U of T Aerodynamics Course Overview

University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies
AER307
Aerodynamics
Ronald Hanson
hanson@utias.utoronto.ca
UTIAS
AER307: Aerodynamics
c Philippe Lavoie 2012

0-1
Introductions
Book: John D. Anderson Jr., Fundamentals of Aerodynamics. Current edition is 5th, but
any previous editions will do.
My office hours: Upon request. Preferably one hour before or after classes. Virtual office
times (e.g. via email discussion) can also be organized if convenient.
Email policy: Should be used to setup a meeting time or short questions. Replies typically
within 1-2 open days.
Course on Blackboard: I will not print hand-outs. They will be posted on Blackboard for
download. I would encourage you not to be wasteful in you printing.
Tutorial: Tutorials will be agglomerated into 2-hour sessions spread-out strategically during
the year. The TA is Hamed Sadeghi (sadeghi@utias.utoronto.ca above email policy
applies).
Grading:
Total mark based on 5 assignments (2% each),
2 term tests (15% each), and
A final (60%).
Term tests are closed book, no aids, non-programmable calculator.
Assignments will be posted on Blackboard.
Due back one week after they have been given out.

0-2
Honesty policy: You can discuss ideas with colleagues but you must solve the assignment
on your own. The solutions you submit must reflect your understanding of the material.
Late policy is 10% of grade per day.
Course Outline. Table of content of my notes included below. Numbers in brackets refer to
corresponding sections in the textbook. Section 1, 2, 3 and 9 are independent of the
textbook and the notes for these sections will be posted on Blackboard (after the lectures).

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Contents
1 Fundamentals
13
1.1
What is Aerodynamics? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.2
Aerodynamic Forces: How do Planes Fly? (1.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.3
The Airfoil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.4
Frame of Reference and Steady Flow Assumption
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.5
Aerodynamic Forces and Moments (1.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.5.1
Dimensionless Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.6
Pressure Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.7
Centre of Pressure (1.6)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.8
Types of Flow (1.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
1.8.1
23
Inviscid vs. Viscous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0-4
1.8.2
Viscous Flows: Boundary Layers and Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.8.3
Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.8.4
Attached vs. Separated Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
26
1.8.5
Compressible vs incompressible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
2 The Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics

2.1
General Form of a Conservation Law
31
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.1.1
Scalar Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
2.1.2
Vector Conservation Law
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
2.2
The Equation of Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
2.3
The Equation of Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.4
The Equation of Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.5
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47

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3 The Dynamic Levels of Approximation
48
3.1
The Navier-Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.2
Closure of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.3
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.4
A Brief Review of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.4.1
First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.4.2
Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
The Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.5.1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.6
Classification of Simplifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.7
Incompressible Fluid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.8
The Reynolds-average N-S Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.9
The Boundary-Layer Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.5
Mach Number

0-6
3.10 The Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
3.11 Potential Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
3.11.1 Pathlines & Streamlines of a Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
3.11.2 Angular Velocity
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
3.11.3 Vorticity
3.11.4 Stream Function
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
3.11.5 Velocity Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
3.11.6 The Potential Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
3.12 Incompressible Potential Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4 Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flows
86
4.1
Bernoullis Equation (3.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.2
Incompressible Potential Flow (3.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
90
4.3
Elementary Solution
92
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0-7
4.3.1
Uniform flow (3.9)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.3.2
Source/Sink Flow (3.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
4.3.3
Uniform Flow + source + sink (3.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
4.3.4
Doublet Flow (3.12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.3.5
Non-lifting Flow over a Cylinder (3.13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.3.6
Vortex flow (3.14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
4.3.7
Lifting Flow over a Cylinder (3.15, 3.16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5 Incompressible Flow Over Airfoils
105
5.1
Airfoil Characteristics (4.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2
Source and Vortex Sheets (4.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3
Kutta Condition (4.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.4
Kelvins Circulation Theorem (4.6)
5.5
Classical Thin Airfoil Theory
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

0-8
5.6
5.5.1
Symmetric Airfoil (4.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.5.2
Cambered Airfoil (4.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Panel method (3.17, 4.10)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wing
121
6.1
Downwash and Induced Drag (5.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.2
The Vortex Filament, Biot-Savart Law, and Helmholtzs Theorem (5.2) . . . . . 123
6.3
Prandtls Classic Lifting Line Theory (5.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6.4
6.3.1
Elliptical Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
6.3.2
General Lift Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Reduction of Lift Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7 Subsonic Compressible Flow over Airfoils

7.1
Energy Equation in a Steady, Inviscid Flow

137
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
0-9
7.2
The Full Velocity Potential Equation (11.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.3
The Linearized Velocity Potential Equation (11.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

7.3.1
Coefficient of Pressure in Compressible Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
7.4
The Prandtl-Glauert Compressibility Correction (11.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
7.5
Critical Mach Number (11.6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.6
Drag Divergence Mach Number (11.7)

7.6.1
Supercritical Airfoils (11.9)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
8 Normal Shock Waves, Oblique Shock Waves and Expansion Waves
153
8.1
Equation of 1D Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
8.2
Stationary Normal Shock Wave Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
8.3
Oblique Shock Relations
8.4
Prandtl-Mayer Expansion Waves
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

0-10
9 Linearised Supersonic Flow

9.1
184
Some Preceding Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

9.1.1
The Speed of Sound in 1D Flow (8.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.1.2
Propagation of Disturbances in Subsonic and Supersonic Flows (9.1) . . 188
9.1.3
The Wave Equation (12.2)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.2
Linearised BCs and Pressure Coefficient (12.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
9.3
Application to Supersonic Airfoils (12.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10 Introduction to Viscous Flow
194
10.1 Qualitative Characteristic of Viscous Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

10.2 Laminar versus Turbulent Boundary Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.3 Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
10.4 Boundary layer properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.5 Incompressible Flow Over a Flat Plate: The Blasius Solution . . . . . . . . . . 201

0-11
10.6 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate . . . . . . . . . 205
10.6.1 Example
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
10.6.2 Turbulent boundary layer approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210

10.7 Computing laminar & turbulent boundary layer
10.7.1 Example
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

0-12
Fundamentals
Why are you taking this course? What do you expect to learn?
Today, well get a brief overview of the basics.
1.1
What is Aerodynamics?
Concerned with the flow of air... More broadly, refers to the flow of fluid. (Almost synonymous
with fluid dynamics.)
What is this course about? Focus on external flow. And airplanes in particular.
What do we need to know about the aerodynamics of an object in

order to design it?
1. How much lift
2. drag force
3. moments
I.e. What are the forces acting on the body due to the fluid flow around it?
This course can be summarized a single concept:

No spontaneous generation of stuff (i.e. mass, momentum or energy)!

1-13
1.2
Aerodynamic Forces: How do Planes Fly? (1.4)
A fluid moving relative to a body exerts forces on this body. Consider a fluid particle moving
around a cylinder. What physically is happening such that this particle moves along this path?
Hint: think Newton...
Given this particular path, what can we say about the pressure on the surface of the cylinder?
The same can be done for a shape like the cross-section of

a bird wing:
But why should the fluid stay attached to the surface? One word: viscosity.

1-14
1.3
The Airfoil
Let us consider a generic airfoil.
1.4
Frame of Reference and Steady Flow Assumption
1. For fixed point in space,
6= 0
t
2. For coordinate system attached to the airfoil (or frisbee)
Steady flow
large simplifications
=0
t
Similar to a wind tunnels frame of reference.


1-15
1.5
Aerodynamic Forces and Moments (1.5)

R:
M:
L:
D:
N:
A:
From geometry,
Resultant force.
Resultant moment.
Lift, component of R to U.
Drag, component of R k to U.
Normal force, component of R to c.
Axial force, component of R k to c.
N cos A sin
N sin + A cos .
A fluid exerts forces (and moments) on a body via:

1. Pressure p (normal to surface)
2. Shear stress (tangential to surface)
+ve is rotation clockwise

(i.e. increasing ).

1-16
Consider an element of length ds and assume unit span so that dA = ds.

)
0
dNu = pu cos dsu u sin dsu
upper surface
dA0u = pu sin dsu + u cos dsu
)
0
dNl = pl cos dsl l sin dsl
lower surface
dA0l = pl sin dsl + l cos dsl
The prime denotes 2D (i.e. per unit span quantity).
Total normal and axial forces per unit span are given by
Z TE
Z
0
N
=
(pu cos u sin) dsu +
LE
(pl cos l sin) dsl

LE
TE
TE
TE
(pu sin + u cos) dsu +

LE
(pl sin + l cos) dsl

LE
Now, lets consider the pitching moment about the leading edge. By definition
0
MLE
(not a right-hand rule!),
TE
[(pu cos + u sin) x (pu sin u cos) y] dsu
=
LE
TE
[(pl cos + l sin) x + (pl sin + l cos) y] dsl

LE

1-17
Note: moment force changes depending on reference point and angle of attack. Often forces
are given relative to the c/4 point. This will become clear later in this course.
Note: L/D
102 for airfoil

101 for aircraft
1.5.1 Dimensionless Coefficients

Normalize forces using free-stream velocity, U, and density, .
2
Free-stream dynamic pressure, q 1/2U
.
Let us use the planform area, S , and cord length, c, as reference area and length, respectively.
L
D
M
(3D) CL =
, CD =
, CM =
qS
q S
qSc
L0
(2D) cL =
,
qc
cD
D0
=
,
qc
Pressure coefficient: Cp =
cM
M0
=
qc2
p p
.
q
Skin friction coefficient: cf =

.
q

1-18
Typical behaviour of CL, CD , and

CM with .
1.6
Pressure Distributions
Boundary layer is very thin for high Re. Thus, p1 = pw (to be derived rigorously later in
the course).
p1 can be obtained from inviscid calculations (also covered in later chapters).

1-19
Pressure distributions.
Distribution for a symmetric airfoil at = 0 (same on both side).
Adverse pressure gradient:
p/x > 0
prone to separation
almost always turbulent
Favourable pressure gradient:
p/x < 0
attached BL.
Distribution for a cambered airfoil.

1-20
1.7
Centre of Pressure (1.6)
Where to place N 0 and A0 such that they have the same effect as the distributed loads?
Where they produce the same moment about the leading edge (i.e. where Mcp = 0).
0
By definition MLE
= xcpN 0
(No contribution due to A0 since it
is colinear to the moment arm.)
xcp: centre of pressure.

