the old man liued in France?
(For since see also Units 8 and 90.)
(HFCK OI]FSTIONS 2
Answer these questions, using since.

I How long have the British had the metric system?
2 When did the old man last use the word 'litre'? He hasn't used it
...
The Ameritans started to.introdCe the rnetr|c sy.stem q.long,time ag,o, ..

in 1 785, when they changed'pounds, shillings' and'pence' to'dollars'
'
and f._c,er1ts'.;Twentyyears ago the'A1erienrgovernmentrlnounced,

plans to introduce more of the metric system. A few days ago an
American senator asked: 'How long ago did we decide to make the
change? Twenty years ago! Rnd waihras changed since then?
Nothing I'
We use ago
We put ago aiter the expression of time.

twenty years ago a few days cgo (Nor ago twenty years)
'.
lo say when something happened in the past.

Tuenty years ago the American gouernment announced plans.
(Iwenty years ago = twenty years before now.)
We use ago with the past simple (and sometimes with the past continuous). But
we don't use it with the present perfect.
A feu days ago an American senator asked.
@e can't say: 'A few days ago an American senator has asked.')
o Note these question forms:
How long ago did we decide to make the change?

How many years ago did they introduce 'dollars' and 'cents'?
rFC(
QUESTONs J
Use ago in your answers.
When did the US government first plan to introduce the metric system?
1 For nearly thirty years. 2 For ayear.

3 For the rest of his life.
1 Since the 197Os 2 since he lived in France
2 When did the senator talk about the metric system?

3 How long ago did the USA change to 'dollars' and 'cents'?
ANSWFRs IO
4ECK QUESTIONS
1,2AND3
1 Twenty years ago. 2 Afew days ago

3 A long time ago. on Years ago.
85
For a long tire Mr and Mrs Fuller had wanted to go on holiday abroad.
ln March 1995 they decided to go camping in France. For three months
they planned their trip. Then on July 1Oth they arrived in France. For ten
days they had a nice time, but then, one morning, their car broke down.
They'd had the car for yeais and it had never broken down before. They
sat in the car for ages, waiting for someone to stop and help them.
Foranswers the question 'How long?' (See Unit 85.)

For three months they planned their trip.
(Nor During three months they planned their trip.)
For ten days they had a nice time.
(Nor During ten days they had a nice time.)
Note these common expressions with /on
for hours, for days, for weeks, for months, for years, for ages.
For a long time they'd wanted to go on holiday abroad.
They sat in the car for ages.
We don't use durlng in these expressions.
CTIECK QUESTIONS I
Answer these questions, using for.

I How long had the Fullers wanted to go on holiday abroad?
2 How long had they had their car?
3 How long did they wait for help?
During
.Attata'.artopped.Thedriver..was.Eng!ish.HisnamewasBrian
WalterS. During th conversation he told Mr and Mrs Fuller that he
,always spent t\/o-:months in France'during,the summer; and during his
holidays heid learnt,to speak -French well, F{e.phoned Several garages
' forthem, Bu.t itwas Saturday and most garages were'only open duringl
the wek; At last me.chnic alrived. He sa,id hd co'uldn't work on,the
car during the Weekend and t wouldrOrobAtlV tke,a Week to reOaf r, ltl
During doesn't mean the same as for.

For answers the question 'How long?'
During answers the question 'When? In what period of time?'
We use duringbef.ore a fixed period of time (the day, the week, elc.).
Most gorages were only open during the weeh.
We don't use duringwith a number of days or weeks, etc.
The mechanic said he needed the car for q week. (= 1 week)
(Nor during a week)
We use duringbef.ore some form of activity'

during his hotidays during the conaersation
period of
Note that when we say that something happens inside a particular
or
induring
eilher
use
time, we can
He spent tuo months in France during/in the summer'
(H'CK
Choose fororduring.
1 The Fullers ttuy"d ut the first camp site (for/during) a week'
2 (For/During) the day they swam in the pool and sunbathed'
3 (ForiDuring) their stay in France it only rained once'
UESIANS 2
tep
While
Fuller
While the mechanic was talking to Mr Walters, Mr and Mrs
because
Engla.nd
to
it.rirJtfreir problem. Mrs rJller had to get back
what to
were trvins
;;;J *l[ in two davs. while thev
9":id,"
]"
pris
to
train
a
to catch
", Vlr" wafaers offeieJto take her to
-B_o11",9n"
,Don,t worry,' said IVIr
Fuller,
England.
to
ferry
get
the
could
she
";
,wnilu Brian,s driiing you to paris, t1l look after the car and find a
hotel.'
and Mrs Fuller arrived at the^ station in Paris' While she,was

getting her luggage out of the car, Mr Walters asked' in French' which
nil.
utt"r,
ten minuies later Mrs Fuller was

ii"i* irr" dli;iin t"ttfiom.
Mr Walters,
on the train. while ir,i"Li" h"* lucky she,d been to meet
in
she discoverea, Ouring u'.o"nr",ion *itft the woman
that she was on a non-stop train to Bologna in ltalyl
the next seat,
Whiteis a conjunction. It is followed by a subiect * a verb'

Duringis a preposition. It is followed by a noun'
talhing to Mr Walters "'
-iil" th" mechanic uaswith
the woman in the next seat "'
during a conaersqtion
o We often use while+ the past continuous followed by a verb in the past simple'
uhile they uere trying to decide, Mr Walters offered to toke "'
(For the past continuous, see Unit 6.)
o When while isused in a future Sentence, it's followed by a verb in the present and
not will. (See Unit 87.)
o
CHECK CIUE5TiONS
While'Brian is driaingyou to Paris, l'll look after the car'

We can use the -ing fLorm of a verb after while'
white thinhing hw lucky she'd been to meef Mr Walters "'
Choose the right word to complete the sentences'

about the train'
i tutrc Fuller aited (for/during/while) Mr Walters asked lucky
sh,e was'
how
thought
she
waiting,
was
she
i (ForDuringiwhile)
where it was
discovered
a conversation on the train she
Go.Tnurin!Vf,lt"j
going.
+ iforipuring/While)
AI'ISVV ER' TA
( TIECK ()UE5TIAN5
1,2AND3
284
a few minutes she
time. 2 For Years. 3 For ages.

