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28 February 2015
Computer Networks xxx (2015) xxxxxx
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Computer Networks
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comnet
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Tobias Hofeld , Michael Seufert, Christian Sieber 1, Thomas Zinner, Phuoc Tran-Gia
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a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 22 May 2014
Received in revised form 4 February 2015
Accepted 18 February 2015
Available online xxxx
Keywords:
HTTP Adaptive Streaming (HAS)
Quality of Experience (QoE)
Mixed Integer Linear Programming (MILP)
formulation
Initial delay
Quality switches
Adaptation logic benchmarking
a b s t r a c t
HTTP Adaptive Streaming (HAS) technologies, e.g., Apple HLS or MPEG-DASH, automatically adapt the delivered video quality to the available network. This reduces stalling of the
video but additionally introduces quality switches, which also inuence the user-perceived
Quality of Experience (QoE). In this work, we conduct a subjective study to identify the
impact of adaptation parameters on QoE. The results indicate that the video quality has
to be maximized rst, and that the number of quality switches is less important. Based
on these results, a method to compute the optimal QoE-optimal adaptation strategy for
HAS on a per user basis with mixed-integer linear programming is presented. This QoE-optimal adaptation enables the benchmarking of existing adaptation algorithms for any given
network condition. Moreover, the investigated concept is extended to a multi-user IPTV
scenario. The question is answered whether video quality, and thereby, the QoE can be
shared in a fair manner among the involved users.
2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.
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1. Introduction
Video distribution networks, like YouTube [1] or Netix
[2], recently adopted HTTP Adaptive Streaming (HAS) technology. HAS allows for a exible adaptation of the video
quality to the available network resources and device
capabilities. Thereby, it also mitigates the problem of buffer underruns and the interruption of the playback, i.e.,
stalling, which is caused by limited network resources.
To apply HAS, the video content has to be available in
multiple bit rates, i.e., quality levels, and split into small
segments each containing a few seconds of playtime. The
Corresponding author at: University of Duisburg-Essen, Chair of
Modeling of Adaptive Systems, Schtzenbahn 70, 45127 Essen, Germany.
Tel.: +49 201 183 7244.
E-mail addresses: tobias.hossfeld@uni-due.de (T. Hofeld), seufert@
informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de (M. Seufert), c.sieber@tum.de (C. Sieber),
zinner@informatik.uni-wuerzburg.de (T. Zinner), trangia@informatik.
uni-wuerzburg.de (P. Tran-Gia).
1
Present address: Technische Universitt Mnchen, Institute for Communication Networks, Munich, Germany.
client measures the current bandwidth and/or buffer status and requests the next part of the video in an appropriate bit rate such that stalling is avoided and the available
bandwidth is best possibly utilized. Hence, the control
intelligence, i.e., which segment to stream, has moved from
the servers to the clients. The HAS technology is adopted
by a wide range of applications and video content providers [3] and is also standardized in ISO/IEC 23009-1
(MPEG-DASH) [4].
Much research in the HAS area tries to nd the best
adaptation strategy in order to maximize a users Quality
of Experience (QoE). Therefore, HAS adaptation algorithms
monitor the current network conditions, as well as video
bit rate and buffer status. Based on these monitored data,
they decide which quality level to request next in order
to avoid stalling to the greatest possible extent. In [5], different adaptation algorithms are compared and classied
with respect to user-perceived inuence parameters. Such
QoE inuence parameters of HAS, which are typically
investigated, are initial delay, stalling delays and frequencies, played back video quality, and frequency of quality
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
1389-1286/ 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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With classical HTTP video streaming, network conditions and video requirements are insufciently aligned.
Either the video bit rate is smaller than the available bandwidth which leads to a smooth playback but spare
resources, which could be utilized for a better video quality, or the bit rate is higher than the available bandwidth
which introduces delays and will eventually cause stalling
(i.e., the interruption of playback due to empty playout
buffers), which degrades the Quality of Experience (QoE)
severely (e.g., [7,8]). This misalignment is tackled by HTTP
Adaptive Streaming (HAS) which is a new technology that
improves classical video streaming by exibly selecting the
video quality, which is delivered to the end users.
