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caliper (5)
brake pads
FC
FC
AP
FT
brake disc
brake
pad
ra
z
x
caliper
brake disc
From the hydraulic pressure p and the piston surface AP results the clamping force FC. The
latter causes the tangential force FT = FC 2 on both friction areas. The tangential force
causes, together with the active friction radius ra, the braking torque M B = FT ra . After all,
the braking torque is the quantity which causes with the help of the dynamic tire radius in the
contact patch of the tire the desired braking force and thus the deceleration of the vehicle.
Detailed researches show that some simplifications are assumed in this model of forces. (4)
Fig. 3 observes the forces acting on a brake pad more exactly.
1
2
3
4
5
FC
FC,m
Brake disc
Brake pad
Back plate
Piston
Stator (the fixed part of the wheel
brake, connected to the wheel
suspension)
FP
By the support of the tangential force
on the stator a force FC,red opposite to
the brake piston results. Thus, it
shows that the clamping force does
not correspond to the piston force
during a braking process.
Furthermore, this also shows that one
cannot start with a uniform surface
pressing (compare FC) and that the
point of application of load shifts
while braking, correspondingly FC,m,
and does not lie on the same function
line as the piston force.
FC,red
x
FT
Fig. 3: Forces acting on a brake pad during a
braking process (4)
brake pads
caliper
expansion
stator
active
radius
brake disc
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In the analyses of the brake disc is also apparent that the distribution of the surface pressing
brake disc shielding
will change by a blow or DTV.
Thermal effects as e.g. the shielding
of a brake disc (Fig. 5) let expect
changes of the surface pressing of the
clamping force as well.
initial
state
after 3
seconds
after 7
seconds
Figures 2 to 5 show that inconsistent/not uniform surface pressing can be expected in a disc
brake. According to (4) this would lead to a slanted wear of the brake pads. Furthermore, a
higher energy expenditure results on the positions with higher surface pressing which leads to
higher temperatures. On the other hand, according to (3), higher temperatures drop to lower
friction coefficients and this reduces the efficiency of the brake. According to (4), the comfort
of the brake is also reduced, since sloping worn pads increase the squealing sensibility.
In order to avoid or reduce the problems mentioned, different measures are used in serial
brakes. Nowadays piston offsets, cuttings in the metal sheet, shiftings of the centre of pressing
of the piston, drawn pads (push-pull principle), two-piston calipers with different piston
diameters and even further measures are used among other things to counteract these effects.
In order to determine the influence of these measures and the actual surface pressing various
methods were developed. State of the art are the tension-optical ball pressing process,
pressure indication films of the company Fuji and electrical pressure indication films of the
company Tekscan (18), for example.
In the tension-optical ball pressing process of the company Girling (4) one 1.5 to 2 mm thick
plastic plate with known tension-optical properties and a ball cage with balls with a diameter
of 3 mm between brake pad and brake disc are laid. By increase of the hydraulic pressure of
the brake system the balls are pressed into the plastic material. Tension curves, which help
one to make statements about the transmitting force, can be seen under polarized light.
Fig. 6: A photograph of the fotostress-plastic
plate for the ball pressing process of the
company Girling under polarized light after
load. The number of the interference rings on
the particular ball indentation is a measure for
the pressing dominating there. (4)
Photographs taken by the authors with electrical
pressure indication films show an non-uniform
surface pressing of a brake pad by a hydraulic
pressure of 50bar and a stationary brake disc. The
contact pressure distribution of the clamping force
and the point of application of load calculated by the
red-white rhomb are to be derived.
Further researches with electrical pressure indication
films can be found in (1 and 9), for example.
-4-
g
cm 2
All these methods have, beside their limited accuracy (e.g. Tekscan fault indication >10%
(18)) the disadvantage that they can be only applied by a stationary brake disc. According to
Fig. 3, however, it appears that during the braking process other distributions lead to the
clamping force by the support of the tangential force. By these methods the effect of the
caliper expansion can be primarily examined, which, however, will not behave in the same
way during the braking process as one by a stationary disc. Measuring methods for
determination of the clamping force during a braking process do not exist until now.
