by R.B.

VARIA

RL

1/23

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS OF THERMAL ENGINEERING-1.

1. Study of fire tube & water tube boilers
2. Study of boiler mountings
3. Study of boiler accessories
4. Study of various fire tubes boilers like Cochran Boiler, Cornish Boiler and Lancashire
boiler.
5. Study of Babcock-Wilcox boiler.
6. Study of steam condensers
7. Study of cooling towers.
8. Study of two stage reciprocating air compressor.

by R.B.VARIA

2/23

RL

EXPERIMENT 1
STUDY OF FIRE TUBE & WATER TUBE BOILERS
AIM:
1) Introduction
2) To know classification of boilers.
3) To compare fire tube & water tube boilers.
INTRODUCTION:
In engineering field steam is widely utilized in many applications ranging from household
applications to industrial applications. Here, few industrial applications are listed below for
examples.
(1) Steam is utilized for generation of electric power in steam power plants
(2) Steam is utilized for generation of mechanical power to run locomotive engines, road rollers,
steamers, pumps, cranes, .., etc.
(3) Steam is utilized as a heating medium, to keep warm atmosphere in buildings at the time of
cold climates in certain countries of the world.
(4) Steam is used to add moisture to a process while at the same time supplying heat.
(5) Steam is utilized as a heating medium in various heating processes in dairy, textile, food
processing, pharmaceutical, and petro-chemical industries.
(6) Steam is utilized for cleaning utensils and sterilization of various instruments and vessels in
hospitals and food processing industries.
STEAM BOILERS:
Steam boiler or steam generator is a closed vessel strongly constructed of steel, in which
steam is generated from water by the application of heat.
The function of boiler is to transmit heat available from burning of fuel or from other suitable
source to water. The primary requirements of boiler are,
(1)Water & steam must be very safely contained.
(2)Steam must be safely delivered in desired condition as regards its pressure, temperature &
quality at a required rate.
(3)Maximum heat from the source should be utilized for economy.
(4)It should be rapidly meet the changes in load.
(5)Joints should be few & removed from the flame & accessible for inspection.
(6)Minimum refractory material should be used.
BOILER TERMS:
The following terms are commonly used in connection with various types of boilers.
(1)Shell: The boiler shell consists of one more steel plates bent into cylindrical form & riveted or
welded together. The ends of shell are closed by means of end plates or heads, which are made flat,
convex or concave. The shell together with the closing heads is called the drum.
(2)Settings: The settings form the walls of combustion chamber. It confines the heat to the boiler &
forms a passage through which the gases pass. The passages so formed for gases are called flues.
The boiler settings provide supports for some types of boilers.
(3) Grate: The grate in a coal or wood fired boiler is the platform in the furnace upon which the
fuel is burned. The grate consists of cast iron bars which are spaced apart so that air for combustion
can pass through them.
(4)Grate surface: It is the area of the grate on which the fire rests in a coal or wood fired boiler &
is usually expressed in square meters.
(5)Furnace: It is also called fire box. It is the space above the grate & below the boiler shell in
which the fuel is burnt.
(6)Water space & steam space: The volume of shell that is occupied by the water is termed as
water space. The steam space is the entire shell volume less that occupied by water & tubes.
(7)Water level: It is the level at which water stands in the boiler drum.
(8)Heating surface: It is the part of the boiler surface that is exposed to the fire & to the hot gases
from the fire as hot gases pass from the furnace to the chimney.

