Thermoregulation

Thermoregulation, or the maintenance of a fairly steady body temperature even

under a variety of external conditions, is important to all animals because each
species has a preferred body temperature at which functioning is optimal. These
external conditions can include changes in temperature, vapor pressure, air
velocity, and insulation among other factors that affect the temperature of the
skin. Cold-blooded animals regulate their body temperature by selecting an
appropriate external environment. Warm-blooded animals also rely on
physiological mechanisms which can produce or dissipate heat [1].
Animals have evolved such that they can adapt to changes in their thermal
environments, but thermalizing energy deposited in the body by exposure to RF
electromagnetic radiation poses a different kind of problem. It is most similar to
the action of skeletal muscle, which can also deposit large amounts of thermal
energy into deeper tissues though) [1].
How does the body function under normal thermal circumstances?

Most body organs are most efficient at relatively constant temperatures, near
37C (98.6F). The normal range from 35.5 to 40C ( 96F to 104F) allows for
considerable variation induced by circadian variation, vigorous exercise,
variations in ambient temperature, results of food intake, age factors, menstrual
variation in women, and emotional factors. When body temperature is outside
this range, it is an indication of a disease state, unusual activity, or extraordinary
environmental conditions [1]., which can lead damage of body tissues.

There are two control systems for temperature regulation in endotherms (warmblooded animals). The behavioral system involves conscious voluntary acts to
adjust physical characteristics of the air-skin interface. An example of this would
be moving out of the hot sun and into the shade, or putting on a sweater to keep
warm. The physiological system consists of involuntary responses of the body
that generate or dissipate heat. Sweating is a large component of the
physiological system [1].

In a steady-state situation, the heat produced by the body is balanced by the

heat lost to the environment. An equation for the body heat balance can be
written as

M W = R C E S [W/m]

where M is the rate at which thermal energy is produced by the body through
metabolic processes, W is the rate of work produced by or on the body, R is the
rate of radiant heat exchange with the surroundings, C is the rate of convective
heat exchange with the surroundings, E is the rate of heat loss due to
evaporation of body water, and S is the rate of heat storage in the body.
Numerous studies have confirmed that in many species, an absorbed dose of
microwave energy equivalent to the resting metabolic heat production, elevates
the deep body temperature of the animal by 1 degree or more. S should ideally
be close to zero in order to prevent body temperature changes [1].

What are the means of heat loss from the body?

Radiation, convection, and evaporation are means of heat loss that are directly
related to the surface area of the body. Conduction is usually insignificant, but in
combination with convection, is a very important form of heat loss. The rate of
conduction is a function of body surface area, dry bulb air temperature, and the
heat transfer coefficient, which also depends on the ambient air motion. A
common everyday example of this is that wind makes a hot day feel much cooler
because heat is removed from your body more efficiently.

Radiation heat transfer between two objects is independent of the dry bulb
temperature and related to the difference in surface temperatures of the objects
and the properties of their surfaces. Evaporation of water is a very important
means of heat loss. The latent heat of evaporation of water at normal body
temperature is 0.58 kcal/g, so that with the evaporation of each gram of water
from the body surface, the body loses 0.58 kcal of heat. This water loss occurs
mostly through sweating, but also through water that is breathed out or diffuses
through the skin. The rate of evaporation depends on the relative humidity (RH)
of the air, and only occurs when RH < 100% [1].

How much heat does the body produce?

The Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) is defined as the heat production of a human in
a thermoneutral environment (33C or 91F) at rest mentally and physically
more than 12 hours after the last meal. The standard BMR for a 70 kg man is
approximately 1.2 W/kg, but it can be altered by changes in active body mass,
diet, endocrine levels. It is probably not affected by living in hot climates [1].

The range of endogenous heat production, M, dependent on the work being

performed, age, sex, size, physical fitness, and level of activity, is about 40 to
800 W/m (or 1-21 W/kg for a standard man) [1]. If deep body temperature is
altered, either by heat storage from being in a warm environment, or by febrile
disease (having a fever), then M changes as well. In cold environments, for
example, shivering induced by the body can increase heat production up to four
or five times the normal resting level. Further increase can be induced by
exercise.

What is vasomotor control?