The focus of this work lays on the determination of the point of application of the clamping
force of the finger and piston side during the braking process correspondingly to Fig. 8.
FC,piston
FC,piston
rC,p
FC,finger
p
FT,piston
FC,finger
rC,f
FT,finger
force lines
sensor positions
caliper
stator
brake disc
F
Fig. 11: Piezo-electrical effect without/under force effect / piezo quarz material (2)
Detail information about piezo quartz sensors can be found in (17). In the end piezo quartz
sensors of the company Kistler of type 9136B (Fig. 12) were chosen.
Decisive were, besides the big measurement range, the low building height and the stiffness
that approximately corresponds to the pad's back plate of steel. The temperature range is
sufficient. In comparison, the adhesive with which the brake pad is fastened to the back plate
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is resistant up to approx. 300. These temperatures are reached only after various processes of
braking at high speeds. For the planned researches high temperatures are reached at the brake
disc only for a short time. The air cooling available at braking test benches is sufficient to
keep the sensors in the permissible temperature field of application.
STRUCTURE OF THE MEASURING BRAKE PAD:
For the measuring of the point of application of load
of the clamping force four piezo quartz sensors are
built between the back plate and a support plate (Fig.
13).
back plate
4 sensors
Fig. 15 shows the original brake pad compared to the Piezo prototype of the 2. generation.
FY
FX
Piezo
Prototype
power
unit
original wheel
suspension
brake disc
torque
measurement
8 sensors
supplies (piezos)
thermo
elements
Fig. 18 left: Test execution on TMD brake test rig; right: test execution on FZD roll test rig
The wirings of the eight piezo quartz sensors are led through the gap between stator and frame
of the caliper to a charge amplifier. Further the temperature of the brake disc, the temperature
of the sensors, the brake pressure, the speed and the braking torque are recorded. The
reproduction of the vehicle parameters is carried out for the vehicle mass with the
corresponding centrifugal force of the test bench. The air amount for the cooling of the
components corresponds to the flow of a brake of an upper class vehicle.
The following test parameters were chosen:
Brake pressure: Series in 10 bar steps from 0 to 60 bar (> 60 bar blocks the wheel)
Wheel speed 0 m/s (stationary wheel) and braking from 15 and 30 to 0 m/s
Brake discs temperature at the beginning of a braking < 100C (to protect the sensors)
MOVEMENT OF THE BRAKE PAD REGARDING THE CENTRE OF THE BRAKE DISC
The determination of the point of application of load of the clamping force is carried out with
sensors which are in the brake pads. The centre of the wheel or the brake disc is regarded as a
reference point of the radius. The design of a vehicle brake allows on the one hand
movements of the caliper, on the other movements of the brake pads during a braking process.
-8-
For this reason it was necessary to develop a measurement method which enables recording
the movement of a brake pad during a braking. Finally a visual measurement method was
used with a resolution of 10.2 million pixel. With regard to the following photographs, a pixel
corresponds to 0.124 mm - this therefore also corresponds to the maximum precision of this
method. Fig. 19 shows exemplarily the movement of the finger-sided brake pad during a
braking with a braking pressure of 40 bar.
As expected, the brake pad is drawn in the direction of rotation. Furthermore, it easily
screws out intake-sided correspondingly to the acting forces. Therefore, the sensors move
outtake-sided insignificantly in the direction of the wheel's centre. For the determination of
the point of application of load, which is near the middle of the pad's back plate, it means in
this case a deviation of approx. 0.66 mm, which has to be added to the measured value. By
using other caliper types this value can turn out considerably greater, since frame brakes are
construction-relatedly considerably stiffer than e.g. simple finger brakes.
RESULTS
The indications of the positions of the sensors in the
brake pad for the following results correspond to
Fig. 20.
The course of the four sensors of the piston-sided
pad is exemplarily presented in Fig. 21 at a braking
pressure of 40 bar and a stationary brake disc. In
Fig. 22 is the course during a braking process with
an initial speed of 15 m/s (425 rpm).