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Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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COMPNW 5515
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T. Hofeld et al. / Computer Networks xxx (2015) xxxxxx
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maximized. If several playout strategies reach the maximum video quality level, then the number of switches
should be minimized.
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With detailed knowledge about precongured application layer parameters and network conditions it is possible
to compute the optimal playout strategy and thus provide
an optimal video playout as discussed in Section 3. The
HAS adaptation algorithm at an end device, however, lacks
detailed knowledge about the current and future network
conditions. Based on the current quality indicators on
application layer like pre-buffered video length and video
quality, and estimations on the current network conditions,
e.g, the current TCP congestion window or the average
throughput for the last segment, the adaptation algorithm
has to decide which segments shall be downloaded next.
There are a number of algorithms, each following specic
policies when deciding on which chunk to request next. A
rate adaptation algorithm based on smoothed bandwidth
changes measured through segment fetch time is proposed
in [19]. Another approach [20] develops an adaptation
engine based on the dynamics of the available throughput
in the past and the current buffer level to select the appropriate representation. It is a rather conservative algorithm,
which only requests a medium quality level on average but
preserves a low switching frequency. In [3], an algorithm
for single-layer content of constant bit rate is presented
which selects representations according to current bandwidth, current buffer level, and the average bit rate of each
segment. A QoE-aware Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over
HTTP (DASH) system (QDASH) is presented in [21]. It comprises a quality adaptation algorithm using bandwidth
measurements based on packet round-trip times, the current buffer state, and the average fragment size of a quality
level to decide what to download next. Further approaches
based on control theory are presented in [22,23]. Theses
approaches also utilize network and application conditions
to provide a smooth video playback. Additionally, they also
support multi-server DASH. A very aggressive strategy is
presented in [24] which decides only on the current playback buffer which segment to download next. It often delivers the highest quality representation to the end user but
also has a very high switching frequency. In [5], the BIEB
algorithm is proposed, which downloads segments based
on size ratios between the different quality levels. An overview of existing HAS adaptation algorithms and their
details is provided in [6].
All existing algorithms select the next segment to
download based on technical parameters like bandwidth
or video bit rate, but do not take the expected video quality
perceived by the end user into account. So far, no model
exists which can be used to evaluate the performance of
the HAS adaptation algorithms in terms of QoE. A major
contribution of this paper is to formulate the optimization
problem which allows to investigate any kind of HAS adaptation algorithm and the difference to the QoE optimal
solution. In the paper, we exemplary solve this problem
for chosen HAS algorithms in a real-test bed. However,
the evaluation framework can be applied to compute the
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the time Tv V 1 t to download volume v. In compliance with the available download volume, the client
downloads segments and plays them out before their
respective deadline. After the rst segment has been
downloaded, the video playout can begin. Any additional
time from the start of the video download until the start
of the video playback is called start-up/initial delay T 0 .
These variables are sufcient to formulate the optimization problems. The Boolean target variable xij indicates if
the client downloads segment Sij or not, and serves as input
to the optimization function. Thus, the optimal assignment
xij describes the outcome of an optimal adaptation strategy. This assignment is realizable under the given conditions, however, no indications of the optimal decisions
are contained, i.e., the optimal assignment does not indicate when to download which segment.
In order to remove dependencies on the actual bandwidth conditions and video characteristics, the results presented in this work are normalized. Therefore, the
bandwidth factor b is introduced. A bandwidth factor
b 1 means that a video of duration ns with total size
P
S ni1 Sirmax of the highest quality representation r max
can be downloaded completely without stalling and initial
delay. In other words, the received download volume at ns
equals the total size of the highest quality representation,
i.e., Vns S .
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Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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Table 1
Notations and variables frequently used. Default values are given in square
brackets.