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(9) Mountings: The equipments or fittings, which are mounted on the boiler for safety & control of
the process, are called mountings.
(10)Accessories: The items, which form an integral part of the boiler for economy, are known as
accessories.
(11)Blowing off: The process of removing the floating impurities from the water is known as
blowing off.
CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:
There are numerous ways in which boiler may be classified. The main basic classifications are as
follows.
(a)According to tube content
(1)Fire tube boiler
(2) Water tube boiler
(b)According to furnace position
(1)Externally fired boiler
(2)Internally fired boiler
(c)According to circulation of water
(1)Natural circulation boiler
(2)Forced circulation boiler
(d)According to draught system
(1)Natural draught boiler
(2)Artificial draught boiler
(e)According to source of heat
(1)Coal fired boiler
(2)Oil fired boiler
(3)Gas fired boiler
(4)Electrically heated boiler
(5)Nuclear boiler
(6)Waste heat boiler
(f)According to axis of drum
(1)Horizontal boiler
(2) Vertical boiler
(g)According to working pressure
(1) Low pressure boiler (P<20 bar)
(2)Medium pressure boiler (20 bar<P<60 bar)
(3)High pressure boiler (P>60 bar)
(h)According to use of boiler
(1)Stationary boiler
(2) Mobile boiler
COMPARISION BETWEEN FIRE TUBE & WATER TUBE BOILERS
Fire tube boilers
Water tube boilers
(1)
In fire tube boiler the product of (1) In water tube boiler water is made to pass
combustion or flue gases are made to pass
through the tubes and flue gases surround
through the tubes and water surrounds
these tubes.
these tubes.
(2) Water tube boiler can operate in low,
(2) The operating pressure range of fire tube
medium, as well as high pressure range.
boiler is limited to low pressure range up to
Modern water tube boilers are capable of
approximately 25 bar.
generating steam with 300 bar pressure.
(3) Floor space requirement per unit power is
(3) Floor space requirement per unit power is
less for water tube boilers.
higher for fire tube boilers.
(4) Water tube boiler can raise steam quickly.
(4) Fire tube boiler can not raise steam quickly. (5) Water tube boiler is convenient to transport
(5) Fire tube boiler is less convenient to
from one place to another place.
transport from one place to another place (6) Water tube boiler requires more skill for
due to large size of drum.
efficient and economic working.
by R.B.VARIA

4/23
The construction and erection of water tube
boiler is simpler.
Water tube boiler is less suitable for
impure & dirty water, because small
deposition of scale in water tubes will
cause overheating and hence bursting.
The intensity of damage is comparatively
lower in case of bursting of water tube
(9)The intensity of damage is high in case of
boiler.
bursting of fire tube boiler
(10) Sediment deposition is less
(10)Sediment deposition is higher
(11) Suitable for any type of fuel.
(11)Not suitable for any type of fuel.
by R.B.VARIA

RL

(6) Fire tube boiler requires less skill for (7)

efficient and economic working.
(7)The construction and erection of fire tube (8)
boiler is complicated.
(8) Impure & dirty water can also be utilized in
fire tube boilers.
(9)

----x-----

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EXPERIMENT 2
STUDY OF BOILER MOUNTINGS
AIM: - To study various boiler mountings.
Mountings are boiler auxiliaries which are primarily intended for the safety and complete
control of process of steam generation.
As per the Indian Boiler Regulation (IBR) the follow ing mountings are usually provided on
the boiler.
1. Two Numbers of Water Level Indicator
2. Two Numbers of Safety Valve
3. Fusible Plug
4. Steam Stop Valve
5. Feed Check Valve
6. Blow off Cock
7. Pressure Gauge
8. Man Hole and Mud Hole
The function and location of different mountings are as follows:by R.B.VARIA

RL

(1)WATER LEVEL INDICATOR :

The function of the water level indicator is to indicate constantly and exactly the level of
water in the boiler shell. As per IBR, minimum two water level indicators are required to be fitted
on a boiler. They are mounted on the front plate of the boiler shell in such a manner that they can
be easily visible to the operator. Water level indicator warns the boiler operator if by chance the
water level in the boiler goes below the minimum required level, so that corrective action may be
taken in time to avoid any accident.
Figure shows construction of simple glass tube water level indicator. The unit consists of two
horizontal pipes containing arrangements of cock in midway and stuffing box at the ends as show n
in the figure. From both the pipes, one is connected to water space and other is connected to steam
space of the boiler shell. A strong glass tube is fitted in vertical position by passing its ends through
stuffing boxes consists of heat resisting rubber packing to prevent leakage steam and water. The
glass tube is generally protected with shield. The flanges are bolted to front end plate of the boiler,
the upper flange being fitted to the steam space and the lower to water space in the boiler. There are
two cocks namely steam cock and water cock which communicate the boiler shell spaces to the
gauge glass tube. When the handle of the cocks are vertical, they are in operation and the water
level in the tube corresponds to water level in the shell. A red mark on the glass tube indicates the
safe water level.
Arrangements of free ball are provided in both the horizontal pipes between water/steam
cock and stuffing box. In normal position, the balls in both the pipes rest in their groves. At the
time of glass tube breakage, initially flows of hot water and steam start from respective broken ends
of the glass tube to the atmosphere. Due to these flows, the balls are forced to stick with their valve
seats. As a result of this action, flows of hot water and steam stop coming out from the broken ends
of the glass tube. After stopping the flows, one can close the water cock and steam cock safely and
can replace the broken tube by new one.
(2)SAFETY VALVE:Safety valve is a device which comes into operation when the pressure in the boiler exceeds
the limiting pressure. It discharges some of the steam automatically out of the boiler and brings the
pressure down to the normal working limit. As per IBR, minimum two water safety valves are
required to be fitted on the top surface of the boiler shell.
The safety valve operates by the principle that a valve is pressed against its seat by external
force like gravitational force or spring force. When the steam force due to boiler pressure acting
under the valve exceeds the external force, the valve gets lifted from its seat and some of the steam
rushes out until normal pressure is restored again.
There are four types of safety valves generally used:
(a) Dead Weight Safety Valve
(b) Lever Safety Valve