for a week 2 During the daY 3 During their
1 For a long
'1
stay in France
couldn't believe what the woman had said'
1 while Mr Walters asked about the train'
2 While she was
waiting 3 During a
train 4 For afew minutes
conversation on the
87
Fgr,youngpe,ople'argtalkine aboutlthir.tutur',,,',:", :' :',
Sim gn : .Wh en l, leave:ichooi lim goin g. to:traln to be ,teacher,' Then.,,
' ..""fter- i've qalified; llll,Brob.dtyteatrr e ngtisn.aUroaC'.
Bethr :r, [tmgoing.to,buy,a cer,,,w.Wen l'iv:e savgd]enough.money,,Therr l'm,
' , | ,'go{n. tget,married assoon aslfiRd:the, lghlrman- I dont
want to be alone when l'm older. But I don't want to get
,',
Shanti;',I dori't want,tiettle Uowl:until lfve travelled q lot, Onie
t,\te
"'
'
Harry: Jobs are Oitcult to tnAll might be 25 by the time I get a job! I
:: . rr. ,donrt:knwwhat l'ant-to d.lill deide,wtlile'l'm at.coflee., ,
When, etc. + a present tense or the present perfect

When we talk about the future, we use either a present tense (normally the present
simple) or the present perfect after the link words when, as soon as, once, after,
before, while, by the time, until (till). We don't use il/.
When clanse (present) + Main clause (future)
When I leaue school, I'm going to train as a teacher. (uor When I will leave)
fllften clause (present perfect) + Main clause (future)
I'll probably fecch. (Nor After I will have qualified)
After I'ue qualified,
Note: When we use when as a question word, it can be followed by will or going to.
CHECK O.UESTIONS
Step 2
Answer these questions.

I When's Beth going to get married? ... the right man.
2 Is she going to get married when she's 25? No, she ... 30.
3 When will Harry decide about his future?
The slmple present or the present perfect?
It's often possible to use either the simple present or the present perfect after
when, as soon as, etc. without changing the meaning.

I'm going to get married as soon as I find/I'ae found the right man.
o eur when it's important to make it clear that one action will be finished before
the second one starts, we must use the present perfect.
I don't want to settle down until I'ae traoelled a lot.
(Shanti can't say until I treuel. She can't settle down while she's travelling! So she
uses the present perfect. She'lI finish travelling, and then she'll settle down.)
(HECK USIONS 2
AAiSWRS IO
CHECK QUESTIONS
1AND2
286
Is it essential to use the present perfect in these sentences? Yes, or no?

I Shanti: Once I've done that, I'll probably get married.
2 Beth: I'm going to buy a car when I've saved enough money.
1 As soon as she finds the righi man. 2 She

isn't going to get married before she's 30.
3 While he's at college
1Yes.2Yes.
Zoe and her boyfriend Ben are arranging to meet'
7o",
r.lo, ot Uy then. Byihe
time l,ve had a bath it'll be quarter to
than''
By here is a preposition of time' It means 'not later
but not later?)
or
8'30
at
ready
you
be
(=
Can
Can you be ready by 8.30?
!elor3'
later)
not
t coiU be ready by nine. (= a't 9 o'clock or,earlier' but
1sf' etc')
(5'15,
June
or
date
time
a
by
fottw
ut"uffy
ylt
(that) is a linking phrase' It's always followed by a verb'

Iiy the time I'ue had a bath it'll be quarter to nine'
her bath)
1l not later than the moment she finishes
ct-tECK QUSrtoN\
By the time
Put in by or bY the time-
... 8.30. 2 But we must be there "' 9'

this phone call it'llbe 7 o'clock'
finishd
we've
...
i t.un'iu"."ay
3
Till/Until
Z-
,Ben arrived a8.55. But.hehadltowait untif

)/vas f:dYl,.un!i|.9'15,,',.','
l
iltr-ii*,;-,rirr, u.". l,:had t work,tilt 7,15 and we didn'ta!,tiu
1. , '-,otloc't.,i-trn Ihadtowait:tilmy:sisterhdfiniihed'!nthq,,-.,', '

0"1r"or. And by then it was quarter to nine "'
which continues
we use till or untilwhen we talk about an activity or a situation
time'
and then stops at a particular
and stopped at 7'15')
I had to work tilt z.lS.'i= f," *"s working before 7'i5
and stopped at 9'15')
9'15
Ben had to wait untit i.ti. 1= H" was waiiing before
o Tilt is short for until. Till is more common in informal English'
llntil and il/ can be link words or prepositions'

uait until Zoe uas ready' Qink word + a clause)
We didn't eat till S o'cloch. (preposition)
By = not later than that lime' Until = up to that time'
He had to
CHECK QUESTION\ 2
9')
wasn't ready by nine' (= She wasn't ready at or before
before')
not
but
g'
9'15
at
ready
was
She
15'i=
Zoe wnsn't reoy titt
oe
Put in by, by the time or till/until

.,
o
8'45'
1 I didn't get home ...7.45. 2 My sister was in the bathroom "' ^r
3 ... we'd ad dinner, it was 8.30. 4 I've got to be home "' 12'
IO
CHECK QUESTIANS
t tilunti
A/V5WERS
1 AND2
288
bv 2 bv
3 Bv the time
2
tliuntil
3 Bv the
time 4 by
Sue goes out to work all day. Then she comes home to her famity and
has to start wo!'k again:
'lt's like this every day 1 work like a slave at the factory and then I come
home and the huse is like a pin'sty. Other women Iike me come home
and the dinner's cooked and the house istidy. lwanted to be something
exciti'ng, like an air-hostess. Bui tjust do boring th!nqs,.like making beds
and feeding th family. lt's like havng two full-time jobs, but this one's
unpaidl'
o Note the two meanings
of the preposition
1fte:
We use 1lfte when we compare one thing or person with another. llfte usually
means'similar to'or'in the same way as''
The house is like a pig-sty (nor as a pig-sty)
I work like a slaue. (xor as a slave)
B Like can also be used when we mean 'for example''
I just do boring things, lihe making beds. (xor as making)
I wanted to be something exciting, like an air-hostess.
o Like is a preposition. we use it before a noun, a pronoun or the -ing form of a
verb.
I work like a sloae. (/lke
noun)
other women lihe me (like * an object pronoun)

It's tike this euery day. (like + ademonstrative)
It's like haaing tuo iobs. (like + the -rng form o{ a verb)
CHECK QUESTIONS
Step 2
Find examples in the textoi like. which have meaning A and which have
meaning B?
As and as if /as though

Suefs angry again. 'Darren! Your.cltheS are lf,ovr thg floor again; just
' as I xpectd. Now, do as l'sayt Pt them away! Jessie, l'm not your
'.
., iervant'il,you pleaSetidy yoriroom!"Y,ou all act:as if you're guestsinrr
htl,'Af,,you tret rne as thogh'1 ws a htel mid!'As: my
Meg said, I d far too much for you.'
'
friend:
,,,,
:,.
,,,
..,1
We use as (= 'in the same way') before a subject + averb. We don't normally use
/e here. @ut see the note on informal English and American English below.)
Do as I say!(Nor Do like I say.)
Your clothes are all ouer the floor again, just as I expected.
,4s if and as though both mean the same. We use them before a subject + a verb to
say that two things are similar.
You act qs if (on as though) you're guests in a hotel.
We sometimes use a past tense form after as if/as thoughwhen

'about
the present:
we're talking
You treat me as thoughlroas (on were) o hotel maid.