Vasomotor control is a fancy expression for the convective heat transfer that
occurs via the circulatory system. In cold environments, vasoconstriction
(constriction of the blood vessels) limits heat loss from the body core to the skin
in peripheral vasculature, such as in the hands and feet. This is commonly
experienced in the fact that hands and feet are the first to feel cold on a cold
day. This is evidence of the body's attempt to retain heat in the body. Residual
heat flow is reduced to 5-9 W/m per C difference between the body core and
skin in the peripheral areas [1]. In thermoneutral environments, peripheral
vessels are vasodilated (expanded) so that each liter of blood at 37C that flows
to skin surface and returns 1C cooler, releases 1 kcal or 1.16Whr of heat [1].
During vigorous exercise, peripheral blood flow can increase up to ten times,
which is crucial in eliminating the increased metabolic heat produced in working
muscles.

Tissue conductance refers to the combined effect of conduction though layers of

muscle and fat, and convective heat transfer by the blood. In the cold,
conductance is minimized to 6-9 W/m/C, and in heat, increases a lot.

What role does sweating play in thermoregulation?

Evaporative heat loss through sweating is a very efficient means for balancing
metabolic heat production and heat absorbed from surroundings by
radiofrequency radiation and convection. Secretion of sweat occurs when the
ambient temperature rises above 30-31c, and/or when internal body
temperature rises above 37C [1]. Those who are physically fit or used to warm
environments, show a better response of the sweating mechanism in response to
exercise as sweating begins at a lower internal body temperature.

Humans, some primates, and a few other species sweat. Cats and dogs pant to
cool by evaporation of water, while other species such as rodents have no
physiological mechanism of thermoregulation and hence rely only on behavioral
responses [1].

How is thermoregulation controlled?

The physiological system for thermoregulation operates like an automatic control

system that responds to negative feedback. The body temperature is regulated
at a set reference temperature, and temperature sensors throughout the body
respond to the central controller in the medial preoptic/anterior hypothalamic
region of the brainstem, which then adjusts heat production and loss accordingly.

Thermosensitive neural tissue consists of specialized receptors in the outer

layers which detect the temperature of the skin. Temperature changes in
localized sites trigger behavioral as well as physiological thermoregulatory
responses. Under ordinary environmental conditions, the body is quick to
perceive temperature changes and trigger a response that tells the body, for
example, to begin sweating or to move to a cooler environment. In the presence
of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation, however, heat is absorbed by
tissues below the skin and is therefore not sensed by temperature sensors until a
finite time has elapsed. Absorption patterns in the body can be complex and
result in uneven heating. These problems are discussed further below.

What is the difference between heating from RF radiation and other (natural)
sources?

The response from heating by RF radiation is actually not that different from
heating from other sources. The basic challenge in dealing with excess heat in
the body in general is whether the heat-loss capability of the body is good
enough to prevent heat storage. A heat balance equation is given above.

The ratio of evaporation required to the maximum possible evaporation gives a

measure of the percentage of the skin surface wet with sweat. The Heat Stress
Index (HSI) is equal to this ratio and provides an indication of thermal comfort.
When the HSI is less than 20%, the body is in a state of thermal comfort. For
levels greater than 30% but less than 60%, heat levels are uncomfortable,
interfere with concentration and fine motor performance, but are tolerable. When
HSI > 60%, conditions are intolerable. When the rate of evaporation is lower than

the rate required, the amount of heat storage (S) in the body as found from the
heat balance equation can be used to predict tolerance times.

<25 kcal -- may not be noticeable if slow enough heating rate

>80 kcal -- voluntary tolerance time
160 kcal -- 50% risk of collapse
240 kcal -- intolerable [4].

RF radiation probably alters tolerance limits the same way as an equivalent

metabolic load. Passive heating (diathermy) and active heating (exercise) causes
the same effect on thermoregulation. Models are used to predict the amount of
radiation (SAR) that will change temperature by so much under a given set of
conditions.

One calculation done used the heat balance equation to predict the maximum
whole-body SAR that a healthy man could tolerate for 60 minutes with
thermoregulatory mechanisms functioning properly. At a dry bulb temperature of
40C (104F), and 80% relative humidity, tolerance was reached after 60
minutes with an SAR of 3.11W/kg and an incident power density of ~13mW/cm.
The incident plane wave had E-polarization and was at the resonant frequency of
70MHz, ensuring maximal energy absorption [4]. At cellular and PCS frequencies,
absorption would be much lower, and hence a much stronger power density
would be required to reach maximum tolerance after one hour.

