Improved Governing of Kaplan Turbine

Improved Governing of Kaplan Turbine
Hydropower Plants Operating Island

Grids
MARTIN GUSTAFSSON
Degree project in
Automatic Control
Master's Thesis
Stockholm, Sweden, June 2013
XR-EE-RT 2013:013
Improved Governing of Kaplan Turbine

Hydropower Plants Operating Island Grids
A Degree Project in System Control
MARTIN GUSTAFSSON
Masters Thesis at the Department of Automatic Control

Supervisor: M.Sc. Bengt Johansson
Examiner: Professor Elling W. Jacobsen
XR-EE-RT 2013:013
iii
Abstract
To reduce the consequences of a major fault in the electric power grid,
functioning parts of the grid can be divided into smaller grid islands. The
grid islands are operated isolated from the power network, which places new
demands on a faster frequency regulation.
This thesis investigates a Kaplan turbine hydropower plant operating an
island grid. The Kaplan turbine has two control signals, the wicket gate and
the turbine blade positions, controlling the mechanical power. The inputs are
combined to achieve maximum turbine efficiency at all operating points. In
relative terms, the wicket gate has a fast dynamic but small effect on the
mechanical power, while the turbine blade has slow dynamic and large effect
on the output, seen around an operating point.
The proposed method to get a faster frequency control uses a different
combination of the turbine inputs, transferring control effect from the turbine
blades to the wicket gates at the cost of loss of turbine efficiency. The method
is investigated with time domain simulations on a model containing all essential
parts of a Kaplan turbine hydropower plant.
Acknowledgements
This report is the result of a masters thesis project at the Department of Automatic Control at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stockholm, Sweden.
The work has been done at Solvina in Vsters under the supervision of M.Sc.
Bengt Johansson. Examiner and supervisor at KTH has been Professor Elling W.
Jacobsen.
I would like to express my gratitude to the persons that have been supporting
me during this project; supervisor Bengt Johansson for his great input and commitment, Professor Jacobsen for his advice in the planning process and feedback of
the linearised analysis, fellow colleges at Solvina for their kindness and helpfulness
and to family and friends for their inspiration and patience.
Contents
Contents
vi
1 Introduction
1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Theory of Kaplan Turbine Hydropower Plant
2.1 Kaplan Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Wicket gates and turbine blades . . . .
2.1.2 Servos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Combination Unit . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Penstock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Per Unit - pu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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4 Control Strategies
4.1 Combination Offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Inverted Combination Anti-windup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 Simulation Model
5.1 Governor . . . . . .
5.2 Servos and Actuators
5.3 Turbine . . . . . . .
5.4 Generator and Load
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6 Analysis Method
6.1 Time Domain Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3 Frequency Control
3.1 PID . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Droop . . . . . . . .
3.3 Anti-windup . . . . .
3.4 Regulation criterion
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CONTENTS
6.2
6.1.1 Stationary Behaviour study . . . .

6.1.2 Efficiency Losses . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Load Disturbance Simulations . . .
6.1.4 Inverted Combination Anti-windup
Controllability Analysis . . . . . . . . . .
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28
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7 Results
33
7.1 Stationary Behaviour Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1.1 Turbine blade position as a function of wicket gate position
and mechanical power = f (, Pm ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.1.2 Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate and turbine
blade positions Pm = f (, ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2 Efficiency Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2.1 Efficiency as a function of electric power and combination
offset = f (Pm , of f set) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2.2 Efficiency, wicket gate and turbine blade position relationship 36
7.3 Load Disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.3.1 Maximum Load Step Disturbance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.3.2 Step Responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
7.4 Inverted Combination Anti-windup. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
8 Conclusions
43
9 Glossary
45
Bibliography
47
Chapter 1
Introduction
This masters thesis treats frequency regulation of Kaplan turbine hydropower
plants when running an isolated electric island grid. The purpose of the project
is to analyse and propose improvements of the frequency control based on a general
model of a Kaplan hydropower plant.
1.1
Background
In todays modern society, reliability of electric power supply is something taken for
granted. Large and long lasting disturbances on the electric grid pose a threat to
that and may have critical consequences for the functioning of a society. Extreme
weather, sabotage, acts of war or technical problems in the operation may result in
full or partial breakdown of the electric grid.
Events of this nature can never be completely prevented. Instead, the focus
lies on reducing the consequences of a disturbance by isolating the problems when
they occur. By operating the electric grid in smaller, pre-defined islands, the consequences of a large disturbance can be reduced. When running island operation,
the island will be isolated from the rest of the grid and therefore self-supporting on
power. In order to obtain stable operation, generated and consumed power within
the island grid must be in balance. This places new demands of a faster frequency
regulation of the generating power units within the island, since they are no longer
supported by a strong electric grid.
In Sweden, 45% of the power is generated in hydropower plants, mostly located
in the northern part of the country. The great majority are Kaplan turbine plants,
which are suitable for operation at lower fall heights. As of this, the Kaplan turbine
hydropower plants play a significant part in operation of a number of grid islands.
[1]
Simply put, a Kaplan turbine has two control signals, the wicket gate and the
turbine blade positions, and the mechanical power as output. In relative terms, the
wicket gate has a fast dynamic but small effect on the mechanical power, while the
turbine blade has slow dynamic and large effect on the output around the operating
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
point. The adjustable wicket gates control the flow of water in to the turbine
chamber. After passing the chamber, the water is led onto adjustable turbine blades
where the kinetic energy is transformed into rotation of the turbine. A governor
controls the turbines output of mechanical power. To gain maximum efficiency, i.e.
to produce the demanded power at the lowest cost of water flow, adjustments of
the wicket gates and the turbine blades need to be coordinated. Adjustment of the
wicket gates are controlled directly by the turbine governor. For each position of
the wicket gates, the turbine blades are adjusted to the most efficient combination
of the two, by a combinational unit. The properties and the combination of the
wicket gates and the turbine blades are central when it comes to improving the
ability for island operation of the turbine. For older turbines, the wicket gates have
fast dynamics and can open and close within 5-15 second whereas the turbine blades
need 30-60 seconds for full movement. In modern turbines, not considered in this
thesis, the wicket gates and turbine blades can achieve full movement within 5-8
seconds. When the turbine is running in island operation, a change of the load will
cause the wicket gates to adjust in order to compensate for the change in power
demand. Since the turbine blades are adjusted slower than the wicket gates, the full
effect of the change of the power generation will not occur until the turbine blades
has reached their optimal position. By then, the change in frequency might have
grown large and the wicket gates would need to compensate for that. For a larger
change of the load this might lead to oscillation and slow settling of the frequency.
In worst case, the oscillations will lead to instability with collapse of the island grid
as a result. [2], [3]
Simulations and measurements of the ability to run in island operation of some
Swedish Kaplan hydropower plants have shown need for improvement of the governing in order to satisfy demands of stable island operation.
As of now, there is not much to find in the literature specifically studying governing of Kaplan turbines operating island grids. Most publications describes hydropower plants in general, where the use of PID governors are widespread.[4] Recent research has considered single-input multiple-output non-linear models, including the effect of water compressibility. A proposed multi-loop cascaded governor
using polynomial H optimization has shown to be better than the conventional
PID governor.[5]
1.2
Purpose
The Swedish national grid (Svenska Kraftnt) is the authority responsible for the
reliability of electric power supply in Sweden. In normal operation, their requirements state that the frequency should be held within 0.1 Hz from nominal frequency f0 = 50 Hz. When running in island operation, the ability for fast regulation
of the frequency is lowered. Hence, the frequency regulation requirements on island
grids are less strict. The purpose of this masters thesis is to improve the frequency
regulation of a Kaplan turbine running an island grid. The objective is to achieve
1.3. LIMITATIONS
a general method for improving the frequency regulation such that the island grid
will
keep the frequency within 2 Hz of nominal at load changes of 10% of rated
power.
manage increases of the load by 10% of rated power from operating points
between 0-80% of rated power.
manage decreases of the load by 10% of rated power from operating points
between 100-20% of rated power.
1.3
Limitations
A masters thesis project performed at Solvina 2009 [6] did result in a training simulator for a Kaplan turbine hydropower plant. This model, built in the simulation
and modulation tool Dymola, includes all the relevant parameters to fit the model
for various types of operational conditions.
In this thesis, the purpose of proposing improvements are limited to improving
the frequency control of the training simulator model. The model is fitted to represent a typical Kaplan turbine hydropower plant, based on measurement data of
different plants, with limited or no ability to run island grids.
Chapter 2
Theory of Kaplan Turbine Hydropower

Plant
This section will give a brief presentation of the main components of a Kaplan
turbine hydropower plant. From the water inlet to resulting generation of power,
the plant is divided into the subsystems; penstock, turbine and generator. An
overview of the system is depicted in Figure 2.1. The theory presented for each
of the subsystems constitutes the base of the simulation model and the purpose is
to give a basic understanding of each parts properties and functions. A detailed
presentation of the simulation model is found in Chapter 5.
Upper water level
Reservoir
Electrical grid
Inlet
Kaplan
Turbine passage
Lower water level
Outlet
Figure 2.1: Kaplan hydropower plant.