Recall L0 = N 0 cos A0 sin
Small angle gives
cos ' 1
sin ' ' 0
0
L 'N
Hence,
xcp
0
0
MLE
MLE
=
' 0
0
N
L
xcp is dependent on lift - for L0 0, xcp !! Not very convenient...

1-21
Convenient to specify at c/4
Small
c 0
0
0
MLE ' L + Mc/4
4
For symmetric airfoil in inviscid, incompressible flow, CMc/4 = 0 or xcp = xc/4 at all .
(to be demonstrated in 5).
For cambered airfoil, xcp a bit further downstream than xc/4.

1-22
1.8
Types of Flow (1.10)
1.8.1 Inviscid vs. Viscous

High Re, streamlined, low (< 10).
Viscous effects confined to attached boundary layer.

Inviscid assumption good for L, M , but not D .
High .
Inviscid solution not good.
Bluff body
Inviscid solution useless!!!

1-23
1.8.2 Viscous Flows: Boundary Layers and Wakes

Most of the flows in aerodynamics can be assumed inviscid. That is not to say viscosity is not
important! Let us consider the different types of viscous flows.
The importance of viscosity is related to the Reynolds number:

U 1
U `
U`
inertial forces
2
Re =
=
= U
,
viscous forces
`
where U and ` are the velocity and length scales of the flow. For an airfoil, U U and
` c, where c is the cord of the airfoil.
For a glider, Re 106.
For large commercial aircraft, Re 108.
For high Re, viscocity is relatively unimportant to the flow globally.
Within boundary layers and wakes, gradients are high, so viscous effects are important,
regardless of Re.
Viscous forces resist gradients.
leads to the generation of shear stress at the wall (skin friction drag).

1-24
1.8.3 Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flows

Laminar flow: Steady.
Smooth streamlines.
Turbulent flow: Unsteady (though it can be statistically steady).
Irregular/chaotic-like behavior.
Higher u/y than laminar boundary layers.
Thus higher shear stress ( 7 times more).
Thicker boundary layer (at same Reynolds number).
Transition. Complex process, which depends mainly on:

Perturbation environment (surface roughness, free stream turbulence, acoustic waves).
Reynolds number (less stable at higher Re).
Pressure gradient.
p/x < 0 favorable pressure gradient.
p/x > 0 adverse pressure gradient.

1-25
1.8.4
Attached vs. Separated Flows
The flow is said to be attached if the streamlines close to the surface follow the surface.
The flow is separated if some streamlines change directions.
e.g. streamlined body:
or bluff body:

1-26
For attached flow.

u
>0

y y=0
Verge of separation.

u
=0
y y=0
Boundary layer separation

(flow reversal).

u
<0
y y=0

1-27
Separation can lead to

oscillatory flow due to vortex shedding,
increase drag, and

loss of lift on airfoils (stall).
Particular examples: Leading vs trailing edge separation.
Round LE:
TE separation
Gradual stall
Sharp LE:
LE separation
Sudden stall
Turbulent boundary layers have increased drag because of increased momentum transfer, which
also leads to increase resistance to separation. , turbulence can also be good!

1-28
1.8.5
Compressible vs incompressible
The difference between compressible and incompressible flow is obvious - either is constant
or its not! But what governs whether is constant in open aerodynamics?
It all depends on how quickly the fluid is moving relative to the speed at which information
about whats coming can be transmitted. This is quantified via the Mach number, defined as
M =
U
,
a
where U is the characteristic speed and a is the speed of sound (speed at which information
moves upstream). The speed of sound in an ideal gas (like air) is given by
a=
RT ,
where is the specific heat ratio, R is the perfect gas constant and T is the ambient
temperature (absolute).
Mach number regimes
(a) M < 0.3
Incompressible
subsonic
e.g.: General aviation aircraft.
Sail planes.
Marine applications.

1-29
(b) M < 1
everywhere
Compressibility
effects
subsonic
e.g.: deHavilland commuter aircraft

0.4 M 0.6
(c) M ' 1
transonic
e.g.: Commercial aircraft.
supersonic
e.g.: High speed civil aircraft (Concord)
M < 1
M > 1
(d) 1 < M < 5

1-30
2
2.1
2.1.1
The Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics

General Form of a Conservation Law
Scalar Conservation Law
We consider the scalar quantity per unit volume, U , that exists in
a volume. A volume element is given by d and a surface element
is given by dS . The unit outward normal for the surface element
~.
is n
. The fluxes passing through are contained in the vector F
~ S and QV respectively.
Surface and volume sources are given by Q
~ and Q
~ are column vectors.
Note that n
is a row vector, while F
The variation per unit time of the scalar quantity U within is given by
Z
d
U d.
dt
This variation is given by contributions from incoming fluxes and source terms. The net
contribution from the incoming fluxes through S is
I
~ dS.
n
F
S
Contributions from the volume and surface source terms are given by
Z
I
~S n
Q
dS.
QV d +

2-31
The net balance is given by

d
dt
~ dS +
n
F
U d =
~S n
Q
dS.
QV d +
~ S and F
~ are continuous in space. Given Gauss Theorem, which states that the
We assume Q
flux of a vector field through a closed surface is equal to the volume integral of the divergence
of the region inside the surface (also known as the divergence theorem), viz.
Z
~ F
~ d =
~ dS,
n
F
S
we get
Z
Z
Z
Z
d
~ F
~ d +
~ Q
~ S d.
U d =
QV d +
dt
This is referred to as the volume integral form of the scalar conservation law. With
assumed to be fixed in space, we get
Z
U
d =
t
~ F
~ d +
Z
QV d +
~ Q
~ S d.
Since is arbitrary, we can obtain a differential form given by
U
~ F
~ = QV +
~ Q
~ S.
+
t

2-32
~ is composed of convective fluxes and diffusive fluxes as follows

The flux vector F
~ =F
~C + F
~D .
F
Convective fluxes are simply given by
~C = ~
F
v U,
where ~
v is the velocity vector. It is attributed to changes in U due to the motion of the fluid.
In contrast, diffusive fluxes are defined as the contribution present in fluids at rest (e.g.
due to molecular motion). We use the generalized gradient law of Fick (i.e. the flux is from
region of high to low concentration, and proportional to the concentration gradient) to describe
the diffusive flux. With U describing the quantity per unit mass, we have
~D = X
~
F

,
where X is the constant of proportionality. Substituting this into the scalar diffential form, we
get the generalized scalar law for U . The differential form becomes

U
~ (~
~ X
~ U
~ Q
~ S.
+
vU ) =
+ QV +
t

2-33
In two-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, we have
2.1.2
~
v
u
+ v
~C
F
~D
F
uU
+ vU

U
X
x
y
~ F
~C
~ F
~D
uU
vU
+
x
y

X
+
X
x
x
y
y
Vector Conservation Law
Typically, we wish to express several equations together in an efficient manner. For example, the
momentum conservation law is conveniently expressed as a vector conservation law. The
conserved vector quantity can be expressed in a coordinate system by its components. For
~ is given by
example, in three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the conserved vector quantity U
~ = U1
U
+ U2 + U3 k.
We will use three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates in this section to express vector and tensor
quantities. We will use subscripts 1, 2, and 3 to express components of vector and tensor
quantities. Using this notation we are able to easily describe the vector conservation law by its

2-34
components. Using the scalar conservation law from the previous section, the conservation of
component U1 is given by
Z
I
Z
I

d
U1d =
n
f~C1 + f~D1 dS +
QV 1d +
n
q
~S1dS,
dt
S
S
where f~C1 and f~D1 are the convective and diffusive fluxes of U1. Specifically,
f~C1
f~D1
~
v U1
uU1
+ vU1 + wU1 k

U1
U1
U1
X
+
+
k .
x
y
The surface source vector for U1 is given by q

~S1 and QV 1 is the volume source component of
U1 .
In a similar manner, we can write the conservation of U2 and U3. Collectively this is a system
of equations that looks like
Z
I
Z
I

d
U1d =
n
f~C1 + f~D1 dS +
QV 1d +
n
q
~S1dS
dt
S
S
Z
I
Z
I

d
~
~
U2d =
n
fC2 + fD2 dS +
QV 2d +
n
q
~S2dS
dt
S
S
Z
I
Z
I

d
~
~
U3d =
n
fC3 + fD3 dS +
QV 3d +
n
q
~S3dS.
dt
S
S

2-35
We can use matrices to compactly describe the system as

~
~
fC1 + fD1 dS
U1d
Z
I n
Z QV 1d

~C2 + f~D2 dS
U2d =
n
QV 2d

dt
S
U3d
QV 3d
n
f~C3 + f~D3 dS
n
q
~S1dS
I
+ n
~S2dS
q
.
S
n
q
~S3dS
~ by
Furthermore, we can describe the conserved vector quantity U
U
1
~ = U2
U
U3
and the volume source term by
Q
V1
~ V = QV 2 .
Q
QV 3
Hence the system becomes
f~C1 + f~D1
q
~
Z
I
S1
d
~ d =
~ V d +
U
n
dS +
Q
n
dS,
f~C2 + f~D2
q
~S2
dt
S
S
f~C3 + f~D3
q
~S3
Z
where the rows of the two matrices [] are the flux and surface source vectors.