How can one avoid thermal discomfort in an RF radiation environment?

Clothing can alter the resistance to flow of heat from the skin to the
environment. How well it acts as an insulation unit is a function of the thickness
of the air layer trapped in the clothing. Avoidance of thermal discomfort in an
environment with RF radiation can be achieved by minimizing the percentage of
body surface covered with sweat by increasing ambient air movement, reducing
ambient vapor pressure, and removing as much clothing as possible.

Is RF radiation similar to exercise?

Muscular exercise causes an internal disturbance which causes an offset in the

regulated internal body temperature. At the beginning of exercise, heat
production in skeletal muscles increases rapidly, causing a temporary large
increase in heat storage. This drives heat rate until heat loss equals heat
production and the body temperature equilibrates at a hyperthermic level, which
will depend on the level of exercise.

Whole body absorption of thermalizing RF energy may have the same

thermoregulation effects as exercise, as has been tested by Nielsen, who
observed the same temperature increase in each case [1]. The distribution of
heat in the body may be different, however. Convective heat transfer via blood
flow is very important in distributing heat in both active and passive heating.

The major stimulus for increased heat dissipation during exercise was increased
body temperature, as opposed to ambient temperature which controls heat loss
via changes in skin temperature. The same is true for RF radiation. We thus may
be able to predict the consequences of RF radiation by comparing it to exercise.
Head deposited in the body by RF radiation is no different than that produced by
the body itself.

Is RF radiation similar to having a fever?

While exercise produces an elevation in body temperature above the regulated

normal level, fever increases the regulated body temperature itself, so the
thermoregulation system acts in a manner consistent with this elevated set
temperature. This was shown in an experiment in which the body temperature in
normal and febrile patients went up the same amount with exercise but with
respect to a higher base level. In general, the effects of a fever depend on the
environment. In a state of fever, the body is induced by a pyrogen to maintain a
higher body temperature and will thus adjust accordingly depending on the
surrounding temperature. The hyperthermic state induced by RF radiation is
therefore more similar to that from exercise.

How much heat can be tolerated by the body?

To get a sense of the heat load that can be tolerated by the body, we first look at
the background exposure levels. For 99% of the United States, this is at less than
0.001mW/cm. At the resonant frequency for humans, this represents a wholebody SAR of about 0.03% of the resting metabolic rate (M), which is insignificant.

Even the SAR level of 0.4W/kg specified by the ANSI guideline for controlled
exposure is only 35% of resting M, which is equivalent to putting on a light
sweater, so it is not that large an effect. In fact, most humans can cope with
exercise or work loads even in thermally stressful environments (high ambient
temperature) equal to fifteen times the resting M. The reason that humans are
able to deal with such a large increase, is that this is compensated by a great
increase in sweat production, accompanied by efficient behavioral
thermoregulation. In combination, these allow only a minimal temperature
increase. Because it is so difficult to generate a large temperature increase, it
makes sense that no adverse health effects have been shown in exposure to
radiofrequency radiation in the few studies done.

Use of microwave energy can also be the beneficial to a body. It is, for example,
used for diathermic heating of body tissues and in cancer treatment.

Does thermoregulatory behavior depend on thermal sensation?

What about other factors? While physiological responses such as vasodilation

and sweating may be triggered automatically by thermal stimuli, sensation of
tissue heating is necessary to provoke behavioral thermoregulation. It is believed
that temperature-sensitive neural structures lying within the outermost 0.6mm of
skin sense temperature changes. RF/EM radiation may or may not produce a
sensation of warmth, depending on frequency modulation, intensity, duration,
and exposed surface area.

Infrared (IR) radiation and very high frequency RF (10GHz or higher) radiation are
sensed in the skin, but lower RF frequencies are absorbed at other depths, so it is
not so clear what happens. In general the shorter the wavelength of radiation,
the less energy required to produce a sensation of warmth (e.g. IR has a shorter
wavelength). At short durations, stimulus intensity must be increased to provoke
sensation of warmth. In unusual circumstances, persistence of the sensation of
warmth from RF radiation after the heating source is gone has been observed.
This may be due to thermal inertia of tissues and the greater volume of tissue
involved when sense penetration is deeper.