Hydropower)
5
(Source:
www.wikipedia.org/wiki/
2.1
CHAPTER 2. THEORY OF KAPLAN TURBINE HYDROPOWER PLANT
Kaplan Turbine
The Kaplan turbine is the most commonly used type in hydropower plants in Sweden. The main reason for this is its flat efficiency curve, which is due to the turbines
ability to operate with high efficiency in a wide range of operating points and at
different water heads. The Kaplan turbine is an axial reaction turbine, in which the
pressure in the turbine chamber is higher than the atmospheric pressure. Unlike
the impulse turbine, such as a Pelton turbine, the water at the inlet in a reaction
turbine possesses both pressure energy and kinetic energy. Shown in Figure 2.2, the
Turbine axis
Turbine blades
Figure 2.2: Kaplan turbine and generator. (Source: www.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Water_turbine)
water is led through the inlet onto the wicket gates. The wicket gates are adjustable
and control the water flow into the turbine. They are attached around the turbine
chamber and shaped for best flow properties. [7] After passing the wicket gates,
the water is led onto the adjustable turbine blades. The turbine typically has 4-8
slightly curved blades, which shape resembles a boat propeller. As the water passes
through the runner, the pressure energy gradually changes to kinetic energy. The
shape of the blades enhances the fluid velocity with only a small loss of efficiency.
The higher pressure of the water on top of the blades forces the water past the
turbine and the pressure energy is transferred to the turbine axis. Ideally, if all
kinetic energy in the water was to be transferred to the turbine axis, the velocity
2.1. KAPLAN TURBINE
of the water should be zero after passing the turbine. Since the water needs to be
transported away some kinetic energy is kept.
2.1.1
Wicket gates and turbine blades
The Kaplan turbine is characterized by that both the wicket gates and the turbine
blades are adjustable. The regulation of the two are coordinated and combined to
gain maximum efficiency. For every wicket gate position, the turbine blade position
is chosen such that it maximizes the ratio of output power and water volume.
The wicket gates, which regulate the water flow into the turbine chamber, are
attached on the wicket gate ring, depicted in Figure 2.3 a) seen from above. The
wicket gate position [0, 1] pu, where = 1 pu= 60 denote fully open and = 0
pu= 0 closed. The angles used in the simulation model are defined as in Figure
2.3 b), with = 0 being along the side of the wicket gate ring. The turbine blade
position used in the simulation model [0, 1] pu= [2.5 , 32.5 ] is defined as in
Figure 2.3 c), where = 0 lies along the horizontal axis.
= 60 o
= 32.5
= 0o
a)
b)
= 2.5o
c)
Figure 2.3: a) Wicket gate ring seen from above. b) Definition of wicket gate
position. c) Definition of turbine blade position.
2.1.2
Servos
To adjust the wicket gate ring and the turbine blades, hydraulic servos are used.
The wicket gate position is regulated by rotating the ring upon which they are
fixed. The hydraulic servo regulating the turbine blades are positioned inside the
turbine axis, which also holds the two pipes transporting the hydraulic oil. Sensors
measuring the blade angle are connected via the turbine axis since it is placed in
a sealed area. However, the wicket gate ring is in no contact with water and its
adjustments can be seen by the naked eye. One actuator for each hydraulic system
controls the oil pressures.
As mentioned earlier, the opening and closing times of the wicket gates and the
turbine blades are of interest when studying governing in island operation. Adjusting the wicket gates between closed and fully open typically takes 5-15 seconds.
Apart from the physical limitations in the servo, the speed limiter is needed to keep
the pressure changes in the penstock within its predefined boundaries when closing.
Adjusting the turbine blades between the endpoints typically takes 30-60 seconds.
The main reason for the relatively slow control of the turbine blades is problem to
get enough oil through the turbine axis to the hydraulic servo in a short period of
time. [2]
To avoid vibrations of the turbine blades, a backlash can sometimes be introduced in the turbine blade servo. It allows the blades to be kept static when the
difference between setpoint and actual position is small, which reduces the wear on
the hydraulic system.
2.1.3
Combination Unit
The purpose of the combination unit is to achieve maximum efficiency at all operating points. As shown in Figure 2.4, the turbine blade setpoint position setpoint
is computed by the combination unit, based on the wicket gate setpoint position
setpoint or the actual wicket gate position actual . Both these choices of input signals to the combination unit are used. When running an island grid, it is preferred
to use setpoint to avoid the time delay of the wicket gate servo. The combination
setpoint
Wicket gate
servo
actual
Combination Unit
setpoint
Turbine blade
servo
actual
Figure 2.4: Block diagram of servos and combination unit

of the two is chosen such that the maximum turbine efficiency is achieved. The
combination unit data, which is based on measurements from turbine tests, is a
function of the water head H. The turbine tests consist of measuring the efficiency
of the turbine at different combinations of wicket gate and turbine blade positions
at a constant revolution speed. This is performed by fixing the turbine blades and
letting the wicket gates go from closed to fully open while registering the turbine
efficiency. The test is then repeated for a number of turbine blade positions. The
water head will affect the mechanical power of the turbine and thus also the optimal
combination curve. In a hydropower plant it is therefore common to have a number
of different combination curves depending on water head.
2.2. PENSTOCK
2.2
Penstock
The penstock is the water transport system supplying the turbine. The theoretically
largest amount of energy available to the turbine is determined by the net head,
which is the difference between the upper and lower water levels. However, the
energy is affected by friction losses and the waters dynamic behaviour.
The penstock usually consists of an inlet, turbine passage and an outlet, all
depicted in Figure 2.1. The construction of the inlet and outlet differs between
plants depending on the conditions of the surrounding environment. The inlet and
outlet can be low friction metal pipes or tunnels burst in rock causing large friction.
There will also be some losses of kinetic energy in the turbine. Ideally the water
velocity is zero after passing the turbine, meaning all kinetic energy is absorbed by
the turbine axis. This is not possible since the water needs to be transported away.
The dynamical behaviour of the penstock is linked to the mass inertia of the
water. While the turbine is operating in a stationary state, the penstock has no
affect on the turbines behaviour. Once changes of the demanded power load occur,
leading to opening or closing of the wicket gates, the turbine and the penstock will
interact. If the load increases, the wicket gates are opened to increase the water
flow. This will initially lead to the pressure dropping on the inlet side of the turbine
due to that the water head is used to accelerate the water. As a result of this, the
turbines mechanical power decreases until the pressure is restored and the power
can increase. The size of this non-minimum phase characteristics of the penstock
depends on the waters mass inertia. The mass inertia of the penstock is expressed
by the water starting time Tw , which is discussed further in 3.4. [2]
2.3
Generator
In an electric power grid, the generated electric power is instantly consumed. Since
the consumption of power is constantly changing, the generation must change accordingly. This relationship of the generator is described by the first swing equation
2.1.
1
(Pm Pe D)
(2.1)
2H
In Equation 2.1 is the angular frequency, Pm and Pe the mechanical and
electrical power, D a positive damping constant and H the inertia. All parameters
are expressed in pu. In the case of the damping D = 0, the system will be in
equilibrium and hence the frequency constant only if the generated power Pm and
consumed power Pe are equal.
The generator, which is coupled to the turbine by the turbine axis, converts mechanical power to electrical power. The kinetic energy in the water is transformed
to mechanical energy, which accelerates the turbine and generator while the consumption of electrical power on the grid decelerates the turbine and generator [8].
If the generated power is larger than the consumed power, Pm > Pe , the generator
=
10
and turbine will accelerate and the frequency thereby increase. If Pm < Pe the
turbine and generator will be decelerated and the frequency decrease.
When Pm 6= Pe , the time derivative of the frequency depends on the power
imbalance P = Pm Pe and the stored kinetic energy in the systems rotating
masses. The inertia H is a measure of the systems stored kinetic energy in the
unit seconds. The inertia constant can be explained by assuming the event of the
mechanical power of the turbine instantly going from Pe to zero. If the generator
will keep transforming kinetic energy to electric energy at rated power, the time it
takes for the turbines and generators speed to reach zero is the inertia constant
H.
The damping D is a small positive constant describing the contribution of mechanical friction [9]. The load, Pe in Equation 2.1, can be assumed to be frequency
dependent to some extent, i.e. Pe = Pe,0 (1 + DPe ). DPe is a positive damping
constant acting similarly to D in Equation 2.1. The frequency control is improved
by having a large proportion of frequency dependant load, since the load then counteracts the frequency change in Equation 2.1.
2.4
Per Unit - pu
Per unit, pu, is a convenient method to normalize all generator, turbine and servo
quantities. The quantities are scaled such that rated or nominal value correspond
to 1 pu. For example, this means a frequency of f = 50 Hz correspond to f = 1 pu.
This nomenclature will be used throughout the report.
Having presented the general theory of a Kaplan turbine hydropower plant, next
chapter will treat the theory of the frequency control.
Chapter 3
Frequency Control
A Kaplan turbine hydropower plant is a complex non-linear, non-minimum phase
system and the control system that regulates the electrical frequency is called governor. Theory and design of the governor and regulation criteria will be treated
separately in this chapter.
The control system, containing the governor, actuators and servos are depicted
in Figure 3.1. This system is a two inputs - two outputs system, although the
governor only has one output. The governor uses the generator frequency f and a
power signal feedback as inputs.
The power signal feedback to the governor is either the wicket gate position
or the electrical power Pe . This signal is used to determine a turbines participation
in the frequency control. This function is referred to as droop and is described in
3.2.
The governors output is the wicket gate setpoint position setpoint , which controls the actuators and servos. In the upper branch in Figure 3.1, setpoint controls
the wicket gate actuator and servo. In the lower branch the combination unit computes the turbine blade position setpoint, setpoint , which controls the turbine blade
actuator and servo.
The most commonly used governors are quite simple and there has been little
changes of the design over a long period of time. Originally the governors were
entirely mechanical and implementation of digital governors can therefore have noticeable resemblance in design structure. [10],[4].
Apart from the inherent non-minimum phase characteristics of the turbine and
penstock, the saturations in the servos present significant effect to the frequency
response. The governors used to control frequency and power generation in Kaplan
turbines are usually PIDs. An alternative governor approach, where projective
controls are used to solve the sub optimal regulator problem, is presented in [5].
For a simpler implementation of this thesis proposed improvements, the general
structure of a PID governor is kept.
11
12
CHAPTER 3. FREQUENCY CONTROL
f
Wicket gates
actuator, servo
1
s 1
s actuator
f ref
D
Droop
setpoint
Anti
w-u
1
s
1
s 1
I
setpoint
ref
setpoint
1
Ts
Tclose
b
Topen
delay
s
PID controller
Tclose
a
d
dt
Tclose
a
d
dt
1
1
s actuator
Tclose
b
Topen
delay
s
setpoint
Combination
Unit
1
Ts
1
s
Turbine blades
actuator, servo
Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the control system
3.1
PID
A classical PID controller is the most widely used type of governor, depicted in
Figure 3.1. An ideal PID regulator is defined as in Equation 3.1, where e (t) is the
control error.
u (t) = KP e (t) + KI
Zt
e ( ) d + KD
t0
de (t)
dt
(3.1)
The proportional gain KP treats the current control error, the integration gain KI
the past control error and the differential gain KD the predicted future control
error. Equation 3.2 shows the transfer function of the PID controller. The standard
nomenclature in Swedish hydropower plants are bgp = KP = K, bgi = KI = KI ,
bgd = KD = KD .
F (s) = KP +
KI
1
+ KD s = K 1 +
+ D s
s
I s