500
rpm
400
300
200
100
0.5
1.5
400
3
2
300
200
3
1
100
rpm
rpm
rpm
500
2.5
-1
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
It can be derived that the outer sensors transfer the greater forces. This rises further at an
increasing braking pressure this corresponds to the model concept of expanding the caliper
at increasing pressure.
In Fig. 23 the results of the measurements for the stationary brake disc and for the braking
with an initial speed of 30 m/s (850 rpm) at finger- and at piston-sided pad are summarized.
The representation corresponds to Fig. 21 from the view on the back plate.
0 rpm
10
8
radial [mm]
4
2
0
60 bar
60 bar
= 10 bar
-2
-4
-6
10 bar
-8
-10
-12
10 bar
10 bar
hydraulic pressure
-14
-10
-8
-6
trailing edge
-4
-2
-100
tangential [mm]
10
leading edge
Fig. 23: Shifting of the point of application of load during a braking process
It can be derived that the point of application of load moves by 7mm piston-sided to the
outside by a stationary brake disc when the braking pressure rises from 10 to 60 bar. This
effect is finger-sided by approx. 17mm clearly greater. This can be explained by the design of
a brake (compare Fig. 4), since the brake is connected to the suspension piston-sided and so it
is stiffer than the finger side, which has to be lead over the brake disc. During a braking
process the points of application of load shift into the direction of the leading edge. This
corresponds to the model concept according to (4), compare Fig. 3. If these results are
transferred to the change of the friction radius, a rise of the braking torque by approx. 7% for
- 10 -
this brake by braking pressure of 60 bar. If one compares this result with the error analysis of
the determination of the friction value of (6), who has determined a range of 10% for the
tolerance band of the friction value under the assumption of a constant friction radius, these
measurements confirm the assumption of (6) that the biggest error influence can be caused by
the neglect of the change of the friction radius.
CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK
The measurement device presented here enables for the first time the measuring of the
amounts and points of application of the clamping forces during a braking process. The model
concepts according to (4) and the enlarging of the caliper under brake pressure (Fig. 4) could
be confirmed for this caliper.
The sensor integration in the brake pad makes it possible to apply this design principle in
almost every disc brake. Since smaller brakes have to transfer lower forces, smaller sensors
could be used. By a measuring range from 0 to 15 kN the sensors diameter decreases from 30
to 16 mm (10).
Among others, the benefit lays in the one-time determination of the change of the point of
application of load for a defined caliper. Subsequently, this information can be used as a
correction factor for test bench experiments and so some factors of the real friction coefficient
can be determined more exactly. The measurement device can now also be examined for a
uniform pressing of the brake pad on the brake disc during a braking process. Piezo quartz
sensors are very suitable for high frequency measurements. Thus, changes in the clamping
force can also be recorded in the range of squeal frequencies (up to approx. 20 kHz).
Further benefit can be found for investigation of brake disc geometrical failures (e.g. run-out,
disc thickness variation), which are reflected in changes of the point of application of load
dependent on the speed. In such researches a kind of a circular movement of the point of
application of load with a movement diameter of 1-2 mm was determined. This information
could be very helpful for investigations of e.g. judder and variation of brake torque.
According to the device shown shear sensors with identical measurements of the sensors used
for direct measurement of the tangential forces as well. These researches are currently
continued at the Automotive Engineering Department of Darmstadt FZD with the aim to
determine the active friction radius with the help of the known braking torque from the test
bench.
The stacking of these sensors is also possible and thus the simultaneous measurement of the
clamping and tangential component and therefore the direct determination of the brake pad on
all four sensor positions. However, it is thereby problematic that the original thickness of the
brake pads is exceeded and thus the brake in hand can be falsified in its features as e.g. the
support of the forces.
Nevertheless, in order to enable a measurement, the use of piezo ceramics is currently tested.
These are considerably thinner (from 0.5 mm) and can also be used as shear and normal force
sensors. Together with the less required space, the explicitly favorable lower costs should be
mentioned. Disadvantageous are the relatively heavy losses of charge during a static load
which possibly prevents a measurement of these quantities with piezo ceramics.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the TMD Friction Group for the outstanding cooperation and
financing this research project.
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(14)
(15)
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(19)
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(21)
(22)
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