2.

2- COOLING TOWERS
A cooling tower is equipment used to reduce the temperature of a
water stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the
atmosphere. Cooling towers make use of evaporation whereby some of
the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently
discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the
water is cooled as shown in Figure 1 .Cooling towers are able to lower
the water temperatures more than devices that use only air to reject
heat, and are therefore more cost-effective and energy efficient.
The purpose of cooling tower is to cool relatively warm water by
contacting with unsaturated air. The evaporation of water mainly
provides cooling.
In a typical water cooling water tower, warm water flows countercurrent to an air stream. Typically, the warm water enters the top of
packed tower and cascades down through the packing, leaving at the
bottom.
Air enters at the bottom of the tower and flows upward through the
descending water. The tower packing often consists of slats of plastic
or of packed bed. The water is distributed by troughs and overflows to
cascade over slat gratings or packing that provides large interfacial
areas of contact between the water and air in the form of droplets and
films of water. The flow of air upward through the tower can be
induced by the buoyancy of the warm air in the tower (natural draft) or
by the action of a fan. The water cannot be cooled below the wet bulb
temperature. The driving force for the evaporation of the water is
approximately the vapor pressure of the water less the vapor pressure
it would have at the wet bulb temperature.
Cooling tower is used to cool relatively hot water.
- As the humidity of the inlet air decreased, the performance of
the cooling tower will be better. This leads to the better mass
transfer between water and gas phase.
- As the temperature of the inlet air decreased, the performance
of the cooling tower will be better.
- As the temperature increased overall mass transfer coefficient
increased.
If the air flow rate is increased, the heights of the cooling tower
decrease.

1-TYPES OF COOLING TOWERS

1.1 INDUCED-DRAFT COUNTER-FLOW COOLING TOWER

A wet cooling tower is essentially a semi enclosed evaporative

cooler. An induced-draft counter flow wet cooling tower is shown
schematically in Fig.1. Air is drawn into the tower from the
bottom and leaves through the top.
Warm water from the condenser is pumped to the top of the
tower and is sprayed into this airstream. The purpose of spraying
is to expose a large surface area of water to the air. As the water
droplets fall under the influence of gravity, a small fraction of
water (usually a few percent) evaporates and cools the remaining
water. The temperature and the moisture content of the air
increase during this process. The cooled water collects at the
bottom of the tower and is pumped back to the condenser to pick
up additional waste heat.
Makeup water must be added to the cycle to replace the water
lost by evaporation and air draft. To minimize water carried away
by the air, drift eliminators are installed in the wet cooling towers
above the spray section.
The air circulation in the cooling tower just described is provided
by a fan, and therefore it is classified as a forced-draft cooling
tower. The air circulation in the cooling tower just described is

provided by a fan, and therefore it is classified as a forced-draft

cooling tower. Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force or
draw air through circulated water. The water falls downwards
over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between
the water and the air - this helps maximize heat transfer between
the two. Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend upon
various parameters such as fan diameter and speed of operation,
fills for system resistance etc.

Fig.1 Induced-draft counter-flow cooling tower

1.2 NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWER

The natural draft cooling tower makes use of the difference in
temperature between the ambient air and the hotter air inside the
tower. As hot air moves upwards through the tower (because hot air
rises), fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an air inlet at the
bottom. Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and there is
almost no circulation of hot air that could affect the performance.
Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of up to 200 m.
These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat duties because
large concrete structures are expensive. Which looks like a large
chimney and works like an ordinary chimney? The air in the tower has
high water-vapor content, and thus it is lighter than the outside air.
Consequently, the light air in the tower rises, and the heavier outside
air fills the vacant space, creating an air flow from the bottom of the
tower to the top. The flow rate of air is controlled by the conditions of
the atmospheric air. Natural draft cooling towers do not require any
external power to induce the air, but they cost a lot more to build than
forced-draft cooling towers. The natural draft cooling towers are
hyperbolic in profile, as shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2. Natural draft cooling tower

2-THE PERFORMANCE OF COOLING TOWERS (CT)
The following parameters used to determine the cooling tower
performance: Wet bulb temperature of air
Dry bulb temperature of air
Cooling tower inlet water temperature
Cooling tower outlet water temperature
Exhaust air temperature
Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
Water flow rate
Air flow rate