(3.2)
On the topic of hydropower governors, there is a great deal of research on the

PID parameter settings. This thesis does not treat the tuning of the PID parameters
in the simulation model. A straightforward method is presented in [15]. The rule
of thumb parameter setting below are developed using the PI governor setting by
Hovey and Schleif [13],[14]. The governor setting is expanded by an appropriate
derivative gain and the parameters are defined by the water starting time Tw and
3.2. DROOP
13
the generator inertia H.

H
0.625 Tw
10 KP
KI =
3 Tw
Kp Tw
KD <
3
KP =
The water starting time, Tw , is defined as the time it takes for the current water
head to accelerate the water in the penstock through gravitation to the current
water velocity.
The non-minimum phase properties of the turbine and penstock is due to the
water starting time Tw . The effect of the non-minimum phase response increases
as Tw increases. Practically, Tw give rise to a delay in the turbine response. This
means that the PID must be set with a small proportional gain KP such that the
non-minimum phase behaviour is limited. The relation of Tw and KP is seen in
the parameter setting above. In the case of island operation, the use of derivative
control action is beneficial, particularly for plants with larger water starting times
Tw . [5]
f ref
setpoint
Droop
ref Pe,ref
Pe
Anti
windup
Figure 3.2: Block diagram of the PID controller with droop and anti-windup.
3.2
Droop
When changes of the load occur in an electrical grid with more than one turbine governor, the change in generated power must be distributed over these turbines. The
rate of each turbines static participation in the frequency control is set individually
in all turbine governors and is termed droop or ep . The droop can be interpreted as
the percentage change in frequency required to change the output power 100% of
14
rated power. The static droop is derived from the stationary changes in frequency
and generated power in Equation 3.3.[9]
f
(3.3)
Pm
The droop is used to tell the governor how to balance the objectives of controlling
the frequency and the power. Setting ep = 0 implies that the governor only regulates
the frequency. Typical values of the droop are ep [0.03, 0.06] pu/pu. [12]. The
droop input is a power feedback signal which is either or Pe . The use of Pe
has the advantage of easier setting of the droop and the power output reference.
However, the use of as substitute for a feedback of the power signal is common.
If instead Pe feedback is used, the output from the droop block in Figure 3.2 will
be ep (Pref Pe ). For an increase of the load Pe , the governor will react as if the
actual frequency is initially increased while the frequency is actually decreasing as
a result of the power imbalance. The larger the droop gain ep , the larger will the
effect of this non-minimum phase behaviour be. This could be avoided by using
as a substitute of the power.
ep =
3.3
Anti-windup
The integration action of the PID in Equation 3.1 treats the past control error, e (t).
As long as the control error e (t) 6= 0, its integral will keep increasing. For large
or long lasting control errors, the integration action may saturate the controller
output. This phenomenon is called integrator windup and will lead to a impaired
control even after the control error is eliminated.
To avoid this problem, an anti-windup can be implemented. The concepts are
presented in Figure 3.3. Once the controller output is saturated, the anti-windup
is activated and the integral action ceases to grow. The gain of the anti-windup
feedback has to be high in order to quickly reach steady state under saturation
conditions.
3.4
Regulation criterion
In terms of frequency control, hydropower plants can be divided into three categories
1. No control - the generator is linked to a strong electrical grid which frequency
entirely determines its rotational speed.
2. The plant has a part in controlling the frequency of the grid, decided by the
droop settings (usually 4-6 %)
3. The plant controls the frequency of an island grid.
For category 2 and 3, a complete governor is needed. Results from empirical
studies of hydropower plants small signal stability are used to determine whether
3.4. REGULATION CRITERION
15
1
s
Anti
windup
Figure 3.3: Block diagram of anti windup
or not frequency control is possible at a specific hydro power plant. The small signal
, which is the ratio of the turbine axis and water
stability criteria is given by TTm
w
time constants.
The turbine axis time constant Tm is defined as the time it takes for the current turbine torque to accelerate the systems inertia to the synchronous rotational
velocity. At rated power, Tm = 2H. As mentioned before, the water starting time,
Tw , is defined as the time it takes for the current water head to accelerate the water
in the penstock through gravitation to the current water velocity. This means that
the time constants differs depending on operating point in terms of water velocity
and power. However, looking at the ratio of the two time constants, empirical evidence suggests that TTm
2.5 is needed for a hydro power plant of category 2 and
w
Tm
Tw 3 (value of 4-6 is desirable) for a hydro power plant controlling the frequency
in an island grid. [2]. This criteria is only based on small signal stability, which
is a condition for stability at larger disturbances. The time constants, Tm and Tw ,
are determined by the hydro power plants construction, hence reduced friction in
the penstock and larger turbine inertia would increase TTm
. To determine how large
w
disturbances are affecting the system, computer simulations must be used.
Fulfilling TTm
3 does not guarantee stable governing of an island grid. As
w
described in 2.1.2 and also seen in Figure 3.1 there are saturations and backlashes
found in the servos. The effect that these non-linear components have on the frequency control will be explained by support of measurement data of a Swedish
hydropower plant. Figure 3.4 shows the frequency, active power, wicket gate and
turbine blade positions when a step increase occurs in the demand of electrical
power in an island grid.
As the step occurs, the consumed power is larger than the generated power and
the frequency begin to decrease, as described by Equation 2.1. This causes the
wicket gates to open in order to accelerate the turbine. The constant slope of the
turbine blade position curve indicates that the servo reached its saturation. As
ActivecPowerc[MW]
Positionc[wcofcfullycopen]
16
80
bcTurbinecblades
bcWicketcgates
70
60
50
40
30
28
26
Pm
Pe
24
22
Frequencyc[Hz]
20
52
51
Frequency
50
49
48
10
20
30
40
50
Timec[s]
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 3.4: Measurements data of frequency, power, wicket gate and turbine blade
positions after a step increase of demanded power in a Swedish hydropower plant
operating an island grid.
long as the frequency is lower than nominal, the governor output will continue to
open the wicket gates. The turbine blades, which have a slower servo, try to get
to the position of the optimal combination. When the turbine blades reach the
point where the generated and consumed power are in equilibrium, the wicket gates
have opened too far and the mechanical power continues increasing. In order to
decrease the power, the wicket gates are rapidly closed, the turbine blades follow
at their maximum speed and the system exhibits stable oscillations. The test and
measurements are then aborted due to risk of tripping the generator. The effect of
the turbine blade servo backlash can be noticed in the troughs of the turbine blade
position curve.
The measurements in Figure 3.4 show a common turbine behaviour when running island operation. The unsatisfactory stable oscillations are mainly caused by
the speed limiter of the turbine blade servo. In the next chapter, two proposed
control strategies for counteract this behaviour are presented.
Chapter 4
Control Strategies
In 3.4, the effect of a large disturbance on a hydropower plant running an island grid
where shown. This should only be treated as an example of a Kaplan hydropower
plant without any adaptation tries to run an island grid, as all power plants have
different built-in abilities for island operation. However, the behaviour shown in
Figure 3.4 is relevant and the problems with the frequency regulation after the load
disturbance can be divided into two governor requirements:
Quick response after load changes
The frequency amplitude of the first swing is only depending on how quickly
the turbine responds to changes of demanded power and the inertia of the rotating mass. The inertia is not easily changed which leaves trying to improve
the control effect of the governor output.
Damping of oscillations after load changes
The oscillations may have several reasons but is mainly due to the turbine
blades lagging the wicket gates, leading to a large deviation from the optimal combination. Improvement of the response time of the turbine will also
benefit damping of oscillations. However, to get a smoother tune in of the
frequency, the governors output must be limited when the difference between
the turbine blade setpoint and actual position grow large.
Two control strategies to improve these properties are proposed and evaluated in
this thesis. The strategies are named Combination Offset and Inverted Combination Anti-windup. Design and implementation of these are presented in following
sections. Results of the analysis of these strategies and proposed improvements are
presented in Chapter 7. The methods used for the analysis are found in Chapter 6.
17
18
4.1
CHAPTER 4. CONTROL STRATEGIES
Combination Offset
When trying to improve the response time of the turbine, and thus reducing the
first frequency swing, the turbine inputs are in focus. The turbines two control
signals have different properties around an optimal operating point. In relative
terms, wicket gates have fast dynamic but a small effect on the output while the
turbine blades have slow dynamic and large effect of the output.
Components limiting the control signals, such as speed saturations, time delays
and backlashes in the servos can not be easily affected. The main matter is essentially the speed saturation in the turbine blade servo. When the turbine is operating
with optimal combination, connected to a strong electrical grid, the speed saturation does not pose any problem. The optimal combination is constructed such that
for every wicket gate position, the turbine blade position is chosen to give maximum
efficiency. The idea behind the Combination Offset strategy is to depart from the
optimal combination in order to gain a faster response of the turbines mechanical
torque. This implies that control effect is transferred from the turbine blades to the
wicket gates. As a result, a more rapid increase of power generation is gained at
the cost of loss of efficiency.
In Figure 4.1, curves of the turbines generated power as a function of the wicket
gate and turbine blade position are shown. In the same figure, the optimal combination curve and the optimal combination curve with an arbitrary offset are also
depicted. To explain the idea of this strategy, the stationary behaviour is studied. The turbine is assumed to be operating at steady state in the operating point
marked 1), along the optimal combination curve. An increase of the generated
power by 0.1 pu, demands some movement of the turbine blades. The wicket gates
alone, with fixed turbine blades, could not increase the power by 0.1 pu, which is
also shown in Figure 4.2. If instead the turbine is operating at the same power on
the offset combination curve in Figure 4.1, marked 2), a 0.1 pu increase of the power
would need no movement of the turbine blades.
When using the Combination Offset, the limitations of the turbine blade servo
are no longer as important for a fast increase of power. At a greater extent, the
response time of the turbine are depending on the wicket gate servo, with a faster
regulation as a result. Letting the turbine blades be ahead of their optimal combination does also improve the response time of decreasing the power since it to a
larger extent depends on the change of the wicket gate position, as can be seen in
Figure 4.1. This represents the basic idea behind the Combination Offset strategy.
The same reasoning is briefly mentioned in [2] but has not been found analysed or
implemented.
Implementation of the combination offset does not entail major intervention.
The optimal combination curve is simply shifted upwards with a constant corresponding to the combination offset. Seen in Figure 4.3 this means that the turbine
blades never reach their lower endpoint. Since the steps between the power levels
are smaller for low wicket gate positions, seen in Figure 4.1, the frequency regulation is not improved by having a constant offset in this area. The combination
4.1. COMBINATION OFFSET

