PHYS 652: Astrophysics

20

Lecture 5: Solutions of Friedmann Equations

A man gazing at the stars is proverbially at the mercy of the puddles in the road.
Alexander Smith
The Big Picture: Last time we derived Friedmann equations a closed set of solutions of
Einsteins equations which relate the scale factor a(t), energy density and the pressure P for flat,
open and closed Universe (as denoted by curvature constant k = 0, 1, 1). Today we are going to
solve Friedmann equations for the matter-dominated and radiation-dominated Universe and obtain
the form of the scale factor a(t). We will also estimate the age of the flat Friedmann Universe.
From the definition of the Hubble rate H in eq. (72)
H

a
a

(102)


H = H 2 + = H 2 1 2
a
H a

H 2 (1 + q) ,

(103)

we define a deceleration parameter q as

q

.
H 2a

(104)

Non-relativistic matter-dominated Universe is modeled by dust approximation: P = 0.

Then, from eq. (95), we have
a
4G
+
= 0,
(105)
a
3
and, in terms of H
H 2 q +

4G
= 0.
3

(106)

3H 2
q.
4G

(107)

Therefore
=
Then the first Friedmann equation becomes
 2
8G
k
a

= 2,
a
3
a
k
H 2 2H 2 q = 2 ,
a

(108)

so
k = a2 H 2 (1 2q).

(109)

Since both a 6= 0 and H 6= 0, for flat Universe (k = 0), q = 1/2 (q > 1/2 for k = 1 and q < 1/2 for
k = 1). When combined with eq. (107), this yields critical density
cr =

3H 2
,
8G

20

(110)

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

21

the density needed to yield the flat Universe. Currently, it is (see eq. (73))

2
2 
1 year
h
3
2
10
360024365 sec
g
g
0.9810 years
3H0
=
= 1.87 1029 h2
1029
.
cr =
8G
8 (6.67 108 cm3 g1 s2 )
cm3
cm3
(We used h 0.72 0.02.)
It is important to note that the quantity q provides the relationship between the density of the
Universe and the critical density cr (after combining eqs. (107) and (109)):

q=
.
(111)
2cr
The second Friedmann equation (eq. (101b)) for the matter-dominated Universe becomes
+ 3

a
a

= 0

a3 + 3aa
2 = 0

d 3

a =0
dt

a3 = a30 0 = const.

(112)

Radiation-dominated Universe is modeled by perfect fluid approximation with P = 13 .

The second Friedmann equation (eq. (101b)) becomes


1
a
a
+ 3 +
= + 4 = 0
3
a
a
d 4

a =0

a4 = a40 0 = const.
(113)
a4 + 4aa
3 = 0

dt

Flat Universe (k = 0, q0 = 12 )
Matter-dominated (dust approximation): P = 0, a3 = const.
The first Friedmann equation (eq. (101a)) becomes
a 2
8G  a0 3
=
0
a2
3r
a
r
Z
2
da
8G0 a30 1
8G0 a30
1/2
3/2

a
da
=
=
a
+
K
=
t. (114)

dt
3
3
3
a1/2

At the Big Bang, t = 0, a = 0, so K = 0. Upon adopting convention a0 = 1, and the fact

that the Universe is flat 0 = cr , we finally have
a = (6G0 )1/3 t2/3 = (6Gcr )1/3 t2/3



1/3
1/3

9H02
3H0 2/3 2/3
3H02
2/3
2/3
t =
t =
=
6G
t .
8G
4
2

(115)

where we have used the eq. (110) in the second step. From here we compute the age of the
Universe t0 , which corresponds to the Hubble rate H0 and the scale factor a = a0 = 1 to be:
t0 =
Taking H0 =

h
0.981010 years

t0 =

2
.
3H0

(116)

and h 72, we get

2 0.98 1010 years

9.1 109 years 9.1 A (aeon).
3 0.72
21

(117)

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

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Radiation-dominated: P = 31 , a4 = const.
The first Friedmann equation (eq. (101a)) becomes

8G  a0 4
a 2
0
=
a2
3r
a
da
8G0 a40 1
=
dt
3
a

ada = 2a2 + K =

8G0 a40
t.
3

(118)

Again, at the Big Bang, t = 0, a = 0, so K = 0, and a0 =1. Also 0 = cr . Therefore,

a=

2
G0
3

1/4

1/2

2
Gcr
3

1/4

1/2

2
3H 2
G 0
3
8G

1/4

1/2

H0
2

1/2

t1/2 .

(119)

Flat Friedmann Universe (k=0, q0=1/2)

a(t)

matter-dominated
radiation-dominated

Figure 2: Evolution of the scale factor a(t) for the flat Friedmann Universe.

Closed Universe (k = 1, q0 > 12 )

Matter-dominated (dust approximation): P = 0, a3 = const.
The first Friedmann equation (eq. (101a)) becomes

a 2
1
8G  a0 3
2
=
0
2
a
3r
a
a
da
8G0 a30
=
1
dt
3a

dt =

da
q

8G0 a30
3a

Rewrite the integral above in terms of conformal time given in eq. (83) (d
Z
Z
da
q
,
d =
8G0 a30
2
aa
3
22

dt
a ):

(120)

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

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and define, after substituting a0 = 1 and using eqs. (107)-(109)

A

q0
4G0
= H02 q0 =
.
3
2q0 1

(121)

Then
0 =

a
0

d
a

= sin1
2A
aa
2

aA
A

1
+ .
2

(122)

But, the requirement = 0 at a = 0 sets 0 = 0, so we have



1
aA
= sin = cos

a = A(1 cos ).
A
2

(123)

Now dt = ad, so
t t0 =

ad =

A(1 cos )d = A

(1 cos ) d = A( sin ).