We use the past tense form (roas) here to show how unreal the idea is. (Sue isn't
a
hotel maid.) we can arso use were ro emphasise this unreality.
o But if the speaker thinks that something is real, he or she can use the present
tense.
You act as if you,re guests in a hotel.
(Sue really thinks they behave like guests at a hotel!)
o In informal English, we often use /ifte instead of as, as if/as though.
Like is often used here in American English too.
like my hiend Meg sord (= As my friend Meg said)
You all act lihe you're guests in a hotel. (= as if you,re guests)
o We often use cs if/as though with a verb of perception (took, feet, seem, eIc.)
See Unit 33.
ctlrcK euESrioNS
Put in as or as if.
1 Sue wants Darren to do ... she says.
2 Jessie acts ... her mother is her servant.
3 They treat the house ... it's a hotel.
ot as?
Sue works as a machinist during the day. In the evenings and at
weekends she works as a mother and a housekeeper. lhe says she works
like a slave, and her family treat the house like a hotel. when she has
time she reads romantic novels. she uses them as an escape from reality.
r,
As can be used as a preposition followed by a noun. But it doesn't have the same
meaning as like + a noun. we use as to say what someone or something really is. we
use llfte to compare things or people:
During the day she works as a machinist. (She is a machinist.)
Her family treat the house like a hotel. (Ihe house isn't a hotel.)
o
IlECK QLlESTIONS
Put in lihe or qs.
AA/5WRs TO
HFCK QIJISTIO.]IS
1,2AND3
We also use os when we talk about the role or function of something.

She uses them as on escape from reality.
Is their house a hotel? No, but they treat

Sue works in a factory... a machinist.
Meaning A: lt's like this. I work like a slave.

The house is like a pig-sty. Other women Iike
me. lt's like having two full-time jobs.
Meaning B: like an air-hostess. like making
beds.
it
... a
hotel.
2 las 2asif
3 llike 2as
3asif
90
Although Britain isnt a very important country, the English language is
very important all over the world. Nearly 400 million people speak
English as their first language. English isn't the most widely used
language in the world though. Mandarin (Northern ehinese) is spken
by 580 million people. But, in spite of being the most widely-used
language, it isn't spoken by many people outside China.
Even though there are about S0O,OOO words in English, many English
speakers only use about 5,000. Learning a foreign language is difficult,
but, in spite of the diff iculty, more and more people are starting to
learn English every year. They can try to learn 800,000 words if they
want to, though they only need to know about 2,000 to speak English
quite welll
Step
Although, though, even though and in spite of

o
We use the link words although, though, euen though to join two parts of a
sentence. We use them to contrast two statements.
Although Britain isn't a uery important country, the English language is uery
important all ouer the world.
(Contrast: Britain isn't important eur the English language is.)
We use euen though when the contrast is particularly strong.

Eaen though there ore about 800,000 words in English, many English speakers only
use about 5,000.
(big contrast: 800,000 5,000)

'
Wecan usethough instead oialthough.
They can try to learn 800,000 words, though they only need to know about 2,000.
We can use though (Nor although) at the end of a sentence.

It isn't the most widely-used language in the world though.
(= But it isn't the most widely-used language in the world.)
In spite o/is usually followed by a noun, a pronoun or the -lng form of a verb.
In spite of the difficulty, more and more people are starting to learn English
eery year.
(= although it's difficult, more and more people ...)
In spite of being the most widely used language, it isn't spoken by many people
outside China.
(= although it's the most widely-used language)
We can also use the expression in spite of the fact that.

it's the most widely used language,
people outside China.
In spite of the fact that
it isn't spoken
by many
Rewrite the sentences using although and though.

1 In spite of the fact that I'm not very good at languages, I want to learn English.
2 English isn't easy to learn, in spite of being a very useful language. English isn't
3 But thousands of people learn it. Thousands ...
...
Step 2
Because, since and so

Many people from Europe and South America go to the USA because
they need to do business there. And, since they have to speak to
Americans, they have to learn English.
English is impoitant because it's the language of business and science.
As75% of all business letters in the world are written in English, it's
easy to see why business people want to learn it.
English is used for air and sea communications, so airline pilots and
ships' officers have to learn it too.
But the importance of English is a problem for many British and
American people. They think everybody in the world should speak
English, so they refuse to learn any foreign languages!
We use the link word s because, slnce and os when we want to say why we do
something or why something happens.

We normally :use because to give the reason, and the because clause usually comes
at the end.
We normally use since and os when the reason is already known. Snce and os mean
the same.
Many people from Europe and South America go to the USA becsuse they need to
do business there.
And since (on as) they haue to speak to Americans, they haue to learn English.
We use the link word so to talk about the result of an action or situation.
They think euerybody in the world should speak English, so they refuse to learn any
foreign languages!
(For other link words see Units 40, 87 and 88.)
CHF(K OIJESTION' 2
A,rysWFRs IO
(I.If CK QUESTION5
1 AND2
294
Make single sentences, asingbecause, since or so.

I Air communications are in English. Airline pilots must learn it.
2 Many people in Europe want to work abroad. They have to learn a foreign
language.
3 Many British and American people won't learn foreign languages. They think
everybody should speak English.
't
1 Although l'm not very good at languages,

want to learn English. 2 English sn't easy to
learn although/though it's a very useful
language. 3 Thousands of people learn it
though.
1 Since/As air communications are in English,

airline pilots must learn it. on Air
communications are in English, so airline pilots
must learn it. 2 Many people in Europe want
to work abroad, so they have to learn a foreign
language. 3 Many British and American
people won't learn foreign languages because
they think everybody should speak English.
tl:t""rr"
Bernard Thomas is from Cariacou, a small island which is part

West lndis.,Heiscome to Britain'to f ive'with a cousin who's got : ,.-: -.
in Leeds, His cousin's tettihg 6* about tlle p-eopie who live in h!s_street,
'You must meet Betty.'
'w.lB;i;y;;
--
'
,She,stheonewhotookslikeMargaretThatcher.,
'Who's Margaret Thatcher?'
rshe'sthe'wman who was Prime Ministef i the 80s. Betty's'very
patr.iotic. Shet got a doorbelI whith plays th National'Anthem whqn
'
: .'
yu presS ittlAni then there's Tom Marchant'' ' :
Tom Marchant?'
'Whot
,He,s
th guy that or" to play football for Manchester nited, l9,t 1!.
on" *ho ivs at number z3.ihe house that's pantd red'ahd'white''
Who/that for people Which/that for things