0.18pu
Turbine8blade8position8
19
0.48pu
0.78pu
1.08pu
0.8
0.6
2)
0.4
1)
0.2
0
0
0
01
1
0.1
0
02
2
0.2
0
03
3
0.3
0
04
4
data1
data1
data2
data1
data3
data2
data4
data3
data5
data4
data6
data5
data6
data7
data6
data8
data7
data8
data9
data8
data10
data9
Mechanical8power
P
data11
data10
Optimal8combination8curve
data12
data11
data11
data13
Offset8combination8curve
data12
data13
data14
data13
data14
0.8
0.9
1
0
9
1
09
1
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Wicket8gate8position8
0
5
0
6
0
7
0
8
05
06
07
08
Figure 4.1: Mechanical power Pm as a function of the wicket gate position and
the turbine blade position . The wicket gates alone have a greater impact on the
power when operating on the offset combination curve compared to the optimal
combination curve.
0.8
0.6
Mechanical[power[P [pu]
0.7
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Wicket[gate[position[
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 4.2: Mechanical power Pm as a function of the wicket gate position and
fixed turbine blade position = 0.15 pu. Operation with optimal combination,
marked , can not achieve Pm = 0.1 pu with adjustment of the wicket gates
alone.
curve can instead be allowed to reach the turbine blade position = 0, which will
be beneficial in terms of efficiency, without loss in frequency control. This is implemented by letting the combination curve linearly go from turbine blade position
= 0 to the point where the constant level of the combination curve ends, with
roughly the same slope as in that point. The combination curve is also adapted to
20
CHAPTER 4. CONTROL STRATEGIES
Turbinegbladegpositiong
have a maximum turbine blade position of 1 pu. The dotted and dashed lines in
Figure 4.3 show the combination curve before and after these implementations.
data2
Optimalgcombinationgcurve
data1
data3
data2
data1
Offsetgcombinationgcurve
data4
data2
data3
data5
data3
data4
data4
data6
data5
1
0.8
data5
0.6
data6
data6
offset
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Wicketggategpositiong
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.5
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.7
00
Figure 4.3: Implementation of combination offset curve.
4.2
Inverted Combination Anti-windup
As mentioned, large load disturbances causes the turbine blades to lag the wicket
gates, resulting in larger frequency deviation which could lead to power oscillations.
This behaviour is further exacerbated when increase of the wicket gate position
causes the mechanical power to decrease. As shown in Figure 4.2, the mechanical
power is seen decreasing when the wicket gates lead the optimal combination by
approximately 0.1 pu.
The governors internal anti-windup saturates the wicket gate setpoint position
if it exceed its limits. Normally the limiter has a fixed upper and lower levels. This
means that the wicket gate setpoint position on the governors output will be limited
at the same upper level regardless of the actual operating point. If the turbine is
operating at low power and the wicket gate position is small, this could mean that
the setpoint signal goes from almost closed wicket gates to fully open before the it
is limited.
To counteract the continuous movement of the wicket gates, while the turbine
blades are lagging far behind, the inverted combination anti-windup is proposed.
The strategy has the same principle used by the internal anti-windup but instead of a
limiter with fixed limits, a variable limiter is implemented. The levels of the variable
limiter is controlled by the actual turbine blade angle. Since the anti-windup is
comparing wicket gate positions on the governors output, the turbine blade position
must be transformed into a wicket gate position. The principle is shown in Figure
4.4. An inverted optimal combination curve returns the corresponding wicket gate
position to a given turbine blade position . This position is feedbacked to
4.2. INVERTED COMBINATION ANTI-WINDUP
21
control the upper saturation level of the limiter. To give the governor its necessary
workspace a constant is added to the .
1
s
K AW
Inverted
combination
Actual turbine blade

position
min
setpoint
Wicket gate setpoint

position
Figure 4.4: Block diagram of Inverted Combination Anti-windup.

The implementation of the Inverted Combination Anti-windup in the model
is made in several steps. First, if a combination offset is used, described in 4.1,
it subtracted from . The optimal combination curve described by a 4th order
polynomial is inverted. The inverted combination converts into which is feedbacked to the variable limiter. The constant is added to to give the governor
workspace. Finally, to assure that the governor output never exceeds 1, the condition min ( + , 1) is added on the limiter input.
In next chapter, implenentation of the two proposed strategies and the reset of
the simulation model used, is presented.
Chapter 5
Simulation Model
The training simulator used for the analysis is built in the modeling and simulation
tool Dymola. Dymola uses the object-oriented modeling language Modelica. There
is a large library of standard components but the user may also create their own.
The models consists of differential, algebraic and discrete equations creating an
equation system which is solved numerically when running simulations. [16].
Figure 5.1 shows a block diagram of the simulator model used in this thesis. A
more detailed presentation of the blocks are presented in the following sections.
Penstock
ref
Governor
setpoint
f ref
Wicket gate
actuator, servo
Combination
unit
setpoint
Propeller blades
actuator, servo
Turbine M
Generator
and grid
offset
Pe
Inverse
combination
unit
Pm
f
Figure 5.1: Block diagram of the simulation model.

The purpose of this project is to achieve a method for improving the ability
for an arbitrary Kaplan turbine to operate an island grid. This means that the
practice simulator at hand is not fitted to any specific power plant. None the less,
the initial work of fitting the simulator model in terms of delays, saturations and
other parameters are essential for getting a qualitative model.
For fitting of the model, measurement data from tests on several different hydropower plants, where the island operation was not satisfactory, is used. The
simulation model is fitted with parameters representing a worst case in terms of
ability to operate an island grid. The measurements are from power plants with
23
24
CHAPTER 5. SIMULATION MODEL
rated power of 20-50 MW which represents the typical size of a Swedish Kaplan
turbine hydropower plant, where the results of this project are intended to be implemented.
5.1
Governor
The turbine governor is a PID-regulator with anti-windup and droop. The block
diagram of the governor is shown in Figure 5.2. There are three input signals to the
governor; the frequency error f = fref f and wicket gate error = ref .
The last input signal , used for the anti-windup, is the inverted combination
of the actual turbine blade position, i.e. the optimal position of the wicket gates
corresponding to the actual turbine blade position. It is added with a constant ,
preventing the governor output to be constantly saturated. The output signal is
the setpoint position of the wicket gate, setpoint . The governor model is largely
f ref
KDs
KD
s 1
N
f
ep
KP
min
setpoint
ref
KI
s
K AW
Figure 5.2: Governor model.