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sizes
Sir
r1
r2
r3
26.52
75.77
301.17
3.76
37.14
0.49
0.76
84.86
242.47
789.66
9.60
127.09
0.52
0.82
238.57
681.64
2142.00
20.22
419.74
0.62
0.87
of
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102
r=3
r=2
r=1
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100
200
300
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500
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1000
309
segment
Representation
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the
Explanation
xij 2 f0; 1g
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and
Tv
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contents
U
R f1; 2; 3g
n 350
s 2 s
Sij
Di
T 0 0 s
Vt
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video
Variable
wij
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Table 2
Characteristics of
representation r.
run 1
500
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1000
run 2
500
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1000
run 3
500
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
time (s)
Fig. 2. Network pattern, i.e., available bandwidth over time, of the rst
three evaluation runs. The measured trafc pattern was adjusted to the
given video and wrapped around with a randomized starting point for
each evaluation run.
bandwidth patterns can be used albeit statistical characteristics of the bandwidth (e.g., mean, standard deviation,
skewness, kurtosis, autocorrelation) are identical in each
run. Fig. 2 shows the available bandwidth over time of
the rst three evaluation runs. It can be seen that the bandwidth uctuates rapidly in a range from 0.58 kBps to
663.62 kBps during each run.
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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any), Perceptible but not annoying (did notice, but did not
care), Slightly annoying, Annoying, and Very annoying.
For the experiment, we choose a 15 s (360 frames) segment of the video content used in the evaluation. The start
of the segment corresponds to the timestamp 00:00:25 of
the full short-movie. The scene depicts two persons standing on a small bridge and contains a low level of detail and
motion, which also results in low spatial/temporal information (SI/TI) values (SI: 8.5, TI: 5.37). We encoded the test
sequence in two quality levels by downscaling the source
material to 640 360 and 160 90. Note that in the browser of the user, the two quality levels were both scaled to a
window size of 320 180.
After the demographic survey, six different quality level
switching patterns were presented to the user in random
order. Two patterns with zero switches were presented,
one which only shows the higher quality to the user and
one only showing the lower quality level. The other four
patterns start and end on the highest level, but include
quality switches which reduce the playout time of the
highest quality to 86%, 71%, and 36%, respectively.
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The numerical QoE results of the conducted experiments are visualized as bar plot in Fig. 3. It presents the
mean opinion scores (MOS) of the different switching patterns, which are ordered along the x-axis according to the
respective time t on the representation layer at highest
quality. It can be seen that the user perceived quality for
HTTP adaptive streaming is bounded by the quality of
highest layer yH and lowest layer yL . The bounds yH and
yL correspond to the mean values of the ratings of the video
clip with high and low quality. To be more precise, the
MOS values yH and yL were obtained in experiments in
which the video was played out with constant high and
constant low quality, respectively. In Fig. 3, the bounds
are plotted with dashed lines. A detailed analysis of the
results of the subjective user studies identies the main
inuence factors on HAS QoE and assesses the main effect
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measurement
fitting according to IQX
f(t)= exp( t)+
4.5
4
MOS f (t)
350
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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sizes [28]. The results reveal that the time on highest video
quality layer is a key inuence factor which allows to formulate a simple QoE model.
The model function f t maps the time t on the highest
layer to the corresponding MOS value. If there is no switch,
the equation f 1 yH holds, which represents the QoE of
the video played out constantly in highest quality. If the
video is delivered in low quality level only, limt!0 f t yL
holds. Switching the quality level between the high and
low quality level has a negative inuence on QoE.
A fundamental functional relationship between QoE
and QoS parameters is described by the IQX hypothesis (exponential interdependency of quality of experience and
quality of service) [29]. The formula relates changes of
QoE with respect to QoS to the current level of QoE and
assumes the following differential equation
@QoE
QoE c
@QoS
f t aebt c:
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playout in such a way that the video content can be downloaded without any QoE degradation. In particular, no stalling must occur [31]. Formally, initial delay shifts the
regular video segment deadlines, such that the deadline
Di of each segment i can be considered as the sum of the
initial delay T 0 and the segments position is in the video.
i1
However, Eq. (4) needs to be reformulated as MILP constraint which can be done by using the inverse function
Tv instead of Vt.
k
X
T 0 P T Sir i 1s; for all k 1; . . . ; n
i1
minimize T 0 2 RP0
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subject to
k
X
T 0 P T Sir i 1s; 8k 1; . . . ; n
i1
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Solving this problem allows to quantify the minimal initial delay which is needed by any algorithm in order to
avoid stalling. Fig. 4 shows this optimal initial delay T 0 for
different target representations r 2 R depending on different bandwidths. The plot is normalized by the bandwidth
factor b, which is set to 1 by denition, if the download volume equals the video size in highest representation.