He's come to liue with a cousin who's got a flat in Leeds'
*io,, go, o flat in Leedsis a relative clause. A relative clause identifies a person or a
thing.ihe clause who's got a flat in Leeds identifies the cousin.
o We use the relative pronoun who forpeople, and whichfor things'
She's the one uho tooks like Margaret Thatcher'
o doorbell uhich plays the National Anthem
BUrweoftenuseftaf instead of whoanduhich'

She's the one
thqt
looks like Margaret Thatcher'
a doorbell that ptays the National Anthem

united,
He's the guy tnai @iwho) used to ptay footbalt for Manchester
the hous that's (oxwhich is) painted red and white

With people, we use whomore often than fhaf'
With things we use thatmore often than uhich'
Step 1')
Note: Sometimes we must use who and which, nol that' (See Unit 93
CHECK QUESTIONS
Put in a relative Pronoun.

1 Bernard's the man ... has just arrived from Cariacou'
2 Cariacou's an island ... is north ol the South American coast'
3 Bernard's got a brother ..' lives in Leeds'
4 His brother lives in a house '.. was built in the 1920s'
which, that as objects,

Bernard,s cousin lrvin has lived in England forfifteen years.
I earn' The
'1 like the.iob that t'u" got.:r can live uite welf on the mo'ney
but
married,
toget
like
ird
iriendlV.
r"ry
rif i"
people wo r know
"i
most of the women I meet have alrady got a husband!.I really liked.a
Ther:e's one thing
iiii*"i,i^ a pub the other day, but shb Was'married.
Caribbean:sun.'
the
t'miss
weatherl
T-he
rri.rr I ion't iike in England.
Who, which, that can be the subject of the relative clause.

She's the uoman usho was Prime Minister. (She was Prime Minister.)
We can't leave out who, which, thathere.
Who, which, that can also be the object of the relative clause.
I like the job thot I'ue gof. (l've gol the job.)
The people uho I know at work are uery friendly. ( know the people.)
There's one thing uhich I don't like in England. Q don't llke one thing.)
When ro, which, thqt are the object, we can leave them out. We usually leave them
out in informal spoken English. We prefer to say:
I like the job I'ue got. The people I know at work are hiendly.
There's one thing I don't like in England.
We can use whom when the object is a person.

The people whom I know ot work ore ery friendly.
But whom is very formal and rarely used in conversation. We usually leave out the
pronoun, or we use lo instead.

the people (who) I know
CHCR QUTSf IONS 2
Step 3
Which relative pronouns are left out?

I The women Irvin meets are usually married.
2 The thing Irvin misses is the Caribbean sun.
Prepositions in relative clauses. The man I spoke to.
lrvin's making,plans,for-$ernard, ttil,l take you to the clu'b l go to. And

you must meet the friends I play football with. We must find you a job
too. The company I work for is looking for a truck driver. l'll ask Gary
Miller about it, Hg-ls,tlre man !,spoke to, last night in the club; W could
atk Tom M.archant to-You know the rnarl:ttold you about, He ons,a
When we use verbs followed by a preposition, the preposition usually comes at

the end of a relative clause.
(l go to a club.)
I'll take you to the club I go to
(l play football with friends.) You must meet the friends I play football uith.
The company I work for.
Q work for a company.)
o In very formal English we can put the preposition before whom or which.
He's the mon to whom I spoke last night in the club.
He might haue a job for which you can apply.
But in conversation we prefer to say:
He's the man I spohe to last night in the club.
He might haue a job you can apply for.
.!1ECK QUTSTIONS 3
A/VSWERS TO
.i1ECK QUESTIONS
1,2AND3
Make relative clauses ending with a preposition.

I (lrvin works for a company.) Britex is the company...
2 (fhey're looking for a truck driver.) Bernard might be the man
1 who (preferable to that)

3 who (preferable to that)
'1
that/who
2 that/which
2 that/which
4 that/which
...
1 Britex is the company he works for.

2 Bernard might be the man they're looking for.
92
Helen Gore's 17. She's left school but she hasnlt got a job. She's bored.
'The town where I live hasn't got anything for young people. We need a
club where we can go and meet friends. Somewhere where we can play
music and have a drink. It's boring here. I want to leave. I want to go
where I can get a job. I want to live where I can have more fun.'
Where in relative clauses
We use the relative pronoun where to describe places:
the toun where I liue ('where I live' describes the town)

We need e club where e con go and meet friends.
o We can also use where wilhout identifying the place it describes.
I want to go uhere I cln get a job.
I wont to liue uhere I can haue more fun.
Here, where = to a place/in a place where.
Sometimes we can leave out where and add a preposition to the verb.
the town uhere I liue op.the town I liue

aHtcK QUtsf taNs
Step 2
in
Rewrite the sentences, using uthere.

I The lownHelen liues in is boring.
2 She wants to be in a place where il's possible to find
job.
Whose in relative clauses

'l donlt like living in a town where people are always talking about '
their neighbours. When they see someone in the street they say: 'She's
the woman whose husband ran off with the doctor's wife. He's the man
whose daughter the police arrested for selling drugs. He lives in the
house whose curtains are always drawn. He's the owner of a company
: whose workers are ery badly paid, and.so on and so on. They're only
We often use the possessive word whose in relative clauses. It's always followed
by a noun. It can be the subject or object of the verb. It can't be left out.
the woman uhose husband ran off with the doctor's wife
(Subject: Her husband ran off with the doctor's wife.)
the man whose daughter the police arrested (Object: The police arrested her.)
o We use whose mostly for people.
the mqn ushose daughter the police arrested
But it can also be used for things.
the house uhose curtains are always drawn
a compqny uhose workers are Dery badly paid

Don't confuse: uhose and who's (=who is or who has)
That's the man who's (= who is) the manager of the supermarket.
299
CTTECK
QUISTIONS 2
Make a single sentence, using roftose.