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(c) Spring Loaded Safety Valve
(d) High Steam And Low Water Safety Valve
(a)Dead Weight Safety Valve:
Figure shows construction of a dead weight safety valve, used for stationary boilers. This
valve is the simplest type of valve in which valve is loaded by the direct application of weight
above the valve. The valve seat is attached to the top of the vertical steel pipe, which is bolted to
the flange provided on the top of the boiler drum. The valve is attached to the weight carrier.
Required amount of dead weights are provided on the carrier to keep the valve on its seat under
normal working pressure. The dead weights with the valve and the pipe are covered by a cover.
When the pressure of steam exceeds the normal pressure, the valves as well as the case (along with
the weights) are lifted up from its seat. This enables the steam to escape through the discharge
pipe, which carries the steam outside the boiler house.
The lift of the valve is controlled by the studs. The head of the studs projects into the
interior of the casing. The centre of gravity of the dead weight safety valve is considerably below
the valve which ensures that the load hangs vertically.
The dead weight safety valve is most reliable type of safety valve and has the advantage that
it cannot be readily tempered because any added weight must be equal to the total increased
pressure of steam on the valve. This type of safety valve is not suitable for boilers like locomotive
boilers and marine boilers, where extensive vibrations and movement are present. The second
disadvantage of these valves is the heavy load which these valves carry. Due to technological
development, boilers of higher working pressure with high steam generation rate became necessary.
In this situation heavier dead weight is required for loading dead weight safety valve as the working
pressure of the boiler increases and discharge area of the valve also increased with increase in
steam generation capacity. Due to these, the size of dead weight safety valve considerably
increases. So the dead weight safety valve has limited range of application for low pressure, low
steam generation capacity stationary boilers.
by R.B.VARIA

(b)Lever Safety Valve:

Figure shows construction of lever loaded safety valve. A lever safety valve consists of a
valve body with a flange fixed to the steam generator. The valve seat is screwed to the body, and
the valve is loaded by means of weighted lever which is pivoted about a fulcrum situated near to
the valve. The load is properly adjusted at the other end of the lever. Due to leverage effect the
loading weight in lever safety valve is equal to 1/leverage part of the weight necessary for
corresponding dead weight safety valve. Thus, there is huge reduction in loading weight in lever
safety valve compare to dead weight safety valve for the same limiting pressure. The pressure
limitation experienced by dead safety valve can be removed by use of lever safety valve, but the
limitation due to vibration is still present in lever safety valve. So lever safety valve can only be
utilized with stationary boilers, where vibrations do not occur.
When the pressure of steam exceeds the safe limit, the upward thrust of steam raises the
valve and the lever with its weight. The excess steam escape through the passage created between
the valve and valve seat, thus relieving the boiler from excessive pressure.
Lever safety valve is located on the top of the boiler shell in steam space. Due to leverage
effect the loading weight in lever safety valve is equal to 1/leverage part of the weight necessary for
corresponding dead weight safety valve. Thus, there is huge reduction in loading weight in lever
safety valve compare to dead weight safety valve for the same limiting pressure. The pressure
limitation experienced by dead safety valve can be removed by use of lever safety va lve, but the
limitation due to vibration is still present in lever safety valve. So lever safety valve can only be
utilized with stationary boilers, where vibrations do not occur.
(c)Spring loaded Safety Valve:
A spring loaded safety valve was mainly used for locomotives and marine boilers but now a
day due to its beneficial characteristics against vibration and adjustable pressure range, they are
very common in use with different types of boilers.