Water

Air

Figure 3 shows the temperature relationship between water and air as

they pass through a counter flow cooling tower. The curves indicate
the drop in water temperature (3 to 4) and the rise in the air wet-bulb
temperature (1 to 2) in their respective passages through the tower.
The temperature difference between the water entering and leaving
the cooling tower (3 minus 4) is the range. The range is the same as
the water temperature rise through the load heat exchanger, provided
the flow rate through the cooling tower and heat exchanger are the
same. Accordingly, the range is determined by the heat load and water
flow rate, not by the size or thermal capability of the cooling tower.
The difference between the leaving water temperature and entering
air wet-bulb temperature (4 minus 1) in Figure 3 is the approach to the
wet bulb or simply the approach of the cooling tower. The approach is
a function of cooling tower capability, and a larger cooling tower
produces a closer approach (colder leaving water) for a given heat
load, flow rate, and entering air condition. Thus, the amount of heat
transferred to the atmosphere by the cooling tower is always equal to
the heat load imposed on the tower, whereas the temperature level at
which the heat is transferred is determined by the thermal capability
of the cooling tower and the entering air wet-bulb temperature.

Ran
ge

Wat

Approac

Ai
r

Fig.3. Range and approach of cooling tower

Heat to vaporize the water = Heat from the cooling air

hfg* mv= mdryair *Cpdryair *T
T= Tdry - Twet
hfg= mean latent heat of vaporization of water from o to 50C =
2443.5kj / kg
mv = mass of liquid water being vaporized
mdryair = mass of air
Cpdryair = sensible heat capacity of air at ct. pressure = 1 kj/kgC
COOLING TOWER RANGE
This is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet
temperature. A high CT Range means that the cooling tower has been
able to reduce the water temperature effectively, and is thus
performing well.
CT Range (C) = [CW inlet temp (C) CW outlet temp (C)]
APPROACH. This is the difference between the cooling tower outlet
cold water temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature. The lower
the approach the better the cooling tower performance. Although, both
range and approach should be monitored, the Approach is a better
indicator of cooling tower performance.
CT Approach (C) = [CW outlet temp (C) Wet bulb temp (C)]
COOLING TOWER EFFICIENCY (EFFECTIVENESS)

This is the ratio between the range and the ideal range (in
percentage), i.e. difference between cooling water inlet temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature, or in other words it is = Range /
(Range + Approach).
The higher this ratio, the higher the cooling tower effectiveness.
CT Effectiveness (%) = 100 x (CW in temp CW out temp) / (CW in
temp WB temp)
Cooling towers are rated in terms of approach and range, where the
approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled water
temperature and the entering air wet bulb (Twb) temperature the range
is the temperature difference between the water inlet and exit. Since
the maximum cooling tower efficiency is limited by the wet bulb
temperature (Twb ) of the cooling air.
Cooling tower efficiency can be expressed as
= (Tw3 Tw4) / (Tw3 - Twb )
(1)
Where
= cooling tower efficiency (%) - common range between 70 - 75%
Tw3 = inlet temperature of water to the tower (oC)
Tw4 = outlet temperature of water from the tower (oC)
Twb = wet bulb temperature of air (oC)
The temperature difference between inlet and outlet water (Tw3 Tw4) is
normally in the range 10 - 15 oC.
COOLING CAPACITY. This is the heat rejected in kj /hr, given as product
of mass flow rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
EVAPORATION LOSS. Evaporation losses will vary depending upon
temperature and humidity, but a general rule is that for every 60oC
temperature drop across the tower, approximately 0.85% of the
recirculation rate will be evaporated.
Evaporation, E =0.00153 T.R (T measured in Centigrade)
R = Recirculation Rate, (m3/h)
This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty. Theoretically
the evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3 for every 1,000,000 kCal
heat rejected. The following formula can be used:
Evaporation loss (m3/h) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/h) x (T1T2)
T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and outlet water
LIQUID/GAS RATIO.
The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio between the water and the
air mass flow rates. Cooling towers have certain design values, but
seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning of water and air
flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness. Adjustments can
be made by water box loading changes or blade angle adjustments.

Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat removed from the
water must be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air.
Therefore the following formulae can be used:
L(T1 T2 ) = G(h2 h1)
L/G = (h2 h1) / (T1 T2 )
(2)
Where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (oC)
T2 = cold-water temperature (oC)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb
temperature
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature
COOLING TOWER CALCULATIONS
The method by which heat is removed from an open recirculating
cooling water system is evaporation (E) of some of the water over a
tower. The amount of temperature reduction that can be accomplished
by evaporation at any time is limited to the wet-bulb temperature or
simply, the relative humidity. A high relative humidity lowers the
evaporation rate; dry conditions encourage a higher evaporation rate.
Seasonal humidity conditions are an important consideration in tower
sizing, design, and placement. The recirculation rate and the
temperature drop across the cooling tower are the two pieces of data
needed to calculate the amount of water lost from the open
recirculating cooling system (due to evaporation).
Following items will be discussed and calculated:
1- Temperature Drop
T =TR -TS
TR = the temperature of the tower return water
TS = the temperature of the basin supply water
2- Concentration Ratio or Cycles of Concentration
The rate at which water is bled from a system (m3/h) compared with
the amount of fresh water being introduced in the system (m3/h) will
also determine the concentration ratio.
CR = MU/BD
Where: MU = Makeup Rate, (m3/h)
BD = Blow-down Rate. (m3/h) includes drift, leakage, and filter wastage
3- Make Up Water
Water that must be added to replace water lost from the recirculating
system by evaporation and bleed-off (or blow down) is called makeup
water (MU). The amount of water entering the system must be equal
to the amount leaving the system. MU = E + BD

If the temperature drop across the tower and the recirculation rates
are known, the amounts of water loss through evaporation can be
calculated. If the concentration ratio is also known then the makeup
water requirements can be calculated as follows.
MU = E.CR/ (CR-1)
4- Blow-down Rate
The blow down (bleed-off) rate is generally defined as the water lost
from the system for all reasons except evaporation.
BD = E / (CR-1)
SPECIFIC AND RELATIVE HUMIDITY OF AIR
The mass of water vapor present in a unit mass of dry air. This is called
absolute or specific humidity (also called humidity ratio) and is
denoted by :
= mv /ma kg water vapor/kg dry air
= (Ra /Rv )(Pv /Pa )
Ra = 0.287 kj/kg K and Rv = 0.4615 kj/kg.K
= 0.622 Pv /Pa
The total pressure P is given by:
P = Pa + Pv
= 0.622 Pv /(P -Pv )
The relative humidity, the mass of water vapor present in a unit
mass of saturated air
= mv / mg = Pv /Pg ( Pg = Psat )
The relative humidity ranges from 0 for dry air to 1 for saturated air
Enthalpy of moist air
Enthalpy - h - (kJ/kg) of moist air is defined as the total enthalpy of the
dry air and the water vapor mixture per kg of moist air, includes the
Enthalpy of the dry air - the sensible heat
Enthalpy of the evaporated water - the latent heat
h =ha + h = Cp.T + .hg
The temperature of air in air-conditioning applications ranges from
about
-10 to about 50C. In this range, dry air can be treated as an ideal gas
with a constant Cp value of 1.005 kJ/(kg K)
Taking 0C as the reference temperature, the enthalpy of dry air can
be determined from
hdry air = ha = CpT = 1.005T (kJ/kg)
Where T is the air temperature in C
The atmospheric air can be treated as an ideal-gas mixture whose
pressure is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air Pa and that of
water vapor P:
P = Pa + P

Therefore, the enthalpy of water vapor in air can be taken to be equal

to the enthalpy of saturated vapor at the same temperature. That is, h
= hg
The enthalpy of water vapor at 0oC is 2502 kJ/kg. The average Cp value
of water vapor in the temperature range -10 to 50oC can be taken to
be 1.82 kJ/kgoC. Then the enthalpy of water vapor can be determined
approximately from
h =hg(T) = 2501.3 + 1.82T (kJ/kg)
h = 1.005T + [2502+1.82 T] kJ/kg (T inoC)
h = 1.005T + *hg
(3)
MASS BALANCE:
The mass flow rate of dry air through the tower remains constant, but
the mass flow rate of liquid water decreases by an amount equal to
the amount of water that vaporizes in the tower during the cooling
process.The water lost through evaporation must be made up later in
the cycle to maintain steady operation. Applying the mass and energy
balances yields
Referring to the following diagram the mass flow rate of the makeup
water is given by the difference in specific humidity at the inlet and
outlet air streams multiplied by the mass flow rate of the dry air. Thus
the mass flow balance equations for the cooling tower become:
Dry air mass balance: ma1=ma2=ma
Water mass balance: mw3+mv1= mw4+mv2
mw3+ma1. 1= mw4+ ma2. 2
mw3 mw4 = ma(2 1) = mmakeup
(4)
=specific humidity
ENERGY BALANCE:
ma1.h1+ mw3.h3= ma2.h2+ mw4.h4
ma.h1+ mw3.h3= ma.h2+ [mw3 - ma(2 1)] h4
ma= mw3(h3-h4 )/[(h2-h1) - (2 1)h4]
(5)

Air +Vapour out

Water in

mw3

ma2+mv2

Air +Vapour in
Water out

mw4

ma1+mv1

Dry air (ma )