2-36
We now introduce the flux tensor F which contains the convective and diffusive flux
components. Furthermore, we introduce the surface source tensor QS . Using these tensors we
can finally express the vector integral form of the vector conservation law as
Z
I
Z
I
d
~ d =
~ V d +
U
n
F dS +
Q
n
QS dS.
dt
S
S
Invoking Gauss Theorem, we arrive at the differential form

~
U
~ F QS = Q
~V .
+
t
We continue with some more discussion about the flux tensor F . It is comprised of the
convective and diffusive flux tensors as
F = F C + F D.
The convective flux tensor is given by
~.
FC = ~
vU
Using index notation, viUj defines a matrix FCij as
v U
v1 U 2
1 1
FCij = viUj =
v2 U 1 v2 U 2
v3 U 1

v3 U 2
v1 U 3
v2 U 3
v3 U 3
2-37
The columns of FCij are the vectors f~C1, f~C2, and f~C3 respectively. The diffusive flux tensor is
also an extension of the diffusive flux vector. The tensor is given by the matrix
U
j
.
FDij = X
xi
Again, the columns of FDij are the vectors f~D1, f~D2, and f~D3 respectively. For example,

f~D1

U
1
~
= X
= X
U1
x1

U
1
x2

U
1
x3
2.2
The Equation of Mass Conservation
We use the scalar conservation law to derive the equation of mass conservation. The conserved
scalar quantity is simply the density of the fluid (i.e. unit mass per unit volume1)
U = .
Hence, the convective and diffusive fluxes are
~C
F
~
vU
~
v
1 In fluids, quantities are expressed in unit volume (compared to the definition given in mechanics). This is typically assumed to be
known implicitly and will not be stated explicitly from this point on.

2-38
~D = X
~
F
~
= X(1)
=0
The diffusive flux is zero since the ratio of U/ is a constant. Furthermore, there are no surface
or volume sources of mass. Hence,
~S = ~
Q
0
QV
0.
The integral form of mass conservation is therefore given by

Z
I
d
d +
n
(~
v ) dS = 0.
dt
The differential form is given by (again Gauss Theorem is used here)
~ (~
+
v ) = 0.
t
We introduce the familiar total derivative operator (i.e. substantial derivative) to find an
alternative form of the differential form of the mass continuity equation. Recalling,
+~
v ,
Dt
t
we have
~ + ~
~ v = 0, or
+~
v
t

2-39
D
~ v = 0.
+ ~
Dt
This states that rate of change of density of a fluid particle that is being tracked, varies
proportionally with the negative of the dilatation of that fluid particle.
One particular case of this equation is what is referred to as the incompressible continuity
equtation. For incompressible flow, is constant both in space and time, consequently
~ ~
v = 0.
For an incompressible fluid, the divergence of the velocity field is zero.
2.3
The Equation of Momentum Conservation
The momentum conservation equation requires the vector conservation law. Here the conserved
quantity is the momentum given by
~ = ~
U
v.
The convective flux tensor is given by

FC = ~
v ~
v
and the diffusive flux tensor is zero since there is no momentum diffusion for a fluid at rest (as
per our definition of diffusive fluxes).

2-40
Sources of variation of momentum are forces, f~e. For example, if gravity is the only external
force that the fluid experiences we can write
~ V = f~e = f~g .
Q
Surface sources of momentum are caused by internal forces in the fluid including pressure
and viscous forces. They are dependent on the nature of the fluid, specifically the relation
between internal deformations and internal stresses. They only appear on the surface because
internally they cancel out. Therefore,
QS = pI + ,
where is the stress tensor, pI is the normal stress tensor associated with pressure, and
is the tensor describing viscous forces. The unit tensor I means that the pressure stress acts
normal to the surface of the fluid particle.
The viscous stress tensor has some special properties. The most important arises due to
rotational equilibrium. In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the stress tensor ij is2
21 31
yx zx
~
11
xx
y .
ij =
12 22 32 = xy yy zy = ~
13
23
33
xz
yz
zz
~
z
2 This tensor notation is somewhat different than what we defined on page 37. As we will see, is symmetric, thus ij = ji. The
ij
notation used here is related to the physical orientation and location of the force as defined on page 42.

2-41
We write two forms here.The first index indicates what surface the
stress acts on (i.e. the direction of the normal of the surface) and
the second index indicates in what direction the stress acts. For
example, xy , would be a viscous stress on the side with normal
colinear to
and in the direction colinear to . When the indices are
the same, the stress acts normal to the surface and is referred to as
the normal viscous stress. When the indices are different, then the
stress is called a shear (viscous) stress.
Generally, shear stresses are much more important than normal viscous stresses. In aerodynamics
we are concerned primarily with air which is a Newtonian fluid. It can be shown that3

vi
2 ~
vj
+
~
v ij ,
ij =
xi
xj
3
where is the dynamic viscosity and ij is the Kronecker delta function, which simply states
(
1 if i = j
ij =
.
0 if i 6= j
Clearly, ij is a symmetric tensor.
3 The normal stress may seem a bit odd, but they express the viscous forces that appear due to the gradients v /x , which are
i
i
normally very small (unless through a shock wave). The first term is due to the standard Fick Law, while the second term means that
the normal stress also have a component proportional to the dilatation of the fluid element. The constant of proportionality is roughly
equal to -2/3 based on empirical evidence, which is a good enough assumptions for all our purposes (but if you are curious google bulk
viscosity coefficient).

2-42
Let us consider for example ij in two-dimensional Cartesian coordinates. Here, x1 = x,

x2 = y , v1 = u, and v2 = v . Hence,

4 u
2 v
xx =
3 x
3 y

v
u
v
u
xy =
+
+
= yx =
x
y
y
x

2 u
4 v
.
yy =
3 y
3 x
The momentum conservation equation in integral form is given by
Z
I
Z
I
d
~
v d +
n
(~
v ~
v ) dS =
f~ed +
n
dS.
dt
S
S
The surface source term can be divided into
I
I
I
n
dS =
n
(pI)dS +
n
dS.
S
To arrive at the differential form, we apply Gauss Theorem. Hence,

~ ~
(~
v) +
v ~
v + pI = f~e.
t

2-43
Using the total derivative and conservation of mass (which is a nontrivial exercise) we can also
write
D~
v
~ +
~ + f~e.
= p
Dt
This equation is Newtons Second law for a fluid particle. The left-hand side is the mass per
unit volume times acceleration, and the right hand side is the net force that acts on the fluid
particle.
For a Newtonian fluid with a constant viscosity, , we find

D~
v
1
~ ~
~ + 2~
~
= p
v+
+ f~e
v
Dt
3
which are referred to as the Navier-Stokes equations. Taking out of the derivatives results
in negligible error. The operator 2 is the Laplacian operator. For example, in
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates
2
2
2

+
+
.
x2
y 2
z 2
2
~ ~
Furthermore, we recall that for incompressible flow
v = 0. For constant and
incompressible flow, the equations reduce to
D~
v
~ + 2~
= p
v + f~e.
Dt

2-44
2.4
The Equation of Energy Conservation
The scalar conservation law is used to derive the energy equation. The conserved quantity per
unit volume, U , is energy and is given by
U = E,
where E is the energy per unit mass. (Multiplying E by gives us the necessary energy per
unit volume dimensions.) This energy can be divided into
~
v ~
v
,
E =e+
2
where e is the internal energy per unit mass and ~
v ~
v /2 is the kinetic energy per unit mass.
The convective flux is given by
~C = E~
F
v,
and the diffusive flux is given by
~D = kT,
~
F
which is Fouriers law of heat conduction. The constant k is called the thermal
conductivity.
Volume sources for the variation of total energy per unit volume are the work done by forces
acting on the system in addition to heat transmitted to the system. Hence,
QV
Wf + qH
v + qH ,
f~e ~
where Wf is the work done by the body forces and qH is the heat addition other than heat
conduction.

2-45
Surface sources come from work that is done by the internal forces (i.e. pressure and viscous
stresses). Therefore,
~ S = ~
v
Q
=
pI ~
v + ~
v.
Substituting the above equations into the volume integral form of the general scalar
conservation law we find
Z
I
I
Z
I

d
~
E d+ n
(E~
v ) dS =
n
kT dS+ (Wf + qH ) d+ n
~
v dS.
dt
S
S
S
Using Gauss Theorem, we acquire the differential form, viz.

~ (E~
~ kT
~
~ ~
+ Wf + qH +
v .
(E) +
v) =
t
We define the total enthalpy per unit mass as
H =E+
to find an alternative form of the energy equation where the stress tensor is simplified to the
viscous stress tensor. The energy equation becomes

~ H~
~ ~
(E) +
v kT
v = Wf + qH .
t

2-46
2.5
Summary
In this chapter we introduced the scalar and vector conservation laws. Index and tensor notation
proved to be valuable in describing the latter. The scalar conservation law was used to derive
the mass and energy conseravtion laws for fluids. The vector conservation law was used to
derive the momentum equation. We also introduced various quantities along the way such as
viscosity and thermal conductivity.
In three-dimensional Cartesian coordinates, the system consists of 5 equations. However, in its
current form with k and , there are 15 unknowns. The next chapter is entirely focused on
closing the system and exploring various approximations to it.

2-47
3
3.1
The Dynamic Levels of Approximation

The Navier-Stokes Equations
~
v

~
~
~
=
+
v
f e
~
v ~
v + pI
t
~
E
Wf + qH
~
vH ~
v kT
e.g. 3D Cartesian coordinates gives:
~
kT

=
~
v
T
T
T
+
+
k
x
y
z
~
x ~
v
~
y ~
v
(vector),
~
z ~
v
where, for instance, one row of is given by
u
xx
~
x = yx and ~
v= v
.
zx
w

3-48
Therefore,
~
x ~
v
xxu + yxv + zxw
~
y ~
v
xy u + yy v + zy w
~
z ~
v
xz u + yz v + zz w.
Also,
pI =
0
0
0
p
0
xx
0
, = xy
xz
p
yx
zx
yy
zy
yz
zz
, ~
v=
v ~
vu
uw
uv
v
vw
uw
vw
.
w2
System can be rewritten to look like:
f
g
h
U
+
+
+
= Q,
t
x
y
z
where
= v
U =
conservative state variables
~
v
E
w
E

3-49
u2 + p xx
f = uv xy
uw xz
uH (xxu + yxv + zxw) k T

x
uv yx
2
g = v + p yy
wv yz
vH (xy u + yy v + zy w) k T
y
uw zx
h = vw zy
w2 + p zz
wH (xz u + yz v + zz w) k T
z

3-50
3.2
Closure of the System
We have 5 equations, 15 unknowns (underdetermined!): , ~

v , E, p, , H, k, T.
(Remember, ~
v counts for three unknowns and only for 6 since it is symmetric.)
Assumptions
1. Newtonian Fluid (down to 9 unknowns)
(~
v , )
lose 6 unknowns ( )
gain 1 unknown ()
p
E + lose 1 unknown.
2. Thermodynamics laws (down to 7 unknowns)
#
e = e (, T )
lose 2 unknowns.
p = p (, T )
H =
3. Dependence of and k on fluid properties (down to 5 unknowns)

Sutherlands law for viscosity
1.45 106T 3/2

=
(S.I. unites).
T + 110
Prandtl number
Cp
Pr =
,
k
where Cp is the heat capacity for constant pressure, and P r = 1.45 for air.
Above two equations are approximate and dont work at high T . Use tables for these cases.