explained by Figure 5.2 and only standard components has been used. The derivative part is equipped with a low-pass filter to avoid rapid changes of the control
error which gives an infinite derivative action. The filter constant N determines the
cut-of frequency.
5.2
Servos and Actuators
As mentioned, the servos for the wicket gates and the turbine blades play an important part in controlling the turbine outputs. Typical Kaplan turbines, without
any requirements on island operation, have an opening time of the turbine blades
of 30-60 seconds and the wicket gates of about 5-15 seconds [2]. The measurement
in Figure 3.4 shows an opening time of the turbine blades of about 60 s. This shows
5.3. TURBINE
25
quite a wide range of opening times for servos in different hydropower plants. For
the purpose of testing a method suitable for improving the frequency regulation in
island operation, the model is adapted for a realistic worst-case scenario.
The servo and actuator model shown in Figure 5.3 have the same structure
for both the wicket gates and turbine blades. The actuator is realised by a firstorder function and a time delay only used for the turbine blades. The servo model
looks more complex than it is because of the two switches. Neglecting them to
begin with, the circuit is more intelligible. The servo model basically consists of a
gain T1s , where Ts is the servo time constant, and an integrator. The servo output
is a position, which is feedbacked into the servo. In the turbine blade servo, a
backlash is introduced to reduce vibrations. However, the main part of interest is the
speed limiter before the integrator. The limiter has variable saturation levels which
controls the time derivative of the servo movement. Hence, the lower saturation
level controls the maximum closing time and the upper limit the maximum opening
time. For the turbine blades, the opening and closing times are both set to 60
seconds and the switches are therefore not being used. Based on measurements and
typical values, the wicket gate opening time is set to 10 seconds. As seen in Figure
5.3, there are two different closing times depending on how near the wicket gates
are to being shut. This is because of the need to slow down the wicket gates the
last bit, in order to avoid damaging pressure waves. Controlled by the condition >,
the closing time is 10 seconds when the wicket gate position is > 0.25, 20 seconds
d
otherwise. The other switch condition dt
checks if the wicket gates are opening or
closing.
1
s 1
setpoint
1
s actuator
d
dt
1
Tclose a
1
Topen
delay s
1
position
Tclose b
1
Ts
1
s
Figure 5.3: Servo and actuator model.
5.3
Turbine
The core of the simulation model, the turbine model, has four inputs and two
outputs. The turbine is controlled by the outputs from the servos; the wicket gate
position and the turbine blade position . The generator frequency f and the
water head H are the other two input signals. From these, the water flow Q is
computed, which is feedbacked to the penstock model. This feedback is needed
26
CHAPTER 5. SIMULATION MODEL
because the water head is affected by changes of the water flow. The mechanical
torque M is the second output signal.
The water flow and the mechanical torque are computed in two steps. From the
wicket gate and turbine blade positions, the unit flow Q11 and unit torque M11 are
computed. The unit values are based on a turbine operating at a water head of 1
m and a turbine propeller with a diameter of 1 m. To transform the unit values for
a geometrically uniform turbine operating at a different head, the uniformity and
affinity laws are used. The uniformity law is valid for two geometrically uniform
turbines operating at the same head. It states that if the turbine size is changed,
defined by the turbine propeller diameter, the water speeds at geometrically similar
points will be unchanged if all other parameters are kept. The affinity law can then
be used to compute the changes of the water speeds in the a turbine at different
water heads. [2]. Transforming the unit values to actual values, where the frequency,
propeller diameter and head is used, yields the mechanical torque M and the water
flow Q. The turbine model also includes functions to compute the efficiency and
the mechanical power Pm . The mechanical power is a function of frequency and the
mechanical torque. The efficiency is a function of the mechanical power, the water
head and the water flow. The equations are shown in Equations 5.1 and 5.2, is
the angular velocity, the water density and g the acceleration of gravity.
Pm = M
(5.1)
Pm
gHQ
(5.2)
5.4
Generator and Load
The dynamics of the generator is described by the two-axis model. It consists of

4 differential equations, the swing equation 2.1 being one of them. Providing a
justifiable explanation of these equations is extensive and lies outside the the scope
of this thesis. For this application, the essential dynamics are captured by the swing
equation. The generator model is built for more advanced applications and the other
equations have has no practical significance in these simulations. For the interested
reader any literature on power system stability such as [11] is recommended.
The generator model has two inputs; the turbine torque and the generator field
voltage. By the two-axis generator model, the electrical power, current, voltage and
frequency is determined. A built-in limited PI-regulator controls the stator voltage
by affecting the field voltage.
The load model is directly connected to the generator model. Wanted power
load levels and step disturbances are entered as well as the percentage of frequency
dependent load. As described in 2.3 the electric power demand Pe during simulations is an input to the generator model.
In next chapter, the model presented is used for time domain simulation studies
of the two proposed control strategies.
Chapter 6
Analysis Method
In order to meet the frequency requirements in 1.2, the strategies Combination
Offset and Inverted Combination Anti-windup have been proposed to improve the
governing of a Kaplan turbine hydropower plant operating an island grid.
The objective of the Combination Offset is to gain a control system that can
keep the initial frequency deviation f < 2 Hz for a load disturbance of 0.1 pu.
The purpose of the analysis is to study if the method has an improving effect on
the governing and if so, how the Combination Offset should be chosen to fulfill the
requirements at lowest loss of efficiency.
The purpose of the Inverted Combination Anti-windup is to reduce the settling
time of the frequency after a load disturbance of 0.1 pu. The analysis of this strategy
is less extensive and is based on step responses of load disturbances.
Mainly the Combination Offset is studied and two analysis methods have been
tried; time domain simulation and controllability analysis. Attempts with the latter
have not been successful which is further discussed in the end of this chapter, 6.2.
The performing and purpose of the time domain simulations are described in detail
in following section.
6.1
Time Domain Simulation
The time domain simulations have been performed on the model presented in Chapter 5. The simulation tool used is Dymola, which uses the Modelica language to
define the model. Every component of the model is built up by equations, as well as
connectors and conditional statements. These form an equation system describing
the model, which is solved numerically. The simulation results are then exported to
MATLAB for numerical analysis. The model contains a complete island grid and
the possibility to control the load. It also allows to simulate a sub-part of the model
alone or to manipulate certain signals.
Simulations of the Combination Offset will be treated first. These are divided
into three categories for a more comprehensible presentation. Lastly, the Inverted
Combination Anti-windup simulations are treated.
27
28
CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS METHOD
6.1.1
Stationary Behaviour study
The stationary behaviour study focuses on investigating the turbine behaviour.

The purpose is to show how the turbine inputs, the wicket gate and turbine blade
positions, affects the output - the generated power. The data used from these
simulations are captured after the inputs and output have tuned in and the system
is in steady state. Hence, the response times of the wicket gate and turbine blade
positions has no affect on the generated power.
One set of simulations are performed, presenting the turbine model behaviour
from two different viewpoints.
Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate and turbine blade

positions a) Pm = f (, )
The simulation set-up is presented in Figure 6.1.
Pe, fixed
ref
Governor
f ref
f
setpoint
Actuators
and servos
Turbine and
penstock
fixed
Generator
and grid
Pm
f
Figure 6.1: Set-up for simulation of Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate
and turbine blade positions = f (, Pm )
The signals marked in red are set with fixed values and the ones marked in
blue are used for the simulation results. A set of simulations is started by setting
a value on the electrical power, Pe,f ixed . The turbine blade position, f ixed is also
given a fixed value and the simulation is run. The governor tunes the wicket gate
position until the turbine output, the mechanical power Pm , and the electrical
power Pe,f ixed are equal. Wicket gate and turbine blade positions, and f ixed ,
and the mechanical power Pm are captured in steady state. Several values of f ixed
is simulated for each value on Pe,f ixed covering [0, 1] pu.
The result presented in Figure 7.1 show the wicket gate - turbine blade position
relationship for each value of the mechanical power. This turbine inputs-output
relationship in steady state shows the difference in control effect of the wicket gate
and turbine blades. The optimal combination curve of the unaltered system and a
few offset combination curves are depicted in the same plot. This is meant to explain
why the Combination Offset is likely to give a faster power response, bearing in mind
that the wicket gates move much faster than the turbine blades.
6.1. TIME DOMAIN SIMULATION
29

positions b) Pm = f (, )
The same simulation data is used as in the previous simulations. The only difference
is the presentation of the results, depicted in Figure 7.2. The results here is plotted
as the relationship between the wicket gate position and the mechanical power for
each turbine blade position. This aims to clearly demonstrate the wicket gates
limited control effect of the mechanical power.
6.1.2
Efficiency Losses
The optimal combination curve used in the unaltered system result in the turbine
operating at its maximum efficiency at all operating points. Since the Combination
Offset is based on shifting the optimal combination curve, this implies loss of turbine
efficiency.
These simulations study how the efficiency of the turbine is affected by using
Combination Offset. The data is captured when system is in steady state. This is
studied in two different ways.
Efficiency as a function of mechanical power and combination offset
= f (Pm , of f set)
The simulation set-up used is seen in Figure 6.2, where the signals marked in
red are fixed and the blue used for the results.
Penstock
ref
setpoint
Governor
f ref
Wicket gate
actuator, servo
Combination
unit
com b.
o ffs e t
setpoint
Propeller blades
actuator, servo
Pe, fixed
Turbine M
Generator and
grid
Pm
Figure 6.2: Set-up for simulation of efficiency as a function of mechanical power

and combination offset = f (Pm , of f set)
The full simulation model is used with a fixed value on the combination offset.
A set of simulations are performed with values on the electrical power Pe,f ixed in
the range [0.1, 1] pu, i.e. 10-100% of rated power. This is repeated for several values
of combination offsets.
The simulation results consists of one curve for each combination offset simulated, showing the relationship between the efficiency and the mechanical power.
30
Hence, the affect of the combination offset on the efficiency can be analysed with
respect to the generated power. The results are depicted in Figure 7.3.
Efficiency, wicket gate and turbine blade position relationship

For this simulation, only the turbine model is considered. The set-up is presented
in Figure 6.3.
Turbine
Penstock
Figure 6.3: Set-up for simulation of efficiency as a function of electric power and
combination offset = f (Pe , of f set)
The frequency must be fixed to its nominal value (50) Hz since the generator is
not connected. For each simulation, the wicket gate and turbine blade positions are
set and the resulting efficiency data captured. Several simulations are performed
covering a sufficient amount of combinations of the wicket gate and turbine blade
positions in the range [0, 1] pu.
The simulation data is interpolated and presented with MATLAB function
contour with respect to the wicket gate and turbine blade positions. Combination curves with different offsets are depicted in same figure to show the effect of
the combination offset on the efficiency with respect to the wicket gate and turbine
blade positions. The result is found in Figure 7.4
6.1.3
Load Disturbance Simulations
To complete the analysis, the effect on the governing with Combination Offset
implemented is studied. Stated in the governor requirements, load increases and
decreases of 0.1 pu should be managed from initial operating power of 0-80% and
100-20% respectively, keeping f < 2 Hz. Repeated load disturbance simulations
with gradually increased combination offset is performed. The objective is to conclude a suitable range of the combination offset, to fulfill the governing requirements
over the full range of initial operating powers.
6.2. CONTROLLABILITY ANALYSIS
31
Maximum Load Step Disturbance