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Spring loaded safety valve is loaded with spring instead of weight. The spring is made of round or
square spring steel rod in helical form. The spring may be in tension or compression, as the steam
pressure acts along the axis of the spring .In the actual practice, the spring us placed in
compression.
A Ramsbottom spring loaded safety valve is shown in the figure. It is usually, fitted to
locomotive boilers. It has two separate valves of the same size. There valves have their seating in
the upper ends of two hollow valve chest. These valve chests are united by a bridge and a base. The
base is bolted to a mounting block on the top of a boiler over the fire box.
The valves are held down by means of a spring and lever. The lever has two pivots. One
pivot is joints by a pin to the lever, while the other pivot is f orged on the lever. These pivots rest on
the centers of the valves. The upper end of the spring is hooked to the arm, while the lower end to
the shackle, which is secured to the bridge by a nut. The spring has two safety links, one behind the
other, or one on either side of the lever connected by pins at their ends. The lower passes through
the shackle while the upper one passes through slot in arm of the lever. The lever has an extension,
which projects into the drivers cabin. By pulling or raising the lever, the driver can release the
pressure from either valve separately.
by R.B.VARIA

(d)High Steam and Low Water Safety Valves:

These valves are placed at the top of Cornish and Lancashire boilers only, where large space
is available in the boiler drum.. It is a combination of two valves, one of which is the lever safety
valve which blows off steam when the working pressure of the steam exceeds. The second valve
operates by blowing off the steam when the water level becomes too low.
A best known combination of high steam - low water safety valve is shown in the figure It
consists of a main valve (known as lever safety valve) which rests on its seat. In the center of the
main valve a seat for a hemispherical valve is formed for low water operation. This valve is loaded
directly by the dead weights attached to the valve by a long rod. The arrangement of a lever is
provided in side the drum as shown in the figure. The lever is attached to its fulcrum. A balance
weight is suspended at one end of the lever and a float pad (weight) is suspended to other end of the
lever. When the water in the drum is at sufficient high level, the balance weight is balanced by the
effective weight of float pad because the float pad remains in its lifted position due to the water
level. At that time, the pointer of lever remains untouched to the collar of valve road.
When the water level falls, the float pad comes out of water and the balance weight will
move in downward direction. At that time, the pointer of lever touches with the collar of valve road
and pushes the valve rod in upward direction. Due to this, hemispherical valve, attached with the
valve rod, is lifted up and the steam escapes with the loud noise, which warns the operator. A drain
pipe is provided to carry water, which is deposited in the valve casing.
(3)Pressure gauge:A pressure gauge is used to measure the pressure of the steam inside the steam boiler.
Generally, it is fixed in front of the steam boiler in such a manner that it can be easily and clearly
visible to the operator.
Generally, Bourdons tube type pressure gauges are widely utilized. Figure 4.11 shows
internal construction of the Bourdons tube type pressure gauge. It consists of an elliptical elastic
tube bent into an arc of a circle with closed free end as shown in the figure. This bent up tube is
called Bourdons tube. Other end of the tube is fixed and connected to the steam space in the boiler.
The closed free end is connected to a sector through a link. The steam, under pressure, flows in the
tube. As a result of this increased pressure, the Bourdons tube tends to straighten itself. Since the
tube is encased in a circular curve, therefore it tends to become straight because of free end. With
the help of a simple pinion and sector arrangement, the elastic deformation of the Bourdons tube
rotates the pointer. This pointer moves over a calibrated scale, which directly gives the gauge
pressure.
Generally, pressure gauge, which is capable of indicating pressure value double than
working pressure of the boiler, should be selected.
(4) Fusible plug:-