1 She's the woman. Her dog attacked the postman.
2 He's the man. I saw his young son drinking whis in the pub.
3 She owns the house. Its garden looks like a jungle.
What in relative clauses

what I think, And that's what worries me' l'm
going to leave soon. I can't find what I want here. what l'd really like to
o islive in London. I can do everything I want there. But I haven't got
enough money. what I need is a job. But what's difficult is finding one.'
'This townls dead. That's
thing(s) that'. It can be used as the subject

or object of a verb.
I can't find what I want here. (Obiect = the things that I want)
that's whqt worries me (Subject: = the thing that worries me)
a we can start a sentence wilh whatlfwe want to emphasise something.
What I'd really like to do is liue in London.
(= I'd like to live in London. That's the important thing.)
What I need is a job. (= I need a job. That's the important thing')
what's difficutt is finding a job. (= Finding a job is the most difficult thing')
Note that we don't use uhaf afte r euerything and all. (See Unit 6l Step I .)
I can do eaerything I uant there.
(Nor everything what I want)
o The relative pronoun what means 'the
CHECK QUESIJONS 3
AIVSWERS TO
(.HLCK QUESTIONS
1,2 AND 3
300
Rewrite the sentences, using uhat.

1 The town can't give her the things she needs.
2 The thing she wants to do is go to London.
3 The thing that's difficult is that she hasn't got enough money'
1 The town where Helen lives is boring.

2 She wants to be where it's easy to find a job
1 She's the woman whose dog attacked the
postman. 2 He's the man whose young son I
saw drinking whisky in the pub. 3 She owns
the house whose garden looks like a jungie.
1 The town can't Sive her what she needs.

2 What she wants to do is go to London.
3 What's difficult is that she hasn't got enough
money.
93
' ;' " :
ick Rimmr' and h iswife are]ooking: at the'bo'ats in' the'mari 'f '',
....
Portsmouth.
:'
:,
1tok !'fht the man who's'plann in g tOiiai'l' rlo nd,the world, And
that;s'ihe'boat he :built himself, theine thatls pa i nte6 i*a .hd,,whit'' :
And the other man must be the man he's going with.'
Later that evening they heard this report on the local radio:
lOurlreporter'wai-atthe rnar'|na this iiiniig,:H:met]Sy,earold:Alan
'iileeks;rwhSrplanningto sailund'theor:td.''Ftre lo:Spoketo 73;o ' '' '
y*rl -oid e"r,rf eiks, Who rAtant- ging with: Alanls bo!, whch.herbuilt
tirnself, is,ta liJd;,:Morning,,star; Moining \tar,which'tokAlan,five,years
','
tbuild iia lSrnnetrecatamaran.r:.1. ",'
.
Non -defini
g relative clauses
There are two types of relative clause, defining (or identifying) and non-defining'
Defining:
Thati the man who's planning to sqil round the u;orld'

Here, the relative clause identifiei 'the man'. It tells us which man the speaker's
talking about.
Non-defining:
He met 7l1,ear-old Alon weeks, who's planning to sail round _the uorld.
clause
Here, the -u., i, already identified ('7S-year-old Alan weeks') so the relative
him'
about
information
gives
extra
us
It
doesn't identify him. simply
Note that in written English we put a comma (,) before a non-defining relative
clause. If it's in the middle of a sentence we put a comma after it as well.
'Morning Star', tohich took Alan fae years to build, is a lS-metre catomaran'
We don't put a comma before a defining relative clause'
That's the man uho's planning to sail round the world'
o In defining relative clauses we can leave out who, which and haf when they're
objects. (See Unit 91.)

the man he's going uith
(= the man who (on that) he's going with)
the boat he built himself
(= the boat that (onwhich) he built himself.)
Bui in non-defining relative clauses we can't leave out who and uhich.
He spoke to Gerry Banks, toho Alan's going with'
Alan's boat, ushich he built himself, is called 'Morning Star''
o we don't use faf in non-defining relative clauses. we can't say: Alan's boat, that
he built himself, is called'Morning Star'.
CHECK AUESTIONS
Put commas Q where necesary.

1 Jack Rimmr saw the man who's going to sail round the world'
2 Alan Weeks is sailing with Gerry Banks who's a friend of his'
3 The boat that he built is called 'Morning Star'.
4 He's sailing from Portsmouth which is on the south coast o{ England.
Where/whose/which
The news report
non -defini ng relative clauses
continued:
lAlan and Geriy,'whose lifelong ambition hSbeen,to'sai[ round the

world, leave tomorrow. By this time next year they hope to be back in
Por:tsrnouth; where ihey're sure to receive a hero's,relcome.:Their trip
is sponsored by Barclay's Bank, who Alan used to work for. The bank
have sent Alan a card, which they've written a good luck message on.
Alan and Gerry are gping'to be. away for a long timg, which wll be
difficutt for their families. But Majory Weeks, Alnfs wife; said Jast .,
inigh-+:"'They-'re boih doing something'they've lways wa-ted to do,
which is marvellous." '
We can also use where and whose in non-defining relative clauses .

Alan and Gerry, u:hose lifelong ambition has been to sail round the uorld,
leaue tomorrow.
By this time next yeor they hope to be b(tck in Portsmouth, uhere they're sure to
receiae a hero's welcome.
o In formal English we can use whom and. which after a preposition in a nondef ining relative clause.
Their trip is sponsored by Barclay's Bank, for whom Alan used to worh.
The bank haue sent o card, on
which they'ue written a message.
But in informal English we normally say:

Their trip is sponsored by Barclay's Bank, uho Alqn used to work for.
The bank heue sent a card, which they'ue written q messoge on.
Which can refer to a whole clause.

They're going to be away for a long time, which will be difficult for their families.
They're both doing something they'ue always wanted to do, uhich is maruellous.
Note: We use which here, ruor ohaf.
(Hf(K
OUESTIONS 2
Make single sentences, using relative clauses.

I That's Alan Weeks. I spoke to him this morning.
2 That's his boat 'Morning Star'. He's going to sail round the world on it.
3 The two men are over 70. This is amazing.
ANSWERS TO
:HECK QUESTIONS
1 AND2
1 )ack Rimmer saw the man who's going to sail
round the world. 2 Alan Weeks is sailing with

Cerry Banks, who's a friend of his. 3 The boat
that he built is called 'Morning Star'. 4 He's
sailing from Portsmouth, whlch is on the south
coast of England.
That's Alan Weeks, who I spoke to this
morning. on (formal) That's Alan Weeks, to

whom I spoke this morning. 2 That's his boat
Morning Star, which he's going to sail round
the world
on.
on (formal) That's his boat
Morning Star, on which he's going to sail round

the world. 3 The two men are over 70, whlch
is amazing.
303
94
A woman coming out of the Midland Bank in Tonbridge High Street
was attacked this morning by two people carrying knives. Mrs Amy
Hyde of Church Street, Tonbridge lost a handbag contaning f35 in the
attack. There were several people walking past the bank at the time.
A man selling newspapers tried to help Mrs Hyde, but the attackers
stabbed him rep:eatedly before escaping in a ii'iiitin,1 1.ta end,pf
the street. The man injured in the attack has since died in hospital. A
knife found on the pavement is thought to be the weapon used in the
'
attck; There waslpriceticket,attached to the,,knife. ,.
The p,olice are looking for,a man in:h:is 20swithjeans and,a.baseball,
cap, and a young woman with long blond hair and a silver ring in her
'
n
-ose",Th e) Wre driving a b I ue Ford Escort with,a broken side wi ndow.
Anyone who saw the incident should contact the police on 0371
668453.
We can use a clause with the -ing form of a verb to say what someone or
something is doing or was doing.