The maximum load step disturbance Pe is simulated for the case when the frequency deviation f = 2 Hz. The entire simulation model is used. The simulations
are performed by increasing or decreasing the load step disturbance until the frequency deviation reaches 2 Hz. The procedure is repeated at different initial loads
Pe0 and combination offsets.
Two different plots are shown simulating load step increases and load step decreases, depicted in Figures 7.5 and 7.6 respectively.
Step Responses
A load disturbance of Pe = 0.1 pu is simulated using the entire simulation model.
Only increasing load disturbances is considered since those are more critical in terms
of keeping f < 2Hz. The combination offset is implemented and set to a suitable
value concluded from previous simulation results. The result in Figure 7.7 show
the frequency when the system is subjected to the disturbance, at different initial
operating points Pe,0 .
6.1.4
Inverted Combination Anti-windup
The analysis of the Inverted Combination Anti-windup is studied with a straightforward approach. The constant , which controls the governor output workspace,
is tuned in through testing. This is more thoroughly explained in 3.3. Step disturbances of 0.1 pu with and without the method implemented are simulated for
comparison.
The full model is simulated without the Combination Offset active. The result
is depicted in Figure 7.10.
6.2
Controllability Analysis
The purpose of the controllability analysis is to analytically study the systems controllability. By developing a linearised system model around an operating point,
the aim is to analytically determine a satisfactory combination offset that will meet
the governing requirements. The linearised model is developed by simulating the
turbine with a random binary signal with small perturbations on the wicket gate setpoint setpoint . Using the system identification toolbox in MATLAB, the linearised
models were found sufficiently consistent with the simulation model.
However, the approach of the controllability analysis described falls short when
analysing island operation. The idea that the linearised model would be valid
around the operating point is true to some extent but the span of where the model
is valid is not sufficient for larger changes in setpoint . For larger changes of the load
as Pm = 0.1 pu, small signal stability analysis is not sufficient, since effects from
32
non-linearities will be noticeable. A compilation of articles discussing linearised

turbine models for analyse of island operation is presented below.
In [17], the authors conclude that small signal stability studies "adequately can
be modelled linearizing the non-linear turbine model about the appropriate operating point". For transient stability it is concluded that in "studies of small isolated
power systems the governor speed regulation and the response of the turbine must
be included in the model".
In [5] a review on hydroplant models is presented. With the same reasoning as
in [17] and [10], linear turbine models are described being valid only for small signal
performance study such as governor tuning. "As the hydraulic turbine exhibits
highly nonlinear characteristics that vary significantly with the unpredictable load
on the unit, this requires controller gain scheduling at different gate positions and
speed errors...Nonlinear models are required when speed and power changes are
large during an islanding condition".
Chapter 7
Results
The results of the time domain simulations are depicted and commented in the
same order as presented in Chapter 6. For easier comparison of the results, all
simulations studying offset combination curves use the same four values. These values [0, 0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20] are considered sufficient for concluding an recommended
combination offset interval.
7.1
Stationary Behaviour Study
These simulations investigates the turbine inputs-output behaviour. The results

presented in Figures 7.1 and 7.2 are based the same set of simulations presented
from two different viewpoints.
7.1.1
Turbine blade position as a function of wicket gate position and

mechanical power = f (, Pm )
Figure 7.1 shows the relationship between turbine blade position and the the
wicket gate position at constant levels of mechanical power Pm . These results
contain the explanation to why larger load disturbances in island operation will
trip the generator. A load increase of 0.1 pu, when operating along the optimal
combination curve, can not be compensated for by the wicket gates alone. Movement of only the wicket gates implies moving parallel with the horizontal axis in
Figure 7.1. The small output effect of the wicket gates when using optimal combination demand simultaneous movement of the turbine blades to manage a larger
disturbance.
When shifting the combination curve upwards with some combination offset, the
output effect of the wicket gates are seen increasing. Output effect of the slower turbine blades are allocated to the faster wicket gates. Even a small combination offset
is seen having an improving effect on the ability to manage large load disturbances.
It should also be noted that at all operating points with optimal combination,
a decrease of the power by 0.1 pu can be achieved by the wicket gates alone.
33
34
CHAPTER 7. RESULTS
0.1wpu
0.4wpu
0.7wpu
1.0wpu
0.8
data3
data4
data5
data6
data7
data8
data9
0.6
data10
data1
data11
data12
data2
data1
data13
data3
data2
data14
data1
data1
MechanicalwpowerwPdata15
m
data4
data3
data2
data2
data1
data16
Combinationwcurveswwwwwwww
data3
data5
data4
data3
data17
data2
offset=0
data4
data18
data6
data5
data5
data4
offset=0.05
data3
data19
data6
data7
data6
offset=0.10
data5
data4
data7
offset=0.15
data8
data7
data6
data8
data5
offset=0.20
data9
data9
data8
data7
data6
data10
data10
data9
data8
data11
data7
0.8
0.9
1
data12
data10
data9
data8
data13
data10
d t 9
0.4
0.2
0
0
bladewposition
Turbinewbladewpositionw
data1
data2
0.8
0.6
0.1
0.2
0.3
04
0.4
0.5
0.6
Wicketwgatewposition
w w
0.7
Figure 7.1: Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate and turbine blade positions Pm = f (, )
7.1.2

positions Pm = f (, )
1
=1.0
MechanicalbpowerbPm [pu]
0.9
=0.8
0.8
=0.6
0.7
0.6
=0.4
optimalbcombination
0.5
Turbine blade position

=0
=0.2
=0.4
=0.6
=0.8
=1.0
0.4
0.3
=0.2
0.2
0.1
0
0
=0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Wicketbgatebpositionb [pu]
0.6
0.7
0.8
Figure 7.2: Turbine blade position as a function of wicket gate position and electric
power = f (, Pe )
Figure 7.2 use the same simulation data as previous figure. This presentation allows
more clearly to study the limited output effect of the wicket gates. The six curves
show the relationship of the mechanical power Pm and the wicket gate position
for a constant turbine blade position . The curves are seen flatten out as
7.2. EFFICIENCY LOSSES
35
increases. Without the coordinated movement of the turbine blades, the wicket
gates are shown to have limited effect on the mechanical power.
The simulation for each curve is ended when the maximum mechanical power
is reached. Increasing the wicket gate position past that point result in the power
decreasing. The squares mark the optimal combination of the wicket gates and
turbine blades. Thus, operation with optimal combination does not allow the wicket
gates alone to compensate a load disturbance of 0.1 pu.
7.2
Efficiency Losses
Results from two different simulation set-ups, studying efficiency losses due to the
Combination Offset are presented. The first simulation consider the entire simulation model while in the second, only the turbine model is used.
Efficiency as a function of electric power and combination offset

= f (Pm , of f set)
90
70
[pu]
[pu]
PPPmmm[pu]
Efficiencyp [E]
80
60
50
40
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
0
00
0
0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
0
00
0
0
0.3
[pu]
[pu]
PPPmmm[pu]
100
[pu]
[pu]
PPPmmm[pu]
7.2.1
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.05
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.15
0.15 0.2
0.2
Inputp
Amplitudep
A
Inputp
InputpAmplitudep
AmplitudepA
A
=0.7
0
=0.7
0=0.7
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
0
00
0
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.05
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.15
0.15
Inputp
Amplitudep
A
Inputp
InputpAmplitudep
AmplitudepA
A
Combinationpcurves
data1
data1
offset=0
data1
data2
data2
offset=0.05
data2
data3
offset=0.10
data3
data3
offset=0.15
data4
data4
data4
offset=0.20
data5
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.05
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.15
0.15 0.2
0.2
Inputp
Amplitudep
A
Inputp
InputpAmplitudep
AmplitudepA
A
0.4
0.5
0.6
MechanicalppowerpPm [pu]
data5
data5
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 7.3: Efficiency as a function of mechanical power and combination offset

= f (Pm , of f set)
The simulation result of Figure 7.3 show the relationship between the turbine efficiency and the generated mechanical power, for different combination offsets. The
Kaplan turbine is know for its high and flat efficiency curve which is also confirmed
by the results. At lower power generation, the efficiency is drastically lowered. This
is the reason why Kaplan turbines never for operate longer periods of time at these
powers during normal circumstances.
Comparing the loss of efficiency with Combination Offset implemented, the
smallest differences are seen at the maximum power generation. This is expected
36
CHAPTER 7. RESULTS
since the combination curves are identical for > 0.8 pu. However, such large
loads are not possible when operating an island grid, since the turbine must be
allowed room for manoeuvring. A reasonable assumption is that most operation
will be in the range of Pm [0.1, 0.7] pu. An exact percentage of efficiency loss
for each combination offset is hard to derive from these results, but it provides an
estimate of losses to be expected using this method. The largest losses are found
for Pm [0.2, 0.4] pu. Maximum loss with of f set = 0.15 is approximately 20%.
7.2.2
Efficiency, wicket gate and turbine blade position relationship