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The function of the fusible plug is to extinguish the fire or give an indication of alarm in the
event of the water level in the boiler shell falling below a certain specified limit. We know that
water is transferred into steam by heating in a boiler. Due to this, the level of water in the boiler
shell falls down. If the water is not replenished and the steam generation continues then the parts,
which have been covered by water may become uncovered and get overheated and subsequently
can be melted. To safeguard against this eventuality, we use fusible plug.
The fusible plug is fitted to the crown plate of the furnace over the combustion chamber at
the lowest permissible water level. Its object is put off the fire in the furnace of the boiler when the
level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit, and thus avoids the explosion which may take
place due to overheating of the furnace plate.
Figure shows common form of fusible plug. An outer plug, with hexagonal flange to take
spanner for fixing or removing, is screwed in the crown plate of the boiler with the help of its
external threads. An assembly of two other plugs is screwed into the inner threads of the outer plug.
This assembly of two plugs is made up from one hollow plug and one solid conical shaped plug
with fusible metal. The hollow plug of this assembly provided with hexagonal flange for screwing
the assembly into the inner threads of the outer plug.
In normal condition the fusible plug remains in covered condition by the water. However,
when the level of water in the boiler falls to an unsafe limit, the fusible plug becomes uncovered
from the water and the fusible metal melts down. As a result of this, the solid plug of the assembly
drops in the furnace creating hole in the hollow plug of the assembly. The steam from the drum
suddenly rushes into the furnace with a sound like whistle. This sound warns the boiler operator to
take necessary action.
(5) Steam stop valve:by R.B.VARIA

The function of the steam stop valve is to shut off or regulate the flow of steam from the
boiler to the steam pipe. Some times it is known as junction valve. Usually the junction valve
means a regulating valve of larger size and a stop valve refers to a regulating valve of smaller size.
The steam stop valve is mounted on the top of the boiler shell (over the steam space) and is
connected to the steam pipe, which carries the steam to the place of application.
Figure shows sectional view of steam stop valve. The body of the stop valve is made of cast
iron and cast steel. The valve, valve seat and the nut, through which the valve spindle works, are
made of brass or gun metal. The spindle passes through a gland and stuffing box. The spindle is
rotated by means of handle wheel. The upper portion of the spindle is screwed and made to pass
through a nut in a cross head carried by two pillars. The pillars are screwed in the cover of the
body as shown in the figure. The boiler pressure acts under the valve, so that the valve must be
closed against the pressure. The valve is generally, fastened to the spindle which lifts it up.
A non-return valve is, sometimes, fitted near the stop valve to prevent the accidental
admission of steam from other boilers. This happens when numbers of boilers are connected to the
same pipe and when one is empty and under repair.
(6) Feed check valve:The feed check valve has the following two functions to perform:(1) To allow the feed water to pass into the boiler.
(2) To prevent the back flow of water from the boiler in the events of the failure of the feed pump.
Figure shows sectional view of feed check valve. It is a non-return valve, which permits
flow of water from feed pump to boiler shell only and not from boiler shell to feed pump. Its
function is to regulate the supply of water, which is pumped into the feed pump. This valve must
have its spindle lifted before the pump is started. It is fitted to the shell slightly below the normal
water level of the boiler
Feed check valve consists of a valve whose lift is controlled by a spindle and wheel. The
body of the valve is made of brass casting and of the boiler at a point from which perforated pipe
leads the feed water. The pipe distributes the water in the boiler uniformly.
As shown in the figure, the valve is free from the lower end of the spindle. Due to this at
the time of supplying the feed water to the boiler, the lift of valve, due to pressure difference
between feed pump delivery pressure and boiler pressure, is controlled by position of the spindle.

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When the feed pump stops, the valve sticks to its valve seat due to difference of boiler pressure and
atmospheric pressure (pressure in delivery pipe of the feed pump).
(7)Blow off cock:The blow of cock serves to drain out the water from the boiler periodically for any one of
the following reasons:(1) To discharge mud, scale and other impurities, which are settle d down at the bottom of the
boiler.
(2) To empty the boiler for internal cleaning and inspection.
(3) To lower the water level rapidly if the level becomes too high.
The blow of cock is fitted at the lowest portion of the water space of the boiler. It may be
mounted directly to the boiler shell or through a boiler elbow pipe, which is fitted to the boiler
shell.
Figure shows sectional view of blow off cock. The blow of cock consists of a conical plug
fitted to the body or casing. The casing is packed, with asbestos packing, in grooves round the top
and the bottom of the plug. The asbestos packing is made tight and plug bears on the packing. It
may be noted that the cocks packed in this way keep the grip better under high pressure and easily
operated than unpacked.
The shank of plug passes through a gland and stuffing box in the cover. The position of
plug can be changed by handle or spanner as per requirement.
(8)Man hole and mud hole:Man hole is an opening provided on a boiler to allow men to enter inside the boiler for
inspection and repair. It is generally provided on top or in front of the boiler plate.
Mud hole is an opening provided on a boiler to give access for cleaning any sediment
deposited in lower part of boiler. It is placed near lowest part of the boiler shell.
The covers of man hole and mud hole are fitted from inside of the boiler shell so they are of
elliptical shape.
by R.B.VARIA