A woman coming out of the Midlctnd Bank
(= who was coming out)
She was attacked by two people
(= who were
carrying kniues.
carrying)
We can also use it to describe a situation that exists or existed.

a handbag containing 535 (= that contained)
The -rng form is often used wilh There is/qre/was/were.
There usere seueral people ualhing past the bank at the time.
Note that these clauses are similar to relative clauses, but we must use a full
relative clause for a completed action in the past.
Anyone who sqw the incident
(Nor Anyone seeing the incident)
CHECK QUTSTIANS
Make single sentences, using the -ing form.

1 A woman was attacked this morning. She was doing her shopping.
2 A young man stole her handbag. He was wearing a baseball cap.
3 He also stole a silver bracelet. It belonged to the woman.
4 There was a man near the bank. He was selling newspapers.
Clauses beginning with a past participle
we can also use a clause beginning with a past participle (iniured, used, found,
etc.). This type of clause has a passive meaning.
The man injured in the attach has since died. (= who was injured)
A knife found on the pauement is thought to be the weapon used in the attack.
(= that was found; that was used)
o A past participle is often used after There is/are/was/were.
There was a price ticket attached to the knife.
Make single sentences, using a past participle.
I They escaped in a car. It was parked at the end of the street.
2 The woman is Mrs Amy Hyde. She was attacked by the thieves.
3 The money hasn't been found. It was stolen from Mrs Hyde.
CHTCK QUES-TIONS 2
Step 3
With used to identify people and things

o
We can use a noun + with lo describe the physical features or possessions of
someone or something.
a man in his 20s withieans and a baseball cap
(= who was wearing jeans and a baseball cap)
a young uomon with long btond hqir and a silaer ring in her nose
(= who had long blond hair and a silver ring in her nose)
a blue Ford Escort utith a brohen side uindow
(= that had a broken side window)
Make single sentences, using urifft.
1 A man attacked Mrs Hyde. He had short dark hair.
2 Laler the police found an empty handbag' It had blood on it.
3 A boy was walking past the bank at the time of the attack. He had a dog'
CHECK QUfSI/ONS 3
A,rysWERs
IO
CHECK QUESTIONS
1,2AND3
1 A woman doing her shopping was attacked

this morning. 2 A young man wearing a
baseball cap stole her handbag. 3 He also stole
a silver bracelet belonging to the woman.
4 There was a man near the bank selling
newspapers.
1 They escaped in a car parked at the end of
the street. 2 The woman attacked by the
306
thieves is Mrs Amy Hyde. 3 The money stolen

from Mrs Hyde hasn't been found.
1 A man with short dark hair attacked Mrs
Hyde. 2 Later the police found an empty
handbag with blood on it. 3 A boy with a dog
was walking past the bank at the time of the
attack.
(For the use of phrasal verbs, see Unit 32.)