1
0.9
TurbineTbladeTposition
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
da a
data3
data2
data1
EfficiencyT
data1
data4
data3
data2
data1
CombinationTcurvesTTTTTTTT
data2
data5
data4
data3
offset=0
data2
data3
data6
data5
offset=0.05
data4
data3
data4
data7
offset=0.10
data6
data5
data4
data5
offset=0.15
data8
data7
data6
data5
data6
offset=0.20
data9
data8
data7
data6
data7
data10
data9
data8
data7
data8
data10
data9
data8
data9
data10
data9
data10
data10
=0.95
=0.90
0.3
0.2
1
0.1
1
1
01
10.1
=0.85
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
WicketTgateTposition
0.7
=0.30
0.8
0.9
Figure 7.4: Efficiency of different combinations of wicket gate and turbine blade
positions.
In Figure 7.4, the efficiency corresponding to combinations of the wicket gate and
turbine blade positions are depicted together with the combination curves. The six
innermost lines are levels of 1 % while the rest represent steps of 5 % of efficiency.
The simulation results are interpolated around fixed values of the efficiency.
This presentation is chosen so that the efficiency can be easily related to the offset
combination curves. This may be used for optimization of the offset combination
curves. For instance, at operating points where the load disturbance requirement
is met by a wide margin, there is unnecessary loss of efficiency. For segments of
the combination curves corresponding to these operating points, a downward shift
would be beneficial for the overall efficiency loss.
Much of the insight gained from Figure 7.3 can also be seen in this figure.
Though, this presentation facilitates getting an approximate value of efficiency
changes. The wicket gate positions [0.1, 0.6] represents an approximate range of
operating points during during island operation (derived from the assumption that
7.3. LOAD DISTURBANCES
37
Pm [0.1, 0.7] pu, using the combination curves in Figure 7.1). In this segment in
Figure 7.4, the maximum loss of efficiency between the combination curves plotted
are 5%.
In can be worth noticing that the optimal combination curve, offset=0, almost
divides the plot in the center, demonstrating that it actually represent the maximum
efficiency.
7.3
Load Disturbances
The previous simulation results of the optimal combination have shown its limitations when running island operation. The effect of the Combination Offset has
also been studied and the simulation results show how control effect is shifted from
the turbine blades to the wicket gates. In addition, an approximation of how the
efficiency is affected by different combination offsets has been presented.
These final simulations focuses on testing if the method holds up to the requirement on load disturbance and frequency deviations.
7.3.1
Maximum Load Step Disturbance
Simulation results of maximum load step increase and decrease Pe when frequency
deviation f = 2 Hz are depicted in Figures 7.5 and 7.6 respectively. The result is
given at different initial operating points and offsets.
Results of Figure 7.5 show that the need of combination offset is coupled with the
operating point. At operating point Pe0 = 0.1, the optimal combination is sufficient
to manage a load step disturbance of 0.1 pu keeping f < 2 Hz while at operating
point Pe0 = 0.9, a combination offset of 0.2 would be needed.
Referring to the reasoning in 7.1.1, the result in Figure 7.6 show that the load
decreases are managed without any use of combination offset.
38
CHAPTER 7. RESULTS
[pu]
[pu]
PPPmmm[pu]
0.2
Pmax
[pu]
e
0.15
0
0 0.7
0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
0
00
0
0
CombinationAcurves
data1
data1
offset=0
data1
data2
data2
offset=0.05
data2
data3
offset=0.10
data3
data3
offset=0.15
data4
data4
data4
offset=0.20
data5
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.05
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.15
0.15 0.2
0.2
Inputp
Amplitudep
A
Inputp
InputpAmplitudep
AmplitudepA
A
data5
data5
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.3
0.5
P0e [pu]
0.7
0.9
Figure 7.5: Maximum load step increase Pe as a function of initial load Pe0 and
combination offset.
0.18
0.17
Pmax
[pu]
e
0.16
[pu]
[pu]
PPPmmm[pu]
0.19
0
0 0
0
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.1
0
0
00
0
0
0.15
Combination]curves
data1
data1
offset=0
data1
data2
data2
offset=0.05
data2
data3
offset=0.10
data3
data3
offset=0.15
data4
data4
data4
offset=0.20
data5
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.05
0.05 0.1
0.1 0.15
0.15 0.2
0.2
Inputp
Amplitudep
A
Inputp
InputpAmplitudep
AmplitudepA
A
data5
data5
0.14
0.13
0.12
0.11
0.1
0.4
0.6
P0e [pu]
0.8
Figure 7.6: Maximum load step decrease Pe as a function of initial load Pe0 and
combination offset.
7.3.2
Step Responses
Responses of a step disturbance of Pe = 0.1 pu are presented in Figure 7.7. With

the objective to manage the disturbance at initial operating point Pe,0 = 0.7 pu,
combination offset = 0.13 is found sufficient.
7.3. LOAD DISTURBANCES

1.1
39
Pe,0=0.1
11
1 0.9
0.7
0.6
0.6 0.6
0.4
0.2
200
200
205
205
Time [s]
Time [s]
10
Time [s]
1.1
1.1
1.1
1
11
P
=0.1
Pe,0
=0.3
Pe,0=0.5
e,0
210
210
215
215
[pu]
[pu]
PP
[pu]
f,f,PPf,ef,e[pu]
ee
f, Pe [pu]
0.96 pu
f
data1
Pe
data2
data3
205
210
Time [s]
10
Time [s]
20
Pe,0=0.7
Pe,0=0.3
Pe,0=0.7
1.1
1.1
0.7
0.8 0.6
0.7
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.5
0.6 0.7
0.4
0.2
0.5
200
PPe,0=0.7
=0.5
e,0
0.96 pu 0.8
0.9
0.8
0.8
f, Pe [pu]
195
20
1 0.9
0.6
0.6 0.5
0.4
0.3
195
195
195
195
f
data1
Pe
data2
data3
0.4 0.3
0.2 0.3
195
195
0.8
0.8 0.7
f, Pf,eP[pu]
[pu]
0.4
0.4
0.5
f, Pe [pu]
0.96 pu
f
data1
Pe
data2
data3
f, Pe [pu]
[pu]
f,f, PPee [pu]
f, Pe [pu]
1 0.9
0.96 pu 0.8
0.8
0.8
Pe,0=0.3
1.1
1
1
0.9
0.8
0.9
0.7
f
data1
Pe
data2
data3
0.6
0.8
0.8 0.5
0.4
0.7
200 200 205
200
200
210
215 210 220
205
Time
205
210
Time
[s]
205[s]
210
10
Time
Time [s]
[s]
Time [s]
225
215
215
20 215
0.3
195
195
200
200
10
205
210
215
220
205[s]
210
Time
20
Time [s]
Time [s]
30
Figure 7.7: Frequency respons of load step disturbance Pe = 0.1 pu with combination offset = 0.13, at initial load Pe,0 .
To better show the effect of the combination offset, step responses, without and
with combination offset implemented are depicted in Figures 7.8 and 7.9 respectively. With the Combination Offset disabled, the system needs about 50 seconds
to return to stable operation, during which the frequency severely deviates from the
nominal value. Under normal operation, any power plant would trip long before
the frequency deviation reaches these levels. One of the reasons for behaviour seen
is the lack of control effect of the wicket gates. Secondly, the wicket gates leading
their optimal combination causes the mechanical power to decrease. Hence, the
little control effect of the wicket gates is weakened further.
Figure 7.9 shows the same load step disturbance with the combination offset
implemented. The figure shows how the wicket gate movement, with very little help
from the turbine blades, manages to restore the system frequency in 10 seconds with
the deviation being within acceptable bounds.
CHAPTER 7. RESULTS
,6
f,6P ,6P
40
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Frequency6f
Electrical6power Pe
Mechanical6power Pm
10
20
30
40
Time6[s]
50
60
70
80
Figure 7.8: Response of frequency, mechanical power, wicket gate and turbine blade
positions when a load step disturbance Pe = 0.85 pu occurs at initial load Pe,0 =
0.5 pu, with Combination Offset disabled.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
Time [s]
20
Figure 7.9: Response of frequency, mechanical power, wicket gate and turbine blade
positions when a load step disturbance Pe = 0.85 pu occurs at initial load Pe,0 =
0.5 pu. Combination offset implemented with offset = 0.13.
7.4. INVERTED COMBINATION ANTI-WINDUP.
7.4
41
Inverted Combination Anti-windup.
The Inverted Combination Anti-windup constant = 0.16 used in the simulation