------------------------------XXXXXXXXXXXX-------------------------------------------------------List of figures :
1) Water level indicator
2) Lever safety valve
3) Fusible plug
4) Steam stop valve
5) Feed check valve
6) Blow of cock
7) Pressure gauge

by R.B.VARIA

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10/23

EXPERIMENT 3
STUDY OF BOILER ACCESSORIES
AIM: - 1) To study functions and construction details of various boiler accessories.
Boiler accessories are the appliances which are installed to increase the performance of
steam generating process of the boiler (steam generating unit). The important accessories are
1) Superheater
2) Economizer
3) Air Preheater
4) Feed Water Heater
5) Feed Pump
Here, we will study these important boiler accessories in detail.
(1) STEAM SUPERHEATER:Generally saturated steam is utilized for heating and drying purposes in various industries.
But in the field power generation, super heated steam is more preferable for steam prime movers
due to following reasons.
(1)Superheated steam contains more thermal energy compare to saturated steam of same pressure.
So the work developed in the steam prime mover by superheated steam is higher than the work
developed by saturated steam of same pressure.
(2)Thermal efficiency of power cycle increases by supplying heat at higher average temperature to
heat engine. Use of superheated steam reflects as higher thermal efficiency of power cycle.
(3) Problems like erosion and corrosion in prime movers can be reduced by use of superheated
steam.
The steam collected in steam spac e of boiler drum is generally wet because it is in direct
contact with water of boiler drum. For getting dry and saturated steam or superheated steam, the
steam should be heated in separate indirect contact type heat exchanger, which is known as
superheate r.
When superheater is placed near the furnace of the boiler, part of heat received by radiation
is higher compare to part of heat received by convection. This type of superheater is generally
known as radiant superheater. When superheater is placed in the path of flue gases far beyond from
the furnace of the boiler, part of heat received by convection is higher compare to part of heat
received by radiation. This type of superheater is generally known as convective superheater.
Figure shows Sudgens superheater. This type of superheater was most familiar for
Lancashire boilers, locomotive boilers and Babcock-Wilcox boilers. As shown in figure, it is made
from two box type headers of mild steel and number of U shaped solid drawn steel tubes. This
superheate r is kept generally at back side of the boiler in the flow passage of flue gases. Hot flue
gases were diverted over the superheater tubes in a controlled manner with the help of damper.
Saturated steam from steam space of drum comes in intake header via connecting pipe and then
enters into the U shaped tubes of the superheater. After getting heat from the hot flue gases, steam
becomes superheated and comes into the outlet header of the superheater. Supply of superheated
steam of desired temperature is available from this outlet header. Tubes of superheater are filled
with feed water and damper is kept closed to prevent overheating in starting condition, when steam
is not generated in adequate quantity in the boiler drum. In running condition, the flow of hot gases
going to the superheater tubes should be controlled by damper in proportion to the amount of steam
passing through the tubes of superheater to prevent overheating of the tubes and to maintain degree
of superheat of superheated steam.
(2) ECONOMISER:
The flue gases coming out from the chimney of the boiler (steam generator) carries
considerable amount of thermal energy. If this thermal energy is recovered for meaningful purpose,
then overall efficiency of the steam generator /boiler can be increased considerably. The economizer
is utilized to increase the temperature of feed water with the help of flue gases.
The economizer is an indirect heat exchanger, in which heat is transferred from flue gases to
the feed water. The economizer is kept in the path of flue gases between the boiler and the
chimney. Exhaust gases from boiler enters the economizer where a part of heat carried by them is