to break down My car brohe doutn and I had to walk home'
The United States has brohen off diplomatic relations with Cuba.
to break off
and Gemma haue brohen up; Gemma uants a diuorce.
Andy
up
to break
My father brought me up; my mother died uhen I was uery young.
to bring up
to burn*dwn Hls house burned down last week and he lost euerything.
I',ll call in to see JoannT on my woy home this eoening.
to call in
The party carried on till 3 a.m.
to carry on
St0,000 has been stolen. The potice are carrying out an inestigation'
to carr| out
Don't uait for me. I'll catch you up'
to catch up
a) The weather's clearing up b) Your bedroom's in a mess. Clear it up!
ui
clear
to
to close dbwn The factory has closed down so I'ue lost my iob'
to come back I'ue been to Greece. I cqme backyesterday'
next yeor
a) The button's come off. b) If my ptan !9m9y.off, I'll be liuing in Hawaii
to come off
tomorrolU'
out
book
comes
new
His
1 Wnrt ti^" can you come out tonight? b)
to come out
to come round He came round to see me yesterday'
You hauen't spelt the address correctly. Cross it out and write it again'
to cross out
You must smoke less'
to cut down a) Th:iybe ,it ott the trees doun. A) Cut doun your smoking'
paid
bill.
his
hadn't
he
because
fney iut off his electricity
to cut off
They didn't show the whole fitm on w. They cut out the uiolent scenes'
to cut out
I'ue bought an old house in the country; l'm going to do it up.
io do ,rp
Drop ii and see me any time. You don't need to phone firstto drop in
plans to go to New York haue fallen through' I haen't got enough money'
to fall through
" My
Cn you fillln this form, please, and sign your nome at the bottom'
to fill in
I
don't know where he liues, but I'll find out and tell you his address.
to find out
The police ran after the thief, but he got quqy'
to get away
We ieaue at T a.m. and we get back at 6 this euening. (= c.ome back)
i E"t nu.t
She's getting on ery well at college. Her results a.re good.
i Eet on
to let through I'm triing tlphone her, but I can't get through. The line's engaged.
I get uP at 7 euerY morning.
to get up
to !i,r" rvuy ln't uant my old bike any more' so I gaoe it auay
to [ive Uac I lent him some CDs, but he hasn't giuen them backyet.
to the crime'
The potlice question'ed him for thre hours, until he gaoe in snd.Qdmitted
to [ive in
class'
the
of
member
each
to
one
Giue
gitse
out?
books
the
Can-you
to five out
I gaae up the piano two yeors ago' I play -the-.guitar nou'
to [ive up
(=
a holiday)
a\ Go away! I don't want to talto y:ou." b) Iln going away for a week. for
i Eo u*i,
hours'
for
thre'e
on
The meeting uent
to go on
g Gry weit out at 7 and I hauen't seen him since then. b) The lights suddenly went out'
io o out
The price of petrol has gone up again'
to go ,p
My i2-year-old son wants to be an architect when he grotos up.
to [.o* up
When I arriued at the hotel I had to hqnd in my passport.
to and in
ooer all the money'
to hand over A man with o gun uent into the bank and asked them to hand
me
up'
held
I'm sorry I'm late. The traffic
to hold up
My chitdren keep on asking me to stop smoking'
to keep on
They built a fenie round th camp to keep olt! tle wild animals.
to keep out
down by a car'
to knotk down a) Tney'ue hnoched down the old church. b) She was hnocked
'that'
ouL
leaae
You
can
'The
I
bought'.
that
car
soy
haue
to
You dn't
to leave out
Mrs Reeues is at the door. Can you let her in, please?
to let in
I thought the traffic warden wa"s going to giue me a parking ticket, but she let me off'
ro let off
to look round I thought t heard someone behind me, so I loohed round'
up the new words in a
:o look up
Q Tn:ry ail tooked up when I came into the room. b) Looh
diclionorYHe's uery inuentiue. He mqkes up stories to tell his children.
:o make up
I lent him 550, but he hasn't paid me backyet
: r pay bak
313
to pick up
to put away
to put down
to put off
to put on
to put out
to put through
(telephone)
to put up
to see off
to set out
to set up
to settle down
to show off
to stay up
to switch off
to switch on
to take down
to take off
to take over
to take up
to talk over
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
think over
throw away
to
to
to
to
wear off
wear out
wipe out
work out
try on
try out
turn down
turn off
turn on
turn out
turn over
turn up
a) I'ue dropped my pen. Can you pick it up for me? b) I'll pick you up ot the airport at 8.
Put your books away. Don't leque them on the table.
uase doun. You might drop it.
a) They'ue put the motch off till next Saturday. b) I didn't buy it. The price put me off.
a) Put a coot on. It's cold outside. b) He put the radio on to listen to the neus.
The fire brigade came and put the fire ouL
Put that
Do you uont to speak to Mrs Hill? I'll put you through to her office.
a) The hotels qre full. I'll put you up for the night. b) They'ue put up the price of beer again.
When he left for Austrelia, his whole family come to the airport to see him off.
If we set out early, we should get to London by eleuen o'clock.
The Japanese houe set up a new computer compony in England.
Settle down, euerybody, and listen. I want to talk to you.
Jock's always showing off, He loues being the centre of attention.
I stayed up uery lote. I didn't go to bed till 2 a.m.
Switch the teleuision off. I don't uant to watch it any more.
Suitch the lights on. I can't see a thing.
I uant to paint your bedroom, so you'll houe to take all your posters dousn.
a) The plane took off at 11.30. b) It was ho so I tooh my sweoter off.
a) I'll tahe oaer the driuing if you're tired. b) A US company has taken oaer our firm.
a) It's too big. It tahes up too much room. b) Tahe up yoga, if you uant to be heolthy.
I can't decide now. I'll haue to talh it oaer with my wife first.
You don't haue to tell me nou. Why don'tyou think it ooer ond tell me tomorrow?
Don't throut that old painting away. It might be ualuable.
I like this blue sweqter. Can I try it on?
I'ue just bought a neu surfboard. I'm going to try it out this afternoon.
a) I applied for a job, but they turned me doun. b) Turn the rqdio doun. It's too loud.
Don't forget to turn the lights off before you go to bed. (= switch/put off)
Turn the teleuision on. There's a good film on. (= switch/put on)
I didn't like my neu teacher at first, but she turned out to be uery nice.
Turn the steak ooer. It's done on that side.
a) He was late. He turned. up at 7 o'clocft. b) Turn the W up. I can't hear it.
His tooth was painful when the anaesthetic uore off.
He walked across India. He uore out fiue pairs of shoes!
The poisonous gas utiped out the whole uillage. Eueryone uas killed.
285 x 46? Giue me the calculator. I can't u:ork it out in my heod.
Phrasal-prepositional verbs
to be up to
a) The job's too difficult for Anna. She isn't up to it.
b) I can't help you any more. It's up to you now.
to catch up with I'm not ready yet. Why don't you leaue now and I'll catch up roith you.
to come up to I was stonding on the corner when a mon came up to me and asked me the uay to the
station.
to fall out with Gemma's fallen out with her boyfriend. They don't speak to each other any more.
to get on with a) 'Do you get on uith your parents?' 'No. We argue a lot.'
b) I can't talk to you for long, beceuse I must get on utith my work.
to go off with Jack's father left his wife and uent off with another woman when Jack was six.
to keep up with a) Don't walk so fast! I can't keep up toith you.
b) Danny always reeds the local neuspaper. He likes to keep up toith all the local news.
to look
forward to
I'm loohing foruard to seeing my girlfriend tomorrow. I hauen't seen her for three weeks.
to look out for Zoe said she might be in town this morning. We must looh out for her.
to put up with My neighbours play loud music all night. I can't put up nsith the noise any more. I'm
to run out
314
of
going to tetl the police.

I rqn out of petrol in town this morning, and I had to push the car to a garoge.
(For adjectives + preposition
o bad, brilliant,
the -lng form of a verb, see Unit 50.)
good, hopeless, useless
He's uery good at chess, but he's useless
lr
at ball games.
o amazed, surprised, shocked ar/sv

I was really surprised at (on y) her reaction. She was furious!
o excited, upset, worried aeour

I'm really excited about the holiday. She's upset about her mother's death. Don't be worried about me!
o disappointed, happy, pleased aeour (a situation) (See wrrr-r.)
He's got a new job. He's uery pleqsed about it, but his wife isn't happy qbout mouing house.
o angry, annoyed, cross ABour (something)/wrrH (someone)
Someone stole her car; she's uery annoyed about it. My father's uery angry about my exam results.
Pleose don't get angry usith me. She's uery cross with her brother because he broke her Walkman.
. sorryABour/ron
I'm sorry about the broken uase. I'll buy you onother one.
I feel sorry for Jenny. She's hed o uery hard life.
o
It's
difficult, easy, essential, important, impossible ron

difficult for people to find jobs. It's impossible for me to come because I hauen't got a car.
famous, late, responsible non
'What's Shakespeare famous for?' 'He's famous for the plays he wrote.'
There was a traffic jam, so I was lqte for work and the children were late for school.
I broke the lamp, but I'm not responsible for the broken window.
o different rxoxt (different rois possible, but it is considered less 'correct')

I can't use this disk because your computer is different from mine.
o
interested, involved
IN
.Work3 uery interested in photography. Gemma was inaolaed
in a serious road accident last week.
o careless, clever, good, kind, nice, sensible, silly, stupid, unreasonable, wrong oF
It was good of you to come. It was stupid of the man to driue at 110 k.p.h. through the uillage.
o afraid, ashamed, aware, fond, frightened, jealous, proud, scared, tired op
\(rs White's uery proud of her children. I'm scqred of heights. She's asham ed of what she did.
o full, short, capable on
The room's full of people. He's just won a million pounds, so he'll neuer be short of money.
.\[aria lost all her matches this year. She's capable of better results.
o
o
keen oN She loues uolleyball and she's uery heen on tennis too.
cruel, good, kind, nice, rude, unkind ro

me. Don't be rude to your mother!
r engaged, married ro
Is Rick mq.mied to Anna?' 'No , he's only engaged to her.'
r related, similar ro
':our stDeeter's similar to the one I bought. 'Are you relqted to him?'
The nurses uere uery good. to
'Yes, he's
my cousin.'
bored, fed up wnn