It can be seen that in order to achieve smooth playback
without any initial delay the lower quality representations
r require a bandwidth factor which is equal to the ratio of
P
Sir
the representations sizes, i.e., P iS . With lower download
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i i3
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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COMPNW 5515
28 February 2015
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604
700
maximize W
r=3
r=2
r=1
600
400
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rmax
k X
X
Sij xij 6 VDk
200
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
567
8i 1; . . . ; n
j1
bandwidth factor
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607
r max
X
subject to
xij 1
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500
564
wij xij
i1 j1
100
563
r max
n X
X
8k 1; . . . ; n
10
i1 j1
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minimize
r max
n1 X
1X
xij xi1;j 2
2 i1 j1
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r max
X
subject to
xij 1
8i 1; . . . ; n
12
629
j1
630
rmax
k X
X
Sij xij 6 VDk
8k 1; . . . ; n
13
632
i1 j1
633
rmax
n X
X
wij xij P W opt
14
i1 j1
635
636
646
647
http://www.gurobi.com/.
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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COMPNW 5515
28 February 2015
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Table 3
Different value functions in optimization problems 2 and 3.
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Rationale of objective
function
VOLUME
wij Sij
Maximize downloaded
volume, as higher
representations need more
data volume
Maximize mean
representation
Maximize volume-weighted
mean representation
Maximize SSIM metric
Maximize time on highest
layer
LAYER
wij j
LAYERVOLUME
wij
SSIM
HIGHESTLAYER
wij SSIMij
Pn
k1 Skj
wij 1; 000:00 ,
n < 1; 000:00
i1
j1
ij
680
707
708
655
Value function
654
Name
2.5
2
VOLUME
LAYER
SSIM
LAYERVOLUME
HIGHESTLAYER
1.5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
bandwidth factor
VOLUME
LAYER
SSIM
LAYERVOLUME
HIGHESTLAYER
100
80
60
40
20
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
bandwidth factor
(b) Minimal number of switches
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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COMPNW 5515
28 February 2015
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possible from
network b(t)
QoE optimal
adaptation bopt(t)
0.8
implementation of
BIEB algorithm balg(t)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
time (s)
BIEB optimal
0.4
3
2
1
3
2
1
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BIEB
Tribler
KLU
TUB
0.2
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
time (s)
721
0.6
CDF
250
200
150
100
50
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
compared in a test bed for one video and 30 different bandwidth patterns. Additionally, the linear program was used
to compute the optimal strategy for each pattern.
Fig. 6 shows a single experiment for the BIEB algorithm
under the network conditions labeled run 1 in Fig. 2. To be
more precise, the end user is able to download data with
bandwidth bt which is the available network bandwidth
bt from the measured trafc trace run 1. The QoE optimal playout strategy only utilizes a fraction of the available
bandwidth and downloads the video segments over time
with bandwidth bopt t 6 bt. Besides the theoretical QoE
optimal playout, a concrete implementation of a HAS algorithm, like the BIEB algorithm in Fig. 6, achieves a network
utilization below the optimum, as a concrete HAS algorithm does not have knowledge about the current and
future network conditions. As a consequence, the HAS
algorithm uses a bandwidth balg t 6 bopt t 6 bt.