3-51
3.3
Boundary Conditions
1. No-slip condition: ~
v = 0 at a solid surface. More rigorously, ~
v=~
vw , where ~
vw is the
velocity of the surface.
2. Wall tangency: ~
v is along a solid surface (inviscid boundary condition).
3. Isothermal: T = Tw at solid surface, where Tw is the temperature of the surface.
4. Adiabatic: T /n = 0 at solid surface. I.e. no heat transfer through surface.
3.4
A Brief Review of Thermodynamics

E
v ~
v
=e+~
2
: energy per unit mass
e : internal energy per unit mass (i.e. specific energy)

p
=e+
: enthalpy
= e + p
1
= : specific volume
=E+
: total enthalpy per unit mass
Ideal gas law (Thermally Perfect)
p = RT p = RT

Specific heat at constant volume: Cv = e
T
v

3-52

Specific heat at constant pressure: Cp = h
T
For a thermally perfect gas
h = h(T )
dh = Cp dT
e = e(T )
de = Cv dT
For a calorically perfect gas
Cv
Cp
Cp
Cv
Cp = 1 R
=
are constant
;
;
Cp Cv = R
1 R
Cv =
1
= 1.4 for air

3.4.1
First Law of Thermodynamics
q + W = de
q is the heat added to system,
W is work done on system, and
de is the change in energy (dependent on initial and final states).

3-53
Some special cases of interest:

1. Adiabatic (no heat transfer) q = 0.
2. Reversible (hypothetical) no dissipative/diffusive mechanism (i.e. no viscosity, thermal
conduction or mass diffusion).
3. Isentropic cases 1 and 2.
For reversible processes,
W = p dv,
where dv is an incremental in volume due to displacement of body.
q = p dv + de
3.4.2
Second Law of Thermodynamics

q
Change in entropy ds = rev .
T
ds =
q
+ dsirrev
T
2nd Law dsirrev 0 (= 0 for reversible).

q
q
ds
(=
for reversible).
T
T
Adiabatic ds 0, q = 0.
Isentropic Adiabatic + Reversible.

3-54
Assume reversible for now (i.e. dsirrev = 0),

q
ds =
T ds = q
T
But q = pdv + de (from 1st law)
T ds = de + pdv
Recall h = e + pv
(3.1)
dh = de + pdv + v dp,
T ds = dh v dp
Thermally perfect gas
(3.2)
de = Cv dT
dh = CpdT
pv = RT v = R
p
T
pdv
(3.1) ds = Cv dT +
T
T
v dp
dp
(3.2) ds = Cp dT
= Cp dTT R p
T
T
Z
s2 s1 =
dT
Cp
Z
R

dp
p
3-55
Cp = const.
Calorically perfect gas
)
R = const.
Cv = const.
p
s2 s1 = Cp ln T2 R ln p21
T1
Isentropic s2 = s1 (not true across shocks or in boundary layers or wakes)
T2
p2
= R ln
T1
p1
Cp ln
p2
=
p1
T2
T1
Cp
T2
T1
p2
=
p1
T2
T1
3.5
for air
Ideal/thermally perfect gas: p = RT . Therefore, we get the following isentropic relations,
p2T1
2
=
=
1
p1T2
T2
T1
T2
T1
1

=
T2
T1
1
1

p2
2
=
p1
1
p1
p2 =
=
C
2
2,
1
where C is a constant.

3-56
3.5
The Speed of Sound
The speed of sound a is given by (this relationship will be derived in 9)

p
2
a =
.
s
For a perfect gas, p = C , such that
dp
p
(1)
= C
= = RT
d
a = RT
The speed of sound is a function of T only!!!
3.5.1
Mach Number
The Mach number refers to the speed of the fluid with respect to the speed of sound. The local
Mach number is given by
|~
v|
M =
a

3-57
Compressibility.
Consider the ratio
kinetic energy/unit mass

internal energy/unit mass
2
v /2
v /2
v /2
=
=
= 2
Cv T
RT /( 1)
a /( 1)
( 1) v 2
=
2
2
a
=
( 1) 2
M
2
M is a measure of compressibility.
M . 0.3 incompressible.
M > 0.3 compressible.

3-58
Mach Regions
3.6
Classification
M 0, M < 0.3
incompressible
M <1
subsonic
M . 1, M & 1
transonic
M >1
supersonic
M 1
hypersonic
Classification of Simplifications
Get back to thinking about how to simplify our equations.

Simplifications that can be made:
1.
3D 2D
w = 0, /z = 0
2.
Steady
/t = 0
3.
Incompressible
= const.
4.
Inviscid
=0
5.
no heat conduction
k=0

3-59
Classification diagram

3-60
Validity of Simplifications
(a) Inc. N.-S. Eq.:
Viscous flow, low M.

Energy eqn. decoupled (only solve if you need T)
Numerically a little cheaper than N-S.
(b) B.L. Eqn.:
Low , high Re.

Not valid for complete flow field (must solve p field
from different equation).
Can be coupled to inviscid solution to provide viscous effects.
Numerically expensive.
(c) Euler:
Compressible, inviscid.
)
Cruise at low
when viscous effects are small.
Attached flow
Not good for drag prediction.
unless wave drag shocks (only when no separation).
Numerically cheap.
(d) Full potential:
Similar to Euler but for weak shocks.

Cheaper than Euler.

3-61
(e) Linearized F.P.:
Small perturbations.
Thin, streamlined bodies at low .
(f) Inc. potential flow: Same as Euler + F.P. but M < 0.3.
Numerically cheapest.
3.7
Incompressible Fluid Model
M < 0.3 (small Mach number, no shocks). = const.

D
~ ~
+
v=0
Dt
Mass
~ ~

v=0
Momentum
D~
v
~ + 2~
= p
v + f~e
Dt
~
D~
v = p
+ 2~
v + f~e
Dt
Energy
If you want T , then solve this decoupled

T comes via p.
o : dynamic viscosity
: kinematic viscosity

3-62
3.8
The Reynolds-average N-S Equations
In high Re, high shear regions of the flow, turbulent velocity fluctuations appear (e.g. in
boundary layer).
Recall
B.L. profiles
For turbulent:
u
higher on average at the wall than

y
laminar.
B.L. thicker.
Why? answer at end of section
Reynolds decomposition
A = A + A0 ,
where A is a time averaged quantity, and
A0 is the fluctuating component.
Z T
A (~
x) = 1
A (~
x, t + ) d
T 0
A0 0
Example: Apply approach to the incompressible x-momentum equation.4

2
u +
u + p xx +
(uv yx) +
(uw zx) = fex.
t
x
y
z
4 Note that the time dependence of the momentum equation is kept in the following analysis for generality since the mean can vary in
time if the variation is much slower than the period T over which the average is taken. This is justified if the turbulent quantity A0 varies
on a time scale much smaller than T .

3-63
Apply = const.
u
u2
uv
uw
p
xx
yx
zx
+
+
+
=
+
+
+
+ fex.
t
x
y
z
x
x
y
z
Apply5
u=u+u,
v =v+v,
w =w+w,
p=p+p
i

h 2

0
0
02
0
0
0 0
u+u +
u + 2uu + u +
u v + uv + u v + u v
t
x
y

xx
yx
zx
0
0
0 0
0
+
u w + uw + u w + u w =
p+p +
+
+
+ fex.
z
x
x
y
z
Take average:
u0 = 0
uv 0 = 0
u0 w = 0
u0 v = 0
2uu0 = 0
p0 = 0
uw0 = 0
Non-zero terms:
2
u2 = u ,
New terms
u02 6= 0,
u v = u v,
u0v 0 6= 0,
u w = u w,
p = p.
u0w0 6= 0. Such that,
5 Note that terms are linear with respect to velocity. For simplicity, we do not expend the terms here since only the mean
ij
component remains.

3-64
i

u
h 2

02
0
0
0
0
+
u +u +
uv+uv +
uw+uw
t
x
y
z
xx
yx
zx
p
+
+
+
+ fex.
=
x
x
y
z
Reynolds stresses
R
xx
u02
R
yx
u0v 0
u0w0
R
zx
Model these terms
p
2
u +
+
(u v) +
(u w) =
t
x
y
z
x

R
R
R
+
xx + xx +
yx + yx +
zx + zx + fex
x
y
z
* Derivation for v - and w-momentum equation is left as an exercise.

Answer to above question: new terms, the turbulent shear stress terms, produce an increase
in momentum transfer, leading to the thicker boundary layer with a fuller velocity profile.

3-65
3.9
The Boundary-Layer Approximation
We perform here an order of magnitude analysis. To make analysis easier, assume steady, 2D,
no body forces (f~e = 0). Equation remains valid for viscous and compressible flows.
Continuity
(u)
(v)
+
=0
x
y
x-momentum

u
p
2 v
u
u
4 u
v
+ v
=
+
+
u
.
x
y
x
x
3 x
3 y
y
x
y
Lets make these equations non-dimensional, by defining
u
v
p
0
0
0
0
=
,
u =
, v =
, p =
U
U
p
x
y
0
0
0
y = , x = , =
c
c
Continuity

0 U u0
0Uv 0
U 0u0
U 0v 0
+
=
+
=0
0
0
0
0
(cx )
(cy )
c
x
c
y
0
u
x0
0 0

+
v
y 0

=0
3-66
x-momentum
Terms of equation become,

0
2
0
u
U
U
u
0
0
0 0 u
= u U
=
u
u
x
(x0c)
c
x0
2
0
U
u
0 0 u
=
v
v
y
c
y 0
p
p p0
=
x
c x0

0
0
2 v
2
4 u
U
4
u
v
x
3 x
3 y
c2 x0
3 x0
3 y 0

0
0
v
v
u
U
u
0
+
+
y
x
y
c2 y 0
x0
y 0
Introduce into momentum equation and multiply equation by
0
0 u
u
x0
0
0 0 u
+ v
y 0
c
2 to get
U
p p0
=
2 x0
U

0
0
0
0
4
u
2
v
v
u
0
0
+
+
.
0
0
0
0
0
0
Uc x
3 x
3 y
y
x
y

3-67
But
Re =
and
U c
,
p
p 1
1
a2
1
p
=
=
= RT
=
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
U
U
U
U
U
M
p
1
=
,
2
2
U
M
therefore,
0
0 u
u
x0
0
0 0 u
v
y 0
1 p0
+
=
2 x0
M

0
0
0
0
1
u
2
v
u
4
v
0
0
+
+
.
Re x0
3 x0
3 y 0
y 0
x0
y 0
Consider an airfoil with a growing boundary layer on the surface

1. Streamlined (i.e. no separation)
2. High Re.
3. Boundary layer thickness, (x), such
that /c 1 (verify this next page).