, m bored uith my job and I'm fed up with the people I work with.
o disappointed, pleased, satisfied wru (a person, a thing)
lhe players are d.isappointed with their performance, and the manager isn't pleased
uith
them.
315
(For verbs + preposition
with
for
apply for
approve of
argue with
ask for
believe in
belong to
care about
care for
agree
apologise
complain abouf
complain to
/about
concentrate
consist of
decide on
on
depend on
die of
dream about
happen to
hear about
hear from
hear of
hope for
laugh at
listen to
live on
look after
look at
look for
pay for
refer to
rely on
run into
search
for
shout at
shout to
suffer from
talk about
talk to
about
of
wait for
write to
think
think
the -lng form, see Unit 50.)
Yes, you're right. I agree uith you.

I apologised for my mistake.
He applied for the job, but he didn't get .

Her parents don't approae of her boyfriend.
Don't argue with me! Do os I tell you!
Con
you ash for another bottle of wine?
Do you belieoe in ghosts?

'Whose is this umbrellq?' 'lt belongs to Jack.'
He doesn't care qbout his family. They aren't important to him.
Old Mrs White liues alone. She needs help. She hasn't got anyone to care for her.
The music ot the party was a bit loud. The neighbours complained qbout the noise.
My hotel room was dirty. I complqined to the manager qbout it.

I don't like carphones. You can't concentrq.te on your driuing if you're using a phone.
The United Kingdom conssfs of England, Scotland, Wales ond Northern lrelond.
They could buy a new car or haue an expensiue holiday. They decided on q neu) car.
'Can we go to the beach tomorrow?' I don't know. It depend.s on the weather.'
Both my parents died of cancer.
I had a strange dream last night. I dreamt about my birth.
What's happened to Jenny? I haen't seen her all day.
Haue you heqrd about James? He was in a car accident yesterday.
She went to Australiq o year ogo. I hauen't heard. from her since. She hasn't written.
'Haue you heqrd of a restaurant colled'The Hotpot'?' 'No, I'ue neuer heq.rd of it.'
Daniel said he'd contoct me today. I'm hoping for a telephone call this morning.
When I dyed my hair green, euerybody laughed at me. They thought I looked ridiculous.
Don't turn the rqdio off. I'm listening to the news.
He isn't uery healthy. He liaes on junk food.
I can't come out tonight. I'ue got to looh after my baby brother.
'What are you loohing at?' 'l'm loohing at that man with the dog.'
'What are you loohing for?' 'l'm loohing for my credit card. I can't find it anywhere.'
'l'ue only got 55.' 'Don't worry. I'll pay for the tickets.'
The newspaper report refers to a bank robbery in London on Tuesday.
Emily will be here on time. You can rely on her. She's neuer late.
I had an accident in my car. I rqn into a lorry. (on I crashed into a lorry.)
The police are searching for two men who robbed a bank.
He shouts qt me when he gets angry.
I saw Henry in the High Street. I shouted to him, but he didn't hear me.
He suffers from high blood pressure.
I met Nick in town. He w(ts talking about his new job.
Haue you got a minute? I'd like to talh to you.
'You look worried. Whot are you thinhing about?' 'l'm thinhing about my exams.'
'What do you think of Emmo's new boyfriend?' 'He seems quite nice.'
I'll see you at about 8. I'll uait for you outside the restourant.
Don't forget to urite to me when you're on holidoy.
Note that the following verbs are not followed by a preposition:

approach We were approaching London when the train suddenly stopped.
enter
Suddenly a policeman entered the room.
expect
I don't think the hotel will be full. We don't expect many people in October.
phone
I'll phone you when I get to the airport.
reach
It was about 7.30 when we reached London.
316

Grammar in Steps

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Grammar in Steps

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lntroduction

Questions and answers

Question lags: You're English, aren't you? 65

Modals and auxliary verbs

26 Can, could, may, wouldinrequests, offers and invitations 82

Other verb constructions

Phrasal verbs: He took off his coat 102

Verb + direct object/indirect object: I sent him a

lf clauses and other conditionals

infinitive and the -ing torm

42 The infinitive of purpose In order to So that, so 133

60 Much, many, a lot, plenty, (uery) little, (uery) few A little, a

The use and position of adjectives 227

of manner and degree: slowly, uery 241

o habits or regular activities and situations.

o facts and attitudes

that are generally or always true.

don't hqae qn easy life. Sarah likes nursing.

continuous: Look! It's roining.

Which sentences describe a regular activity or an attitude?

The present simple: affirmative/positive forms

Complete the sentences, using the present simple.

The present simple: negative and question forms

Does he/she/it work?

Complete the sentences, using the present simple.

Paul has a shower every morning. She loves

1 Where does Paul live? 2 Paul doesn't work

The present continuous for actions in progress

Are these things happening now in the situation above? Answer

Forms of the present continuous

Note: The negative has two possible forms.

Yes, I am. oR No, I'm not.

is. on No, he's not/he isn't.

Yes, we are. oR No, we're not/we aren't.

Are you working?

o Note the spelling changes before -lng.

(See also Appendix 3.)

Put the verb into the present continuous.

in the present continuous

Which sentences are incorrect?

I James is being in his bedroom at the moment. 2 He's playing a computer

We often use the present continuous to talk about a temporary activity or

Write sentences using always and the present continuous.

You (go) out in the evening!

The present continuous with future meaning

Dad: What are you doing tonight, Jessie?

Complete the conversation.

1 No. 2 Yes. 3 No. 4 No.

1B 2A 3A 48 5You're always going out in

Liz Rix is working for a year on a Greenpeace ship in the Mediterranean.

Things happening now oR things happening repeatedly?

Choose the correct verb form.

Temporary situations oR more permanent situations?

We use the present continuous to talk about

temporary actions or situations.

At the moment, I'm u;orking with Thor Suensen.

Answer the questions.

o The verbs look (= someone's

appearanc e), feel (= sensation s), hurt can be used in

the simple or the continuous form. The meaning is the same.

Complete the sentences.

1 is writlng 2 reads 3 come

knows 2 doesn't have 3 feels/is feeling

'What are you doing for your birthday, Jake?'