In the upper plot of Fig. 6, the x-axis depicts the time of
the video playback in seconds, and the y-axis shows the
cumulative download volume in MB. The largest area
shows the available cumulative download volume Vt
under the given network condition, i.e. the data amount
Rt
Vt st0 bsds which can be possibly downloaded over
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792
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the network from t 0 until t. The area below the largest one
depicts the behavior of the theoretical QoE optimal adaptation strategy under the given conditions resulting in the
Rt
download volume V opt t st0 bopt sds 6 Vt. The
smallest area shows the cumulative download volume of
the BIEB algorithm, i.e., the amount of data V alg t
Rt
st0 balg sds 6 V opt t that was downloaded by the adaptation logic at the given time t. In the lower plot, the representation ropt t and ralg t of corresponding played out
segments are depicted over the time for both the QoE optimal adaptation and the BIEB implementation, respectively.
To be more precise, the plot shows which quality layer
from 1 (lowest quality) to 3 (highest quality) was played
out at a given time t, respectively.
The illustrative results from the single experiment in
Fig. 6 show that the QoE optimal adaptation better utilizes
the available bandwidth (especially from around 250 s)
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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maximize W
809
r max
U X
n X
X
15
u1 i1 j1
810
r max
X
subject to
xuij 1;
8u 1; . . . ; U; 8i 1; . . . ; n
j1
16
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r max
U X
k X
X
Sij xuij 6 VDk ;
8u 1; . . . ; U;
u1 i1 j1
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8k 1; . . . ; n
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Optimization Problem 5 (Minimize switches for multiuser scenario without stalling at given target quality W opt ).
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r max
U X
n1 X
1X
xuij xui1;j 2 ; xuij 2 f0; 1g
2 u1 i1 j1
minimize
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subject to
r max
X
xuij 1;
8u 1; . . . ; U; 8i 1; . . . ; n
j1
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r max
U X
k X
X
8u 1; . . . ; U; 8k 1; . . . ; n
u1 i1 j1
20
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rmax
U X
n X
X
wij xuij P W opt
21
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u1 i1 j1
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average quality level). It can be seen that the globally optimal solutions are almost perfectly fair with a fairness index
larger than 0.98, i.e., the minimal number of switches is
almost the same for all users. The same is true for the average quality level. This means, optimal adaptation strategies
in the multi-user scenario are also fair among all users,
which was not obvious.
However, [37] revealed that large segment sizes have
negative effects on fairness although they allow for a high
network utilization. In order to check this nding, the
bundling factor b is introduced which means that b segments are bundled into a larger one. Solving the optimization problems for different number of users U and bundling
factors b, rst of all, no signicant impact of U can be
found. Thus, exemplary results are shown in the following
which can be generalized to all numbers of concurrent
users. For U 6, the average quality level reduces only
890
Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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=1.00
=2.00
=4.00
2.5
1.5
10
15
80
60
40
20
=1.00
=2.00
=4.00
20
10
15
20
number of users
number of users
100
2.8
90
2.6
2.4
2.2
2
1.8
1.6
=1.00
=2.00
=4.00
1.4
1.2
1
0
0.2
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0.6
0.8
=1.00
=2.00
=4.00
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Fig. 9. Effective bandwidth b b=U per user is considered for the optimal solution in multi-user IPTV scenario with service provisioning for U users. The
same data as in Fig. 8 is used, but plotted with the effective bandwidth b b=U instead of the number U of users on the x-axis.
100
50
0.95
0
0
10
15
6 users
0.9
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HTTP Adaptive Streaming (HAS) provides a more exible video delivery by allowing end devices to dynamically
adjust the video bit rate and therewith the video quality.
Multiple downloading strategies have been proposed in literature, which differ with respect to user-perceived application parameters like the average played back quality or
the number of quality switches.
The contribution of this paper is threefold. Firstly, we
introduced an evaluation framework which allows the
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Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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Acknowledgments
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This work was partly funded by Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) under Grants HO 4770/1-1 and
TR257/31-1 and in the framework of the EU ICT Project
SmartenIT (FP7-2012-ICT-317846). The authors alone are
responsible for the content.
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Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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Please cite this article in press as: T. Hofeld et al., Identifying QoE optimal adaptation of HTTP adaptive streaming based on subjective
studies, Comput. Netw. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.comnet.2015.02.015
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