(124)

But, the requirement = 0 at t = 0 sets t0 = 0. Therefore, we finally have the dependence

of the scale factor a in terms of the time t parametrized by the conformal time as:
q0
a =
(1 cos ),
(125)
2q0 1
q0
( sin ).
t =
2q0 1
Radiation-dominated: P = 31 , a4 = const.
The first Friedmann equation (eq. (101a)) becomes

a 2
1
8G  a0 4
2
=
0
a2
3r
a
a
da
8G0 a40
=
1
dt
3a2

dt =

da
q

8G0 a30
3a2

Again, rewrite the integral above in terms of conformal time and quantity A1 =


Z a
d
a
a
1

.
0 =
=
sin
A1
A1 a
2
0
Again, the requirement = 0 at a = 0 sets 0 = 0, so we have
p
a = A1 sin () ,

8G0
3

2q0
2q0 1 :

(126)

(127)

and

p
t t0 = A1 cos () ,

The requirement = 0 at t = 0 sets t0 = A1 , so we finally have

r
2q0
a =
sin ,
2q0 1
r
2q0
(1 cos ) .
t =
2q0 1
23

(128)

(129)

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

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Closed Friedmann Universe (k=1, q0>1/2)

a(t)

matter-dominated
radiation-dominated

Big Crunch

Big Crunch
t

Figure 3: Evolution of the scale factor a(t) for the closed Friedmann Universe.
In both matter- and radiation-dominated closed Universes, the evolution is cycloidal the scale
factor grows at an ever-decreasing rate until it reaches a point at which the expansion is halted and
reversed. The Universe then starts to compress and it finally collapses in the Big Crunch.

Open Universe (k = 1, q0 < 21 )

Matter-dominated (dust approximation): P = 0, a3 = const.
The first Friedmann equation (eq. (101a)) becomes
1
8G  a0 3
a 2
+ 2
=
0
a2
3r
a
a
Z
Z
da
8G0 a30
da
q

=
+1
dt =
dt
3a
8G0 a30
3a

Again, rewrite the integral above in terms of conformal time:

Z
Z
da
q
,
d =
8G0 a30
2
a+a
3
take a0 = 1, and define A
0

+1

(130)

= 2qq001 . Then
q

s
 2
Z a

a + A + a(2A + a)
a
a
d
a
a
= ln + 1 + 2 +

p
=
= ln
a + a
A
A
A
A
0
2A
2


a
1
+1 .
(131)
= cosh
A
4G0
3

But, the requirement = 0 at a = 0 sets 0 = 0, so we have

a + A
= cosh
A

24

a = A(cosh
1).

(132)

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Now dt = ad, so
t t0 =

ad =

A(cosh
1)d = A

(cosh 1) d = A(sinh
). (133)

But, the requirement = 0 at t = 0 sets t0 = 0. Therefore, we finally have the dependence

of the scale factor a in terms of the time t parametrized by the conformal time as:
q0
(cosh 1),
(134)
a =
2q0 1
q0
t =
(sinh ).
2q0 1
Radiation-dominated: P = 31 , a4 = const.
The first Friedmann equation (eq. (101a)) becomes
1
8G  a0 4
a 2
+ 2
=
0
a2
3r
a
a
Z
Z
da
da
8G0 a40
q
=
+1
dt =

2
dt
3a
8G0 a30
3a2

+1

Again, rewrite the integral above in terms of conformal time and quantity A1
!
Z a
a
d
a
p
= sinh1 p
0 =
0
A1 + a
2
A1
Again, the requirement = 0 at a = 0 sets 0 = 0, so we have
q
a = A1 sinh ,
q
t t0 = A1 cosh ,
p
The requirement = 0 at t = 0 sets t0 = A1 , so we finally have
r
2q0
sinh ,
a =
1 2q0
r
2q0
t =
(cosh 1) .
1 2q0

8G0
3

2q0
2q0 1 :

(135)

(136)
(137)

(138)

Early times (small limit): For small values of , the trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
can be expanded in Taylor series (keeping only first two terms):
1
1
sin = 3 ,
cos = 1 2 ,
6
2
1
1 3
cosh = 1 + 2 ,
sinh = + ,
6
2
so, to the leading term, the a and t dependence on for the different curvatures is shown in the
table below:

Moral: at early times, the curvature of the Universe does not matter singular behavior at
early times is essentially independent of the curvature of the Universe (k). Big Bang matterdominated singularity.
25

PHYS 652: Astrophysics

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Open Friedmann Universe (k=-1, q0<1/2)

a(t)

matter-dominated
radiation-dominated

Figure 4: Evolution of the scale factor a(t) for the open Friedmann Universe.
Matter-Dominated Friedmann Universes

flat

a(t)

open

closed

Big Bang

Big Crunch
t

Figure 5: Evolution of the scale factor a(t) for the flat, closed and open matter-dominated Friedmann
Universes.

Table 2: Scale factor a(t) for flat, closed and open Friedmann Universes, along with their asymptotic
behavior at early times.
curvature
For all
For small
k
a
t
a
t
a(t)
0
1
-1

(6G0 )1/3 t2/3

q0
2q0 1 (1 cos )
q0
12q0 (cosh 1)

q0
2q0 1 ( sin )
q0
12q0 (sinh )
26

t2/3
2
2

3
3

t2/3
t2/3
t2/3