is found through testing. The responses of load disturbance steps Pe = 0.1 pu are
presented in Figure 7.10.
The plots simulated show load disturbances at different initial operating points
Pe,0 . Plots show two frequency curves, f being without Inverted Combination Antiwindup and fICAw with.
Judging from these results, the method has a positive effect on the governing.
By appropriate settings of the variable limiter through , the governor output is
limited at a point where an increase of the wicket gate position only worsen the
turbine control.
The simulation with Pe,0 = 0.1 pu show identical step responses for both cases.
At the other plots, the Inverted Combination Anti-windup keeps the generator from
tripping.
Pe,0=0.1 pu
=0.3pu
pu
PPe,0
=0.3
e,0
=0.1pu
pu
PPe,0
=0.1
e,0
f,f, P
Pee [pu]
[pu]
f
data1
f ICAw
data2
data3
P
e
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
00
00
10
10
Time[s]
[s]
Time
20
20
30
30
1
11
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0
000
00
f ICAw
Pe
10
10
Time[s]
[s]
Time
20
20
30
30
1
11
0.8
0.8
0.8
1
0.61
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.4
0
000
0.2
00
0.2
30
30
30
=0.1 pu
PPe,0
e,0=0.3 pu
[pu]
f,f,PPe [pu]
f,f,PP
[pu]
[pu]
ee
e
Pe,0=0.1 pu
f,f, P
f, Pe [pu]
Pe [pu]
[pu]
0.8
0.8
1
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.2
0.4
00
0.200
10
20
10
20
10
Time [s] 20
Time[s]
[s]
Time
Pe,0=0.5 pu
Pe,0=0.7 pu
=0.5pu
pu
PPe,0
=0.5
e,0
11
f ICAw
Pe
0.8
0.8
f,f,f,P
[pu]
[pu]
PP
e e[pu]
11
f ICAw
Pe
10
20
10
20
10
Time [s] 20
Time [s]
30
30
30
Figure 7.10: Load step disturbance Pe = 0.1 pu at initial load Pe,0 with and
without Inverted Combination Anti-windup, = 0.16.
To draw any conclusions of the results in Figure 7.10, the turbine behaviour
need to be studied more closely. The load step disturbances without and with the
Inverted Combination Anti-windup are shown in Figures 7.11 and 7.12 respectively.
CHAPTER 7. RESULTS
,4 [pu]
f,4Pm,4Pe [pu]
42
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
Frequency4f
Electrical4power Pe
Mechanical4power Pm
10
data1
data2
data1
data2
data3
Time4[s]
10
15
Figure 7.11: Load step disturbance Pe = 0.1 pu at initial load Pe,0 = 0.5 pu
without Inverted Combination Anti-windup.
,6
f,6Pe,6Pm
Figure 7.11 reveals the answer to why the generator tripped in Figure 7.10. As
the step occurs the wicket gates are opened with maximum speed in an attempt
to increase the mechanical power. As been shown in Figure 4.2, the mechanical
power will begin to decrease when the wicket gates are too far ahead of the optimal
combination. We see the effect of this here. At the very point where the mechanical power has a negative slope, the wicket gates continuous movement causes the
frequency collapse.
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1
0.8
Frequency6f
Electrical6power Pe
Mechanical6power Pm
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
10
Time6[s]
20
30
Figure 7.12: Load step disturbance Pe = 0.1 pu at initial load Pe,0 = 0.5 pu with
Inverted Combination Anti-windup, = 0.16.
Figure 7.12 show the turbine behaviour when the Inverted Combination Antiwindup is implemented. Once the turbine blades are ramping up at full speed,
the wicket gates are limited to move in the same pace. With a slow increase of
mechanical power and rather large overshoot, the system returns to stable operation.
Chapter 8
Conclusions
In this thesis, the governing of a Kaplan turbine hydropower plant operating an
island grid has been studied. Two methods improving the disturbance rejection,
Combination Offset and Inverted Combination Anti-windup, has been proposed
and evaluated through time domain simulations.
The Combination Offset has been found satisfactory, meeting the frequency
regulation requirements for island operation. Settings of the combination offset is
a balance between loss of turbine efficiency and gained turbine control effect. By
assuming that the operation is limited to Pe [0.1, 0.7] pu, a combination offset
of 0.13 is found sufficient for meeting the requirements of the frequency regulation.
With this combination offset setting, the maximum loss of efficiency compared to
optimal combination is approximately 15%.
A great advantage of the Combination Offset is that it is rather easily implemented. If measurement on hydropower plants would show similar frequency
responses as the simulated results, this would create opportunities to build several smaller island grids. Already larger industries can sometimes be self-supported
though their island grids. Even though the loss of efficiency is an important factor, the use of island operation in supporting the communities is only seen as an
extraordinary action. Under those circumstances one may need to chose the second
worst option.
Further work on this method is needed to optimize the offset combination curve.
A first step towards this would be to adapt the combination offset curve for small
wicket gate position, where the need of increased wicket gate control effect is less
needed.
The ideas to the The Inverted Combination Anti-windup did emerge when designing the Combination Offset. The rather small study performed showed promising results for future studies. The method did succeed in limiting the governor
output at an appropriate point, helping the system to recover from the disturbance.
Originally, the Inverted Combination Anti-windup was thought as a method for
damping the under- and overshoots after the first frequency swing. Instead, the
method turned out to improve the first swing in the same way as the Combination
43
44
CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS
Offset. However, instead of transferring control effect to the wicket gates, the control signal are coordinated in a way such that maximum output is gained. A major
drawback of the method is that the manoeuvre room set for the governor output has
been fitted to handle a specific disturbance magnitude. For smaller disturbances
there would be less or no effect at all. An area of improvement lies in automating
the setting of the constant . A solution based on limiting the governor output once
the turbine blades are moving at their maximum speed could also be considered.
Chapter 9
Glossary
actuator
droop
governor
water head
penstock
turbine blades, runner, propeller
water starting time
wicket gate
wicket gate ring
45
stlldon
statik
frekvensregulator
fallhjd
vattenvg
lphjul
vattentidskonstant
ledskena
ledkrans
Bibliography
[1] Svensk Energi, Vattenkraft, Utgva 7, September 2001
[2] Evald Holmn, Speciell Kurs i Fldesmekanik och Vattenturbiner, VeteranKraft,
Stockholm, Oktober 2001
[3] Evald Holmn, Turbinreglering, Vattenkraftstationers dynamiska egenskaper,
STF Ingenjrsutbildning
[4] M. Hasmaini, M. Hazlie, B. Ab Halim Abu, P. Hew Wooi, A review on islanding
operation and control for distribution network connected with small hydro power
plant, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2011, Vol.15(8), pp.39523962
[5] N. Kishor, R.P. Saini, S.P. Singh, A review on hydropower plant models and
control, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2007, Vol.11(5), pp.776796
[6] Lars Johansson, Dynamisk simulering och modellering av vattenkraftverk, Examensarbete i reglerteknik, Lunds Tekniska Hgskola, 2009
[7] S. K. Agraval, Fluid mechanics and machinery, Tata McGraw-Hill Education,
pp 479-488, 1 feb 2001
[8] Solvina AB, Elkraftsystemets dynamiska egenskaper, Gteborg, 2012
[9] Mehrdad Ghandhari, Stability of Power Systems, Electric Power Systems, Royal
Instetute of Technology, Stockholm 2011
[10] S. Patterson, Importance of hydro generation response resulting from the new
thermal modeling - and required hydro modeling improvements, IEEE Power
Engineering Society General Meeting, 2004, June 2004, pp.1779-1783
[11] Prabha Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, pp 394-396, ISBN
9780070359581, 1994
[12] Torbjrn Ottosson, ABB Generation AB, Reglerteori, Frekvens och effektreglering, STF Ingenjrsutbildning
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
[13] L.M. Hovey, Optimum Adjustment of Hydro Governors on Manitoba Hydro

System, AIEE Trans., Vol. 81, Part Ill, pp. 581-587, Dec. 1962.F.R.
[14] Schleif and A.B. Wilbor, The Coordination of Hydraulic Turbine governors for
Power System Operation, IEEE Trans., Vol. PAS-85, pp. 750-758, July 1966.
[15] S. Hagihara, H. Yokota, K. Goda, K. Isobe, Stability of a Hydraulic Turbine
Generating Unit Controlled by P.I.D. Governor, IEEE Transactions on Power
Apparatus and Systems, 1979, Vol.PAS-98(6), pp.2294-2298
[16] L. Ljung, T. Glad, Modellbygge och simulering, ISBN 9789144024431, 2009, pp
216-218
[17] F. P. de Mello, R. J. Koessler, Hydraulic turbine and turbine control models for
system dynamic studies, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 1992, Vol.7(1),
pp.167-179

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Improved Governing of Kaplan Turbine

Hydropower Plants Operating Island

Improved Governing of Kaplan Turbine

A Degree Project in System Control

Masters Thesis at the Department of Automatic Control

6.1.1 Stationary Behaviour study . . . .

Theory of Kaplan Turbine Hydropower

Upper water level

Lower water level

Figure 2.1: Kaplan hydropower plant.

CHAPTER 2. THEORY OF KAPLAN TURBINE HYDROPOWER PLANT

2.1. KAPLAN TURBINE

Wicket gates and turbine blades

CHAPTER 2. THEORY OF KAPLAN TURBINE HYDROPOWER PLANT

Figure 2.4: Block diagram of servos and combination unit

CHAPTER 2. THEORY OF KAPLAN TURBINE HYDROPOWER PLANT

CHAPTER 3. FREQUENCY CONTROL

Figure 3.1: Block diagram of the control system

On the topic of hydropower governors, there is a great deal of research on the

the generator inertia H.

CHAPTER 3. FREQUENCY CONTROL

3.4. REGULATION CRITERION

Figure 3.3: Block diagram of anti windup

CHAPTER 3. FREQUENCY CONTROL

CHAPTER 4. CONTROL STRATEGIES

4.1. COMBINATION OFFSET

CHAPTER 4. CONTROL STRATEGIES

Figure 4.3: Implementation of combination offset curve.

Inverted Combination Anti-windup

4.2. INVERTED COMBINATION ANTI-WINDUP

Actual turbine blade

Wicket gate setpoint

Figure 4.4: Block diagram of Inverted Combination Anti-windup.

Figure 5.1: Block diagram of the simulation model.

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATION MODEL

Figure 5.2: Governor model.

Servos and Actuators

Figure 5.3: Servo and actuator model.

CHAPTER 5. SIMULATION MODEL

Generator and Load

The dynamics of the generator is described by the two-axis model. It consists of

Time Domain Simulation

CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS METHOD

Stationary Behaviour study

The stationary behaviour study focuses on investigating the turbine behaviour.

Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate and turbine blade

6.1. TIME DOMAIN SIMULATION

Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate and turbine blade

Figure 6.2: Set-up for simulation of efficiency as a function of mechanical power

CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS METHOD

Efficiency, wicket gate and turbine blade position relationship

Load Disturbance Simulations

6.2. CONTROLLABILITY ANALYSIS

Maximum Load Step Disturbance

Inverted Combination Anti-windup

CHAPTER 6. ANALYSIS METHOD

non-linearities will be noticeable. A compilation of articles discussing linearised

Stationary Behaviour Study

These simulations investigates the turbine inputs-output behaviour. The results

Turbine blade position as a function of wicket gate position and

Mechanical power as a function of wicket gate and turbine blade

Turbine blade position

7.2. EFFICIENCY LOSSES

Efficiency as a function of electric power and combination offset