3-68
Under these conditions, an order of magnitude analysis suggests that
u
v
p
0
0
0
=
= O(1) ,
u =
= O(1) , v =
= O(?) p =
= O(1)
U
U
p

x
y
0
0
0
x = [0, 1] = O(1) , y = 0,
1 0.1
=O
, =
c
c
c
c
Applying order of magnitudes to continuity equation gives,

0 0
0 0
u
v
+
=0
x0
y 0

O(1) O(1)
O(1) O(??)
0
y =O
+
=0
c
O(1)
O(/c)

0
v =O
small !!
c
Doing the same to the x-momentum equation yields,
0
0 u
u
x0
0
0 0 u
v
y 0
1 p0
2 x0
M
O(1)
= O(1)
O(1)

O(1)
O(1) O
= O(1)
c O(/c)
O(1) O(1)
O(1) O(1)
= O(1)
O(1) O(1) O(1)

3-69

0
0
4
u
2
v
0
x0
3 x0
3 y 0
0
0
v
u
0
+
0
0
y
x
y 0
=
=

1
O(1)
O(/c)
O(1)
= O(1)
O(1)
O(1)
O(/c)

1
O(/c)
O(1)
O(1)
+
=O
O(/c)
O(1)
O(/c)
Net effect is that x-momentum equation will look like,

"
1
O(1) + O
O(1) + O(1) = O(1) +
Re
1
(/c)
!#
1
2
(/c)

0
u
0
The dominating term in this equation is the one corresponding to
(i.e. this is
0
0
y
y
the only viscous term to survive in the momentum equation).
"
1
O
Re
!#
1
(/c)
= O(1)

1/2
= O Re
c

large Re implies small /c
3-70
y -momentum
1 p0
u
+v
=
0
0
2 y 0
x
y
M
0
0 v
1
+
Re
0 0 v
0

0
0
0
v
u
4
v
2
u
0
0
+
+
.
x0
x0
y 0
y 0
3 y 0
3 x0
0
0 0 v
u
x0
0 0 v
y 0
0
0
v
u
+
x0
x0
y 0

0
0
v
2
u
4
0
y 0
3 y 0
3 x0
=
=
=

O(/c)
O(1) O(1)
=O
O(1)
c

O(/c)
O(1) O
=O
c O(/c)
c

1
O(/c)
O(1)
1
O(1)
+
=O
O(1)
O(1)
O(/c)
(/c)

1
O(/c)
O(1)
1
O(1)
=O
O(/c)
O(/c)
O(1)
(/c)
Net effect on y -momentum equation looks like

2

O
+O
= O(1) O(??) + O
O
c
c
c
(/c)

3-71

p0
=
O
or smaller
y 0
c

p0
p0
=
O
y 0
y 0
c
2
0
VERY small
p = O
c
Pressure does not change across a boundary layer. p = pe(x)
Continuity
(u)
(v)
+
=0
x
y
x-momentum
u
u
dpe
u
+ v
=
+
x
y
dx
y
y -momentum Not useful p not a function of y .


3-72
Boundary conditions
u = ue(x)
at
y=
u=v=0
at
y=0
Numerical solution is found via time marching (parabolic solution).
3.10
The Euler Equations
Assumptions used to arrive at Euler equations:

Inviscid: = 0.
No heat conduction: k = 0.
Equations apply outside boundary layers and wakes for streamlined bodies at high Re. Since
the boundary layer is very thin, that applies for most of the flow. As well see later, the Euler
and boundary layer equations can be solved separately in an iterative fashion.
Mass, momentum and energy (see page 3 of notes and set all viscous term to zero)
U
f
g
h
+
+
+
= Q,
t
x
y
z
where
U = ~
v
,
E
Q=

0
f~e
wf + qh
3-73
u2 + p
f = uv
uw
uH
uv
g = v 2 + p
vw
vH
uw
h = vw
w2 + p
wH
Boundary conditions
Flow tangency at the wall (i.e. normal velocity component to the surface is zero). This
contrast the no-slip condition when viscosity is considered.
For fully attached flow, solution provide:
lift,
pitching moment, and

pressure, but
not drag! (except wave drag)
Can use the Euler equation to solve for pe(x) and then solve boundary layer equation to get
viscous drag.

3-74
3.11
Potential Flow Equations
Here, we want to simplify the Euler equations. First, we need some tools.
3.11.1 Pathlines & Streamlines of a Flow
Pathlines follow particles in the flow. Streamlines are based on the velocity field. If the flow is
steady, they are the same.
d~
s~
v = 0 along a streamline.
d~
s = dx
+ dy + dz k
Example in 2D:
d~
s
dx
+ dy
~
v
u
+ v

d~
s~
v = dx

u
dy
v dx

=0
= (v dx udy) k

=
udy
v
dy
=
dx
u
I.e. the slope of the streamline is the ratio of the velocity component.

3-75
3.11.2
Angular Velocity
~ =
3.11.3
1~
~
v.
2
Recall

~ =
+
+
k
x
y
z
Vorticity
~ ~
~ = 2~
=
v
If ~ =
6 ~
0 at every point in the flow the flow is said to be rotational.
If ~ = ~
0 at every point in the flow the flow is said to be irrotational.
( only translational movement of fluid elements.)
2D condition for irrotationality
~ =
u
v
x
y
=~
k
0
v
u
=
x
y

3-76
3.11.4
Stream Function
Assume 2D, steady flow.

Consider u = u(x, y) and v = v(x, y) are known.
Starting from the streamline function, viz.
v
dy
=
dx
u
Integrate streamline function to get (x, y) = C , where C is a constant of integration.
The streamline function is defined as
(x, y) = C
The mass flow between the 2 streamlines is constant,

since no flow through streamlines.
the
Let us define

stream function such that = 2 1 is this
mass flow rate.
~ = uy vx
= ~
v n
As n 0,
d = udx v dy.

3-77
But d =
dx +
dy (chain rule).
x
y
By inspection,
= v
x
For incompressible flow,
= u
y
,
y
v=
1
,
r
v =
u=
For cylindrical/polar coordinates,
vr =
3.11.5
Velocity Potential
For irrotational flow,
~ ~
~ =
v=0
Consider a scalar . Scalar identity gives

~
~
= 0

3-78
(i.e. the curl of the scalar gradient is zero). By comparison, we get
~
~
v =
defining the velocity potential.
For an irrotational velocity field, one can define the velocity vector field with a scalar field!
In Cartesian coordinates,

=
+
+
k
~
v = u
+ v
+ wk
x
y
z
or
u=
,
x
v=
,
y

w=
z
3-79
Streamlines are prependicular to potential lines

(or equipotential lines), for 2D incompressible
and irrotational flow.

3-80
3.11.6
The Potential Flow Model
Assume inviscid, irrotational and isentropic.

Same as Euler + no shocks (except weak ones).
Good to calculate lift, moment, pressure, but not drag (not even wave).
~ ~
~ i.e. potential function
Irrotational
v=0~
v =
2
|~
v|
+ H = const. = H, where H = h +
(total specific enthalpy).
Isentropic
t
2

~
~
Mass
+ = 0
t
Isentropic
=
A
T
TA
1
1

=
Cp T
CpTA
1
1

=
h
hA
1
1
where A is a reference point.
|~
v|
2
t
A
hA
1
1
= f ()

3-81

~ 2
Noting that |~
v | = , gives
2
= A

~ 2

2
hA
1
1
Steady potential flow

~
~
=
= 0
=0
t
t
Using stagnation point as reference
2
|~
v|
H = h +
= h
2

1
~ 2 1

= 1
2H
Boundary conditions
Flow tangency (inviscid) vn =

= 0, where n is the direction normal to the wall.

n

3-82
3.12
Incompressible Potential Flow
Incompressibility is the final assumption! (For M . 0.3)

Mass

~
~
+
=0
t
~
~ =0
Incompressible
= 0
t
2 = 0
Laplaces equation
e.g., 2D Cartesian
2

+
=0
2
2
x
y
)
Linear eqn.
Can be solved using elliptic solution technique.

Stream function
Conservation of mass (2D steady)

(u)
(v)
+
=
x
y
x
!
=0
continuity is satisfied automatically by stream function.


3-83
From irrotational flow,

u
v
=0
y
x

2
0=
+
=
y y
x
x
y 2
x2
2 = 0
Laplaces equation is linear. Therefore, if 1, 2, 3, ..., n are solutions, then =
also a solution.
i is
Boundary conditions for inviscid flows Equation is the same for different geometries. The
exact flow field changes due to variations in boundary conditions.
1. Infinity BC
u=
=
= U
x
y
v=
=
=0
y
x

3-84
2. Wall boundary condition

~
~
v ~
n = ~
n = 0 (Wall tangency)
=0,
= 0,
n
s
where n and s are the direction normal and tangential to the surface.