Vapour (mv1) = 1 . ma
Vapour (mv2) = 2 . ma
h1 and h2 = the enthalpies of the vapor ,h air-vapor = T+ (2500+2T)
kj/kg
h3 and h4 = the enthalpies of the liquid , h liquid =CP.T =4.18T kj/kg
The temperature T is in degrees Celsius, and the specific heat capacity
of dry air CP is approximately 1.00 [kJ/kgC] and that of liquid water
approximately 4.18 [kJ/kgC]. In the above analysis we have assumed
that the temperature of the makeup water equals the temperature of
the cooled circulating water T3. Alternatively the values of enthalpy for
the vapor (h1 and h2) can also be conveniently read directly from the
Psychrometric Chart.
=specific humidity, is related to the various pressures and the
relative humidity by the following relations
= mv / ma = 0.622xPv / (P-Pv)= 0.622x .Pg /(P- .Pg )
The pressure Pv is the partial pressure of the vapor, Pg is the saturation
pressure at temperature T, and P is the total pressure (air + vapor),
usually taken as one atmosphere (101.325 kPa).
GUIDE FOR SOLVING PROBLEMS
1- Given The dry bulb-temperature Tdry and Relative humidity,
Inlet air
Temperature
T1
Saturation pressure
Ps1
Parietal pressure of water
Pv1=1*Ps1
vapour
Specific volume of water
vv1=462*T1/P T(oK) and P(N/m2)
vapour
v1
Parietal pressure of dry air Pa1 =P-Pv1
P=atmospheric
pressure=1.013
Specific volume of dry air
va1=287*T1/P T(oK) and P(N/m2)
a1

specific humidity
Enthalpy
Outlet air
Temperature
Saturation pressure
Parietal pressure of water
vapour
Specific volume of water

1=0.622Pv1/
Pa1
ha1= 1.005T1 + 1 [2502+1.82 T1] ,T(oC)
= 1.005T1 + 1*hg1 kj/kg dry air

T2
Ps2
Pv2=2*Ps2
vv2=462*T2/P

vapour
Parietal pressure of dry air
Specific volume of dry air

v2

Pa2 =P-Pv2
va2=287*T2/P
a2

specific humidity

2=0.622Pv2/
Pa2
ha2= 1.005T2 + 2 [2502+1.82 T2] ,T(oC)
= 1.005T2 + 2*hg2 kj/kg dry air

Enthalpy

2- Given The dry bulb-temperature Tdry and wet bulb-temperature

Twet
Pv = Pws (Twet) - P k (Tdry - Twet ) (p=hPa)
Pv=The water vapour pressure
Pws =Water vapour saturation pressure at Twet
P = The ambient pressure is 1013 hPa
k = Psychrometer constant 0.000662C-1
Inlet water
Temperature
Enthalpy
Outlet water
Temperature
Enthalpy

T3

hf3
T4
hf4

mw3 *hf3 - mw4*hf4 = ma(ha2 - ha1)

Solved Examples
Example.1

Water

Air

Point
1
2
3
4

Tdb oC
25
35
40
25

Twb
15

(%)

mw (kg/s)

90%
207

Determine:1- The volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
2- The mass flow rate of the required makeup water
Solution
1- Inlet air(point.1)
Pv1 = Ps1 (Twet) P* k* (Tdry - Twet )
= 17.057-1013*0.000662(25-15)=10.351 hPa
Pa1=P-Pv1=1013-10.351=1002.649 hPa
va1=Ra*T1/Pa1 =287(273+25)/( 1002.649*100) =0.853m3/kg
1=0.622Pv1/Pa1 =0.622*10.351/1002.649 =0.00642 kg vapour/kg dry
air
hg1= 2546.5 kj/kg
h1=1.005T1 + 1*hg1
h1=1.005*25 + 0.00642 *2546.5= 41.474 kj/kd dry air
2- Outlet air (point.2)
Ps2 = 5.6291kpa
Pv2 = 2* Ps2=0.9*5.6291= 5.0662 kpa
Pa2=P-Pv2=101.3-5.0662 =96.2338kPa
2=0.622Pv2/Pa2=0.622*5.0662 /96.2338 =0.032745 kg vapour/kg dry
air
hg2= 2564.6
h2=1.005T2 + 2*hg2
h2=1.005*35 + 0.032745*2564.6= 119.153 kj/kd dry air
3- Inlet water(point.3)
h3=hf =167.53 kj/kg
4- Outlet water (point.4)
h4=hf = 104.83 kj/kg
ma= mw3(h3-h4 )/[(h2-h1 ) - (2 1)h4]
ma= 207*(167.53 - 104.83)/ ((119.153 -41.474 ) - 104.83 *(0.032745
0.00642))
= 12978.9/74.91935=173.238 kg/s
Va=ma*va1=173.238*0.853 =147.77 m3/s
mmakeup = ma (2 - 1 )= 173.238 (0.032745 0.00642)= 4.56 kg/s
Example.2
A cooling tower must cool 340 kg/m of water. The water is supplied at
42oC and it is sprayed down in the column of air which enters the
bottom of the tower at a rate of 540 m3/m with a temperature of 18oC
and relative humidity of 60%.The moist air leaves the top of the tower
saturated at 27oC.The whole process occurs at a constant pressure of
1.013 bar. Determine the temperature of cooled water in the pool and
the rate at which make up water must be supplied to replace that
evaporated.
Solution
1-Inlet air (point.1)
Ps1 = 2.0858 kpa