There has not been much experimentation done with humans to monitor
changes in thermoregulation behavior (voluntary response) in the presence of
microwaves. The focus has been on animals, which can be trained to push
buttons to adjust heat from an RF source, meaning that the radiation has a
behavioral effect (after a threshold of exposure). Exposure at the resonance

frequency for the animal, results in a stable hyperthermic offset of the deep body
temperature even though behavioral responses regulate skin temperature at the
preferred level. This response is identical to the conditions produced by exercise.

There is also the possibility that physiological responses, such as peripheral

vasodilation and sweating that shows on the skin surface could influence
behavioral regulation. Extrapolation of animal studies where animals are trained
so that response to stimuli is quick, leads to the conclusion that education of
workers in high-power sources of RF fields, and environmental signals (visual and
auditory) associated with equipment function or malfunction, can aid recognition
of potential for over-exposure and tell workers to get away from potentially
dangerous fields.

What is a threshold effect?

For given environmental conditions and species, there is an intensity of imposed

RF radiation at which a thermoregulatory response is triggered. Below this
threshold, RF intensities will produce no response. Above this level, response is
dependent on intensity. [1] As the dry bulb temperature increases, the SAR
threshold decreases.

How does the body metabolism respond to RF radiation?

The metabolic rate, M, is reduced after a threshold SAR has been achieved in
whole-body exposure, so body temperature stays within its normal limits. Chronic
low-level RF radiation produced no measurable change in the normal metabolism
of infant rats, rats exposed for their entire life, or in squirrel monkeys exposed for
15 weeks. [1]

For non-human primates this threshold is ~0.5-1.5W/kg, and is unknown in other

species. Exposure of non-human primates at resonance frequencies gives less
response so body temperature rises, in a way similar to exercise, but not by
much. Resonant exposure is not any more dangerous than other frequencies.

How does the body use vasomotor and evaporative responses?

Vasodilation occurs to increase heat loss and after the threshold intensity. The
magnitude of the response is a function of whole body SAR or total heat load.

Once peripheral vasculature is maximum, the evaporative response sets in to

cool the body more. Humans lose a lot of body heat through sweating when the
dry-bulb temperature, T_db, is greater than 30-31C (86- 87.8F) or deep body
temperature is greater than 37C (98.6F). In contrast, rodents cannot sweat or
pant like cats and dogs, and can only lose heat through evaporation by licking
their pelt and causing evaporation of saliva. The local sweat rate increases
linearly with the temperature of the body core during exercise. At lower skin
temperatures, the body temperature must be higher in order to initiate sweating.
This is well known as in that on a cold day you don't sweat as easily. Tests done
on monkeys confirm that the rate of sweating depends on the temperature of the
core, and the surface temperature (ambient or skin temperature).

What happens under exposure to intense RF radiation? What are the limits of
human heat tolerance to RF radiation?

p. 420 Exposure to intense RF radiation results in an initial increase in core

temperature, followed by a plateau temperature at a hyperthermic level, and
eventually leading to thermoregulatory failure if exposure is long enough. The
thermoregulatory response can balance the heat absorbed, but only temporarily.
Death can result from hyperpyrexia. Environmental temperature is important
here, in that there is more tolerance at lower temperatures. In addition,
hydration helps extend tolerance in dogs more, presumably because it allows
more evaporative loss in panting and aids cooling of the body. Theoretically
hydration would thus increase sweating loss in humans, and allow greater
cooling. Tolerance increases with the number of times exposed, similar to how
individuals get used to warmer climates.

Wrists, ankles, neck (and animal tails) have enhanced energy absorption and
hence higher tissue local temperature, but heat transfer through blood flow
prevents any damage from occurring by transferring heat to other parts of the
body.

What other factors are important in thermoregulation?

If the thermoregulation system is compromised in any way, by drugs or other

agents, there may not be good regulation of body temperature in radiation fields.

Naturally, cardiovascular impairment of any sort will lower the maximum SAR
possible for thermal equilibrium because of the limits on heat loss through blood
flow because of the limits on the pumping system. Ordinarily some level or RF
energy (SAR) can be absorbed indefinitely because the body will be able to
effectively balance the low levels of extra heat and maintain thermal equilibrium.
[1].

There seems to be a potential for hot spots in the cranial cavity, but models
predict that this is unlikely because of greatly enhanced heat loss mechanisms
that are active during heating. Likewise, poorly perfused tissues such as the
ocular lens, gut or resting muscle can increase temperature if high local SARs are
generated, but increased heat dissipation mechanisms will spread the heat
quickly. (See health effects.)