3-85
4
4.1
Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flows

Bernoullis Equation (3.2)
Steady, inviscid, incompressible
1
2
p + V = const.,
2
where V = |~
v |.
The equation applies for:
1. along streamlines, and
2. everywhere in irrotational flow.
Lets prove (1).
=0
=0
z}|{ z}|{
D~
v
~
~ +
Momentum equation:
= p
+ f~e
Dt
u
u
p
u
x-momentum: u
+ v
+ w
=
x
y
z
x
v
v
v
p
y-momentum: u
+ v
+ w
=
x
y
z
y
w
w
w
p
z-momentum: u
+ v
+ w
=
x
y
z
z

4-86
u
u
u
1 p
+v
+w
=
x
y
z
x
v
v
v
1 p
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z
y
w
w
w
1 p
u
+v
+w
=
x
y
z
z
u
Along a streamline, d~
s~
v = 0,
v dx u dy = 0
u dz w dx = 0
v dx = u dy
or
w dy v dz = 0
u dz = w dx
w dy = v dz
u
u
1 p
u
u dx + u dy + u dz =
dx
x
y
z
x
u
u
u
dx +
dy +
dz
but du =
x
y
z
1 p
udu =
dx.
x
Thus,
1 2
1 p
du =
dx.
2
x

(4.1)
4-87
Similarly
1 2
1 p
dv =
dy
2
y
1 p
1 2
dw =
dz.
2
z
(4.2)
(4.3)
Sum (4.1), (4.2) and (4.3) to get

1 2
1
p
p
p
2
2
du + dv + dw =
dx +
dy +
dz
2
x
y
z
1
1
2
dV = dp
Z 2
Z
1
or
V dV =
dp
V2
p
+ = const.
2

4-88
Recall, Cp =
p p
1
1
2
2
.
Incompressible
flow,
Bernoulli
p
+
U
=
p
+
V
, so
2
1/2U
2
2
p p
Cp =

1
2
2
= U V
2

2
1/2 U
V2
2
1/2U

Cp = 1
V
U
2
Only a function
of velocity!!
Note: At a stagnation point, the local velocity is zero. Hence, Cp = 1 (0/U)2 = 1, for
incompressible flow at a stagnation point (maximum pressure).

4-89
4.2
Incompressible Potential Flow (3.7)
Recall the velocity potential function, , viz.
~
~
v =
since it is for irrotational flows.
~ v =
~
~ = 2 = 0.
Conservation of mass ~
Laplacian operator in 3D Cartesian + cylindrical polar coordinates.
2
2
2
+
+
=
x2
y 2
z 2
2

1
~ =
,
,
r r z

2
2
1
2
~
~ =
=
r
+ 2 2 +
r r
r
r
z 2

For 2D, steady, irrotational, inviscid, incompressible flow
u=
, v=
.
y
x
Continuity gives,
~ v = 0 2 = 0
~
(satisfied by definition).

4-90
Laplaces equation is linear
Sum of any particular solutions is also a solution!!
Infinity boundary conditions:

assume for away U is aligned with x-axis.
u=
=
= 0,
x
y
v=
=
=0
y
x
Wall boundary conditions:

wall tangency.
normal velocity component = 0

~ n
~
v n
=
= 0

=0

= 0 s
n
Strategy
Note: (2D polar) ~

v = (vr , v )
1. Solve 2 = 0 or 2 = 0.
,v=
.
2. Get ~
v from ~
v = or u =
y
x
3. Get p from Bernoullis equation.

~ v = 1 (rvr ) + 1 v
~
r r
r

1
1
v
r
~ v=k
~
(rv )
r r
r
4-91
4.3
4.3.1
Elementary Solution
Uniform flow (3.9)
u = U
v=0
~ v=0
incompressible: ~
~ v=0
irrotational: ~
= U
u=
x
v=
=0
y
= (x) ,
d
= U
dx
= U x
u=
= U
y
v=
=0
x
d
= (y) ,
= U
d
y
= U y
Note: you can verify that =
H
c
~
v d~
s = 0!

4-92
4.3.2
Source/Sink Flow (3.10)

Direction of streamline
towards centre (sink)

away from centre (source)
v = 0 (no tangential velocity)
= (r)

1 d
d
2
=
r
= 0, r 6= 0
r dr
dr
d
d
c
r
=c
= = c ln r
dr
dr
r
c
vr =
=
r
r
1
v =
=0
r
Since streamlines diverge, fluid particles

must slow down as r increases.
h
i
2
c m /s
~ v = 0 except at origin.
~
~ v = 0 everywhere.
~

4-93
Mass flow rate (per unit depth)

Z 2
Z 2
c
m
=
dm
=
r d
r
0
0
{z
}
|
R 2
vA
m
=
cd
0
2c
Volume flow rate per unit mass: m/
= 2c.
c=
2
ln r
2
vr =
2r
v = 0
> 0 source.
< 0 sink.
Hence,
Note: vr =
v =
r
r
but v = 0
= ()
c
c
1
vr = =
r
r
r
= c =

2
4-94
4.3.3 Uniform Flow + source + sink (3.11)

(simulates flow around a solid body)
= U y , =
(for uniform and sour/sink, respectively)
2
Total stream function
= Ur sin +
1
2
2
2
1, 2 are found from geometry (r, , b)
vr =
1
,
r
v =

4-95
Stagnation streamline
Ur sin +
(1 2) = 0
2
(Oval) Rankine oval
4.3.4 Doublet Flow (3.12)
(Source-sink pair)
=
(1 2) =
2
2
Let L shrink, while L = const. = (doublet strength)

Limiting case

lim
L0
=const.
( + d)
2
2

=
lim
L0
=const.

d
2
4-96
a
a = L sin
L
b ' r L cos
L sin
a
d ' =
b r L cos

L sin
=
lim
2 r L cos
L0
=const.
sin =
Recall that L = (constant)
lim
L0
=const.

sin
sin
=
2 r L cos
2 r
Streamlines are circles
= const. = c
r=
sin
2c
r = d sin is a circle of diameter d,
centered at (0, d/2).

4-97
4.3.5 Non-lifting Flow over a Cylinder (3.13)

(Uniform + doublet)
sin
= Ur sin
2 r

= Ur sin 1
2Ur 2
2
= Ur sin
R
1 2
r
!
,
where the circle radius is R2 /2U, since at r = R, = 0.

!
2
R
1
vr = 1 2 U cos
vr =
r
r
!
2
R
v =
v = 1 + 2 U sin
r
r
vr = 0, and v = 0 at stagnation points (i.e. (R, 0) and (R, ).

Stagnation streamline is given by = 0.
On cylinder surfacce, vr = 0, and v = 2U sin .
v2
2
Cp = 1 2 = 1 4 sin
U
Symmetric about x-axis.

no lift, no drag (dAlemberts paradox)
Drag due to viscosity.

4-98
4.3.6 Vortex flow (3.14)

(our fourth and last elementary flow)
vr = 0
C
const.
v =
=
r
r
= ()
1 d2
= 2 2 = 0 = C, = C 0 ln r
r d
2
=0
r
1
C
v =
=
r
r
vr =

4-99
Can verify
~ v = 0 everywhere.
~
~ v = 0 everywhere except at origin.
~
To evaluate C , take circulation along a streamline of radius r , viz.

I
= ~
v d~
s = v 2r
= 2C, or
C=
independent of r
But, if closed surface does not include center:

I
=
~
v d~
s
c
=0
all circulation is generated at origin.
C0
v =
=
r
r
0
C = C
=
2
=
ln r
2

vr = 0
v =
2r
4-100
4.3.7 Lifting Flow over a Cylinder (3.15, 3.16)

(doublet
+ uniform} +vortex)
|
{z
non-lifting
!
2
R
ln r + const.
1 = Ur sin 1 2 , 2 =
r
2

r
Set constant to
ln R 2 =
ln
2
2
R
2
R
1 2
r
= Ur sin

r
ln
+
2
R
(one of 3 cases 3rd Ed., p.235)

Magnus effect 3rd Ed., p.241.
2
vr =
v =
R
r2
R2
1+ 2
r
U cos
!
U sin
2r}
| {z
new term

4-101
On cylinder surface, r = R,
vr = 0, v = 2U sin
2R
2
2 sin
2RU

2 #
2 sin
2
Cp = 1 4 sin +
+
RU
2RU
Z
Z
1 c
1 c
CL =
Cp,l dx
Cp,udx,
c 0
c 0
where x = R (1 + cos ), dx = R sin d , and c = 2R.
Z 2
Z 0
1
1
CL =
Cp,l (R sin ) d
Cp,u (R sin ) d,
2R
2R
Z
1 2
which simplifies to CL =
Cp sin d.
2 0
"

2#)
Z 2 (
1
2 sin
2
CL =
1 4 sin +
+
sin d
2 0
RU
2RU
Z 2
Z 2
Z 2
3
2
sin d = 0,
sin d = 0,
sin d =
V2
Cp = 1 2 = 1
U
"
CL =
RU

4-102
L0
0
CL =
,
where
L
is lift per unit span, and the cord length c = 2R.
2 c
1/2U
L 0 = U
Kutta-Joukowski Theorem.
General 2D shape.
Steady, incompressible, inviscid, irrotational
Cp symmetric fore and aft (formal derivation in Anderson 3rd Ed., p.237).
CD = 0
DAlemberts Paradox
Stagnation points (optional)

!
2
R
vr = 1 2 U cos = 0
satisfied by R = r or = /2.
r
!
2
R
=0
v = 1 + 2 U sin
r
2r
Therefore, stagnation points are given by

= arcsin
if r = R undefined for > 4UR, then
4UR
s

2
use = /2 r =
R2
4U
4U

4-103
< 4UR
= 4UR
> 4UR
Magnus effect CL/CD not very big!

Viscosity is required in real life to get lift!!

4-104
Incompressible Flow Over Airfoils
This chapter airfoils (i.e. wing sections)

Next chapter finit wing.
5.1
Airfoil Characteristics (4.3)
CL varies linearly with for low-moderate .

L=0 for symmetric airfoil is = 0
Inviscid results over-predict CL and cannot
predict stall.
CD requires viscous analysis (not in this
chapter).
CM < 0 and roughly constant.

5-105
5.2
Source and Vortex Sheets (4.4)

Vortex filament (3D)
Straight vortex filament
equivalent to point vortex.
Point vortex (2D)
V =
2r
Vortex sheet (3D)

Edge view of vortex sheet
with camber.
(Panel methods.)
= (s) is the strength of vortex sheet per unit length.