Pv1 = 1* Ps1=0.6*2.0858 = 1.25148 kpa

Pa1=P-Pv1=101.3-1.25148 =100.0485 kPa
1=0.622Pv1/Pa1 =0.622*1.25148 /100.0485=0.00778
va1=Ra*T1/ Pa1=287(273+18)/( 100.0485*1000)= 0.8348 m3/kg
ma=Va/va =540/0.8348 = 646.86 kg/m
h1=1.005T1 + 1*hg1 =1.005*18+0.00778*2533.76=37.8kj/kg
2-Outlet air (point.2)
Ps2 = 3.60064 kpa
Pv2 = 2* Ps2=1.0*3.60064 = 3.60064 kpa
Pa2=P-Pv2=101.3-3.60064 =97.6994 kPa
2=0.622Pv2 /Pa2=0.622*3.60064 /97.6994 =0.02292 kg vapour/kg dry
air
hg2= 2550.14 kj/kg
h2=1.005T2 + 2*hg2
h2=1.005*27 + 0.02292 *2550.14 = 85.584 kj/kd dry air
The rate at which make up water=ma(2 1)= 646.86 (0.022920.00778)
= 9.79kg/s
3-Inlet water(point.3)
h3=hf =175.894 kj/kg
ma= mw3(h3-h4 )/[(h2-h1 ) - (2 1 )h4]
646.86 = 340(175.894 h4 )/[( 85.584 -37.8 ) - (0.02292 0.00778 )h4]
1.9= (175.894 h4)/ [47.784-0.01514 h4]
90.7896-0.028766 h4 =175.894 h4
0.971234 h4=85.1044
h4 =87.625 ,T4=21oC

EXERCISES (8)
(1) Cooling of a Power Plant by a Cooling Tower, Cooling water leaves
the condenser of a power plant and enters a wet cooling tower at
35oC at a rate of 100 kg/s. The water is cooled to 22oC in the cooling
tower by air that enters the tower at 1 atm, 20oC, and 60 percent
relative humidity and leaves saturated at 30oC. Determine
(a) The volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
(b) The mass flow rate of the required makeup water.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(2) A wet cooling tower is to cool 60 kg/s of water from 40 to 26oC.
Atmospheric air enters the tower at 1 atm with dry and wet-bulb
temperatures of 22 and 16oC, respectively, and leaves at 34oC with a
relative humidity of 90 percent.
Determine
(a) The volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
(b) The mass flow rate of the required makeup water.
Answers: (a) 44.9 m3/s, (b) 1.16 kg/s
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(3) The cooling water from the condenser of a power plant enters a
wet cooling tower at 40oC at a rate of 90 kg/s. The water is cooled to
25oC in the cooling tower by air that enters the tower at 1 atm, 23oC,
and 60 percent relative humidity and leaves saturated at 32oC.
Determine
(a) The volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
(b) The mass flow rate of the required makeup water.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4) A wet cooling tower is to cool 50 kg/s of cooling water from 40 to
25oC at a location where the atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa.
Atmospheric air enters the tower at 20oC and 70 percent relative
humidity and leaves saturated at 35oC.
Determine
(a) The volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
(b) The mass flow rate of the required makeup water.
Answers: (a) 33.2 m3/s, (b) 1.04 kg/s

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(5) A natural-draft cooling tower is to remove 50 MW of waste heat

from the cooling water that enters the tower at 42oC and leaves at
27oC. Atmospheric air enters the tower at 1 atm with dry- and wetbulb temperatures of 23 and 18oC, respectively, and leaves saturated
at 37oC. Determine
(a) The mass flow rate of the cooling water,
(b) The volume flow rate of air into the cooling tower
(c) The mass flow rate of the required makeup water