Element ds, of strength ds, induces a velocity dV normal to r given by
dV =
ds
2r
Thin airfoil theory
Integration would require vectors, so use potential function instead, viz.

d =
ds

5-106
Induced velocity potential due to vortex sheet:

Z b
1
(x, z) =
ds Panel Method
2 a
Z b
Circulation around vortex sheet:
=
ds
a
The circulation around dash box is
= (u1 u2) ds+(v1 v2) dn = ds

In the limit as dn 0
ds = (u1 u2) ds
= u1 u2
I.e. local jump in tangential velocity across the vortex sheet is equal to the local sheet strength!
5.3
Kutta Condition (4.5)
Sharp TE is important for lift generation.

Infinite number of solutions satisfy Laplaces equations.
Above solution is valid for inviscid flow, yet physically unrealistic.


5-107
Choose the solution for which the flow leaves smoothly, and does not go around TE. This
can be stated several ways:
1. Cusped TE
Continuity of pressure
Pu = Pl
Irrotational flow P +1/2V 2 = const. everywhere!
Vu = Vl
2. Finite TE angle (as special case of 1)
Only smooth when
Vu = Vl = 0
TE is a stagnation point.
3. Various solutions have different values for .
In region ds, = ds; = Vu Vl
I.e. (TE) = (a) = Vu Vl
Conditions (1) and (2) both satisfied by (TE) = 0 .
Note: This implies, 0 Cp < 1 at the trailing edge (condition 1), or Cp = 1 for condition 2.
The Kutta condition is essentially a model for the effect of viscosity, which is the reason why
the flow leaves the trailing edge in a smooth fashion (if the boundary layer does not separate an obvious assumption given that we are assuming inviscid flow).

5-108
5.4
Kelvins Circulation Theorem (4.6)
How is circulation conserved? Consider an arbitrary inviscid, incompressible flow.

It can be shown from conservation of mass that
Z
Z
~
v d~
s=
~
v d~
s, or
C1
C2
1 = 2.
D
=0
Dt
Inviscid, irrotational flow
Time rate of change of circulation

around a closed curve consisting of
the same fluid elements is zero
Material derivative gives rate of change following fluid particles.
Start flow
V =0
At t > 0
V = U
3 + 4 = 2
D
= 0 1 = 2 2 = 0
Dt
3 = 4
Circulation around airfoil is equal and opposite to starting vortex.

5-109
5.5
Classical Thin Airfoil Theory
Introduction Required items: 1. Laplaces equation

2. Kutta condition
3. Flow tangency (BC), and
4. Far-field conditions (at ).
Thin airfoil: Simulated by a vortex sheet along the camber line.

Force camber line to be a streamline of the flow.
Place vortex sheet on chord line instead:

= (x) instead of = (s)
(c) = 0 Kutta condition
Let w0 = w0(s) be the velocity induced normal to the camber line. However, the camber is a
streamline.
U,n + w0(s) = 0 ,
where U,n is the component of U normal to the camber line.

5-110
From geometry,
U,n

d
z
1
= U sin + tan
dx
For thin airfoil and small ,

dz
U,n = U
dx
Let w(x) be the velocity normal to the chord line. For thin airfoils, camber and chord lines are
approximately equal w0(s) ' w(x).
Can obtain w(x) from (x)
dw =
()d
2 (x )
Velocity induced by elemental

vortex d at x.
Total induced velocity is:
Z
w(x) =
0
ds
Recall that dV =
2r
()d
2 (x )

5-111
But w(x) + U,n = 0,
1
2
Z
0
()d
= U
x
dz
dx
Fundamental equation of thin airfoil theory.

5.5.1 Symmetric Airfoil (4.7)
no camber (average of upper and lower surface is the line z = 0)
Z
0
dz
=0
dx
()d
= U
x
Let us apply a change of variable such that , x =
(inviscid, incompressible
flow over a flat plate)
c
c
(1 cos ) and d, dx = sin d .
2
2
A fixed x location corresponds to a fixed , thus let
x=
c
(1 cos )
2
0c0
1
2
Z
0
() sin d
= U
cos cos

5-112
Solution is not trivial, but we eventually get

() = 2U
1 + cos
sin
Kutta condition... ()
=
=
=
1 + cos
lim 2U
sin

sin
lim 2U
cos
0 (lHospitals rule)
Calculate total circulation:
Z
c
=
()d =
() sin d
2
0
0
Z
= cU
(1 + cos ) d
c
= cU
Kutta-Joukowski theorem gives the lift per unit span:
0
L = U = cU
L0
CL
,
qc
q =

1
2
U
2
5-113
2
cU
= 2
CL =
2
1/2 Uc
CL() = 2
dCL
= 2 , Lift slope
d
For thin airfoils in general (dont know
this yet, but we will soon see!!)
Moment about LE:

Element vortex with strength ()d located at from LE gives
d = ()d
0
MLE
dL = Ud = U()d
0
0
dMLE = dL = U()d
Z c
Z c
=
U()d = U
()d
0
But CL = 2 =
CM,LE =
CL
4
0
2
MLE = qc
2
0
MLE
CM,LE =
=
qc2
2
CL
2
Recall CM, c = CM,LE +

4
CL
CM, c = 0 .
4
4

5-114
Centre of Pressure:
point about which moments are zero.
Aerodynamic Centre: point where moments are independent of .
Here, c/4 (quarter-chord) is both the centre of pressure and the aerodynamic centre!
5.5.2
Cambered Airfoil (4.8)
1
2
Z
0
()d
= U
x
dz
dx

.
dz
6= 0.
dx
Apply the same transformation as for the symmetric case and using Fourier sine series.
"
#
X
1 + cos
Makes the camber line a streamline of the
() = 2U A0
+
An sin(n) . flow. (Derivation outside scope of course)
sin
n=1
Now,
Z
1 dz
d, and
A0 =
0 dx
Z
2 dz
An =
cos(n) d,
0 dx
where dz/dx is a function of . Note, () = 0 satisfies the Kutta condition.
Total circulation:
Z
=
0
c
()d =
2
() sin d
0

5-115
"
= cU A0
(1 + cos ) d +
0
Since
An
sin(n) sin d .
0
n=1
(1 + cos ) d = , and
0
(
Z
/2 for n = 1
sin(n) sin d =
,
0
for n 6= 1
0
then

= cU
A0 + A1
2

.
Lift per unit span:

0
L = U = Uc
A0 + A1
2
L0
CL = 1
= (2Ao + A1)
2 c
2

Z
1 dz
CL = 2 +
(cos 1) d .
0 dx
Note that CL 6= 0 at = 0!

5-116
But,
dCL
= 2
d
still!
CL =
dCL
( L=0)
d
Z
1 dz
L=0 =
(cos 1) d.
0 dx
Moment: (problem 4.9) see appendix to this chapter (to be posted online).

A2
CM,LE =
A0 + A1
.
2
2
Recall, CL = (2A0 + A1),

CL
CM,LE =
+ (A1 A2)
4
4
CM,c/4 = CM,LE +
CL
= (A2 A1) .
4
4
c/4 is not the centre of pressure, but it is the aerodynamic centre since CM,c/4 is independent
of . Centre of pressure:
0
MLE
CM,LE c
xcp = 0 =
L
CL

c
xcp =
1+
(A1 A2)
4
CL

5-117
Example
"
Use change of variable

c
x = (1 cos )
2
dz
dx
2 #
x
x
4zm
c
c

4zm
x
12
c
c
[Dont use now, since derivation is complete

(got rid of also).]
dz
4zm
=
cos
dx
c
Z
1 dz
d =
A0 =
0 d
x
Z
4zm for n = 1
2 dz
A1 =
cos(n)d =
c
0
0 dx
for n 2
CL = (2A0 + A1) = 2 ( L=0)

2zm
A1
2zm
L=0 =
=
, CL = 2 +
2
c
c

5-118

CL = 2
2zm
+
c
Moment force:
CM,LE

A2
4zm
A0 + A1
=
+
2
2
c

4zm
zm
= (A2 A1) =
0
=
4
4
c
c
=
2
CM,c/4
Centre of pressure:
xcp

CM,LE c
c
=
=
1+
(A1 A2)
CL
4
CL
c
zm
xcp = +
4
2 + 4zm/c

5-119
5.6
Panel method (3.17, 4.10)
Numerical technique for solving potential flows (arbitrary shape, thickness and ).
No computational grid.
Next step up is CFD, and N-S or Euler.
Can apply compressibility correction, but no shocks, (say M . 0.6).
Simulate a vortex sheet over an airfoil by straight panels, with midpoints being control
points.
Enforce flow tangency at each point and solve the resulting linear system for the local vortex
strength.
Can then get aerodynamic forces.
Show an example using XFOIL.

5-120
Incompressible Flow over Finite Wing
N-S
6.1
Downwash and Induced Drag (5.1)
2D Laplace
(Chapter 6)
3D (Inviscid, incompressible)
(Chapter 7)
Flow around wing tip causes

wing-tip vortex.
Wing-tip vortices induce a small downward velocity on the wing called downwash, W .

6-121
U and W combine to make a local relative wind.
eff(= i) is what is actually seen by the airfoil section. the component of local lift
vector L in the direction of U is the induced drag Di, and lift is reduced.
(Inviscid, incompressible DAlemberts paradox: in 2D D = 0, but not for 3D!!)
CD = CD,profile + CD,induced ,
where CD,profile is the profile drag due to skin friction and pressure (essentially 2D) and
CD,induced is the induced drag due to the generation of lift (3D).

6-122
6.2
The Vortex Filament, Biot-Savart Law, and Helmholtzs Theorem

(5.2)
Consider a curved vortex filament.

Circulation around any closed path containing the filament is constant and equal to .
Strength of vortex filament is thus .
d~l~
r
~
dV =
3
4 |~
r|
For a straight filament,
Biot-Savart Law
(similar to electromagnetic theory for induced
magnetic field due to a current.)

gives 2D results as before i.e. v =

.
2r
Basic vortex behaviour described by Helmholtzs Theorems:

1. Vortex strength remains constant along its length.
2. Vortex filament cannot end in a fluid.
(a) Extend to boundaries.
(b) Closed loop.

6-123
6.3
Prandtls Classic Lifting Line Theory (5.3)
But this implies an infinite induced

velocity at the wing tip. In order for
W to be finite, need a distribution of
along span.

6-124
With an infinite number of horseshoe vortices, we have = (y) (a continuous distribution).

Strength is d =
d
dy

dy
dw =
(d/dy) dy
d
=
4 (y y)
4 (y y)

d
If
< 0, then dw > 0
dy y
for our configuration
1
w(y) =
4
b/2
(d/dy) dy
y y
b/2
Total downwash
But remember that distribution is the unknown we are after.


6-125
i(y) = tan
w(y)

'
w(y)
U
Induced angle of attack. (negative sign

consistent with our previous picture)
1
i(y) =
4U
b/2
(d/dy) dy
y y
b/2
From thin airfoil theory,

CL = 2 eff(y) L=0 .
(6.1)
With aerodynamic twist, L=0 varies with the span (i.e. y), but known characteristic of airfoil at y.
Cord for a given section can also vary with span, thus c = c(y).
2
Kutta-Joukowsky L0 = 12 U
c(y)CL = U(y)
CL =
2(y)
.
Uc(y)
(6.2)
Solve (6.1) for eff and substitute into (6.2) to give
eff =
(y)
+ L=0(y).
Uc(y)

6-126
But eff = i, therefore
1
(y)
+ L=0(y) +
(y) =
U c(y)
4U
|
{z
} |
eff
b/2
(d/dy) dy
y y
b/2
{z
}
i
Fundamental equation of Prandtls lifting line theory

(Implicitly-defined solution for (y))
Once you know (y) (drop the subscript for simplicity),
1. L0(y) = U(y)
Z b/2
Z b/2
0
2. Total lift:
L=
L (y)dy = U
(y)dy
b/2
b/2
Z b/2
L
2
(y)dy
CL =
=
qS
US b/2
where S is the planform area of the wing.
3. Di0 = L0i sin i ' L0ii, so that
Z b/2
Z b/2
0
Di =
Li(y)i(y)dy = U
(y)i(y)dy
b/2
b/2
Z b/2
Di
2
=
(y)i(y)dy
CDi =
qS
US b/2
Need to get (y) This is the key to finite wing theory!!

6-127
6.3.1 Elliptical Lift Distribution

(A special case to study)
at origin.s
(y) =
2y
1
sb
L (y) = U
Downwash, w(y):
2

2y
b
2
4
y
d
= 2
dy
b (1 4y 2/b2)1/2
w(y) =
b2
b/2
b/2
y
(1
1/2
4y 2/b2)
b
Change of variables y = cos ,
2
w(y) =
Induced angle of attack, i:
2b
dy
(y y)
b
dy = sin d
2
(Constant over the span!

Both interesting and important!)
i =
w
=
U
2bU
Note: for b i = 0 (2D result).


6-128
b/2
Z
L = U
(y)dy
b/2
2
b/2
L = U
b/2
4y
b2
4L
2USCL
=
=
Ub
b
!1/2
b
dy = U
4
1
2
recall L = USCL
2
2USCL
SCL
i =
=
=
2bU
(2bU) (b)
b2
b2
Aspect ration: AR
S
CL
i =
AR
Induced drag:
CDi =
CDi
2
U S
b/2
(y)i(y)dy,
where i is constant.
b/2
2i
=
U S
b/2
(y)dy
| b/2 {z
}
b

CDi =
ib
2US
6-129

CDi =
CDi
CL2
=
AR
b
2US

2USCL
CL
AR
b
{z
}
| {z } |
i

Drag due to lift.

Varies with the square of lift, but
reduced with higher AR.
Most airplanes AR = 6 8, but gliders can be between 10-226.

Point of interest:
Assume no geometric twist (i.e. constant along span).
Assume no aerodynamic twist (i.e. L=0 constant along span).

Thin airfoil theory CL = a eff L=0 .
(a = 2 ) CL is also constant along span.
L0
0
L (y) = qc(y)CL c(y) =
q CL
chord varies elliptically along the span.
6 For gliders, increasing AR is limited by structural integrity.

6-130
6.3.2
General Lift Distribution

Z b/2
(d/dy) dy
(y)
1
Recall, (y) =
+ L=0(y) +
.
U c(y)
4U b/2 y y
{z
} |
|
{z
}
eff
Transform y
b
b
y 0
2
2
b
y = cos
2
b
dy = sin d
2
Represent () as a finite Fourier sine series (cosines cancel due to BC).
() = 2bU
N
X
An sin n
n=1
Note (0) = () = 0 at wing tips.

(For elliptical distribution, () = sin A1 =
& An = 0, n > 1)
2bU
X
d
d d
d
=
= 2bU
nAn cos n
dy
d dy
dy
1

6-131
Substitute and d/dy into Prandtls equation to give

Z PN
N
1
2b X
1 nAn cos n
An sin n + L=0() +
d
() =
c() 1
| 0 cos {z
cos }
standard integral line
in thin airfoil theory.
N
X
2b X
sin n
() =
An sin n + L=0() +
nAn
c() 1
sin
1
By choosing locations for , we obtain N algebraic equations in terms of N unknowns,
{A1, A2, ..., AN }. Once we solve for the Ans,
R b/2
Z
U b/2 (y)dy
L
2
b
CL =
=
=
sin d
()
2 S
qS
1/2U
U S 0
2
Z
N
2b2 X
CL =
An
sin n sin d
S 1
0
|
{z
}
n = 1 survives only.

2b2
A1b2
CL =
A1
=
= A1AR
S
2
S
(Although CL depends only on A1, we need to
CL = A1AR
solve for all As in order to get A1.)

6-132
CDi =
2
U S
(y)i(y)dy =
b/2
1
But, i(y) =
4U
Z
Since
0
b/2
An sin n
i() sin d.
Z
N
(d/dy)
1X
cos n
dy =
nAn
d .
y
cos
cos
b/2
0
1
N
X
sin n
sin n
cos n
d =
, then i() =
nAn
cos cos
sin
sin
1
CDi =
2b
S
!
An sin n
N
X
!
nAn sin n
, m 6= k
sin m sin k =
/2
CDi =
N
X
Note:
b/2
2b
S
N
X
2b
S
,m = k
!
N
X
2
nAn
= AR
2
1
2
CDi = AR A1 [1 + ] ,
N
X
!
2
nAn
N
X
2

n
An
A1
2
Therefore, 0 and CDi is minimal with = 0 (i.e. for elliptical distribution).


6-133
Define a span efficiency factor, e =
1
1. e = 1 for elliptical lift distribution.
1+
CL2
CL2
CDi =
(1 + ) =
AR
AR e
Compromise for elliptical wing is the tapered wing.
6.4
Reduction of Lift Slope
dCL
a
=a=
a
d
1+
AR
where is a function of Ai.
dCL
= a
d ( i)
CL = a ( i) + const.
For elliptical wing,

CL
CL = a
+const.
AR
dCL
a dCL
= a
d
AR d
a

,
a=
a
1+
(1 + )
AR

6-134
Finite Wing Example

Assume untwisted, uncambered, rectangular wing with AR = 6.
N
X
2b X
sin n
() =
An sin n + L=0() +
nAn
c() 1
sin
1
1. Untwisted () = const..
2. Uncambered L=0() = 0.
3. Rectangular c() = const. = c.
N
X
2AR
1
nAn sin n
An sin n +
sin
For a symmetrically-loaded wing, An = 0 for even n. Truncate series at N = 8.

1
3
2AR
2AR
= A1 sin
+
+ A3 sin 3
+
sin
sin

5
7
2AR
2AR
+A5 sin 5
+
+ A7 sin 7
+
sin
sin
4 unknowns A1, A3, A5, A7. Choose 4 values; 0 < /2, due to symmetry.

=
3
, ,
,
8 4 8 2

6-135
Solve 44 system
A1
A3
A
5
A7
A1 = 0.2402
A3 = 0.0289
A5 = 0.0057
A7 = 0.0010
CL = A1AR = 4.53 CL = 4.53

CDi
CL2
=
(1 + ) ,
AR
N
X

An 2
=
n
A1
2
3A23 + 5A25 + 7A27
= 0.046
=
A21

CDi = 1.142
dCL
Note:
= 4.53 < 2 = a (28% drop in lift slop!)
d

6-136

U of T Aerodynamics Course Overview

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University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies

c Philippe Lavoie 2012

c Philippe Lavoie 2012

c Philippe Lavoie 2012

Aerodynamic Forces: How do Planes Fly? (1.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Frame of Reference and Steady Flow Assumption

Aerodynamic Forces and Moments (1.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Centre of Pressure (1.6)

Types of Flow (1.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Inviscid vs. Viscous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Viscous Flows: Boundary Layers and Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Laminar, Transitional and Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Attached vs. Separated Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 The Basic Equations of Fluid Dynamics

General Form of a Conservation Law

Scalar Conservation Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vector Conservation Law

The Equation of Mass Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Equation of Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Equation of Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3 The Dynamic Levels of Approximation

The Navier-Stokes Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Closure of the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A Brief Review of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

First Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Second Law of Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Speed of Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Incompressible Fluid Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Reynolds-average N-S Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Boundary-Layer Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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3.10 The Euler Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11 Potential Flow Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11.1 Pathlines & Streamlines of a Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11.2 Angular Velocity

3.11.4 Stream Function

3.11.5 Velocity Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.11.6 The Potential Flow Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.12 Incompressible Potential Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 Fundamentals of Inviscid, Incompressible Flows

Bernoullis Equation (3.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Incompressible Potential Flow (3.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Uniform flow (3.9)

Source/Sink Flow (3.10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Uniform Flow + source + sink (3.11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Doublet Flow (3.12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Non-lifting Flow over a Cylinder (3.13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Vortex flow (3.14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Lifting Flow over a Cylinder (3.15, 3.16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5 Incompressible Flow Over Airfoils

Airfoil Characteristics (4.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

Source and Vortex Sheets (4.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Kutta Condition (4.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Kelvins Circulation Theorem (4.6)

Classical Thin Airfoil Theory

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Symmetric Airfoil (4.7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

Cambered Airfoil (4.8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Panel method (3.17, 4.10)

6 Incompressible Flow over Finite Wing

Downwash and Induced Drag (5.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Prandtls Classic Lifting Line Theory (5.3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124