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used in heating water flowing through the pipes of economizer. Temperature rise of approximately
5 to 6 C for feed water can be achieved by use of economizer.
The first successful economizer design, patented by Edward Green in 1845, was used to
increase the steam-raising efficiency of the boilers of stationary steam engines. Since then it has
been known as Green's econom izer.
Figure shows construction details of Greens economizer. Greens economizer consists of
an array of vertical cast iron tubes connected to upper and lower headers. Generally, a safety valve
is provided on the top to avoid explosion due to excessive pressure of water developing inside
economizer tubes. A blow off cock is provided at suitable location on bottom header to throw out
the sediments deposited in feed water. Arrangements of scrappers with warm wheel are provided to
clean outer sides of pipes from the deposition of soot carried by the flue gases. Continuous
scrapping is always desired so as to maximize heat transfer rate. The most successful feature of
Green's economizer is its mechanical scraping arrangement. Economizer also has a bypass provided
so that flue gases can be diverted when economizer is out of full or part operation due to failure or
cleaning purpose or feed water temperature control.
This economizer is installed in the path of the flue gasses between the boiler and the
chimney in such a manner that these flue gases pass from the gaps of these tubes. The raw feed
water, coming from feed pump, enters into the tubes of economizer from lower header and then
passes through these vertical tubes surrounded by hot gases. Heat transfer ta kes place between the
hot flue gases and the feed water. Part of the heat energy of flue gases is absorbed by the feed water
would otherwise be lost into the atmosphere. Thus, with the use of economizer, considerable saving
in input energy (fuel burnt) can be realized with some sort of complicated arrangement and addition
in cost. The justified cost of the economizer depends on the total gain in efficiency. Other
advantages of using the economizer are as under.
Economizer helps in removal of dissolved gases by preheating of water. As a result, tendency of
corrosion and pitting reduces to considerable level.
Supply of higher temperature feed water reduces thermal strain in boiler parts.
(3)AIR PREHEATER:The flue gases coming out from the economizer also carries considerable amount of thermal
energy even though some part of energy is absorbed to heat feed water in the economizer. If this
thermal energy is recovered for meaningful purpose, then overall efficiency of the steam
generator/boiler can be increas ed considerably. The air preheater is utilized to increase the
temperature of air, which is to be utilized to burn the fuel, with the help of flue gases.
The air preheater is kept in the path of flue gases between the economizer and the chimney.
Exhaust gases from the economizer enters into the air preheater, where a part of heat carried by
them is used in heating atmospheric air going to boiler furnace. Generally, temperature rise of 30 to
35 C of intake air can be possible with the use of air preheater. This rise of temperature results in
increment of boiler efficiency by 2%. Use of preheated air for combustion of fuel helps in
achieving faster rate of combustion, possibility of burning inferior quality coal/fuel and increased
rate of evaporation from boiler etc. Air preheaters are classified into main two types (1)
Recuperative type and (2) Regenerative type.
(1)Recuperative air preheater:
An air preheater , in which the heat-transferring metal parts are stationary and form a
separating boundary between the flue gases and atmospheric air, is known as recuperative air
preheater. In other words, recuperative air preheater is indirect contact type heat exchanger utilized
to heat atmospheric air before entry to the combustion chamber of the boiler. Recuperativ e air
preheater is further classified in two types according to the construction (i) Tubular type air
preheater and (ii) Plate type air preheater.
(2)Regenerative Air Preheater:
The regenerative air preheater cons ists of a heat conducting element, which is exposed
alternatively to hot gases and cold air. This element absorbs heat from the hot gases and gives it up
to the cold air coming from forced draft fan, when it is exposed to above mentioned mediums. This
element is made up from metallic mesh or matrix having high heat capacity. Regenerative air
by R.B.VARIA

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preheaters are of two types (i) stationary regenerative air preheater and (ii) rotary regenerative air
preheater.
(4) FEED WATER HEATER:Generally, feed water heaters are utilized in the field of power generation. In steam power
plants, part of steam is withdrawn or extracted at some intermediate stages of steam turbine during
the process of expansion. The extracted steam is known as bleed steam. These bleed steam is
utilized for regenerative heating of feed water.
Feed water heater is a heat exchanger which is utilized for heating feed water with the help
of the bleed steam from turbine. Feed water heaters are classified into two types (1) direct contact
type and (2) Indirect contact type (surface type).
Direct contact type feed water heater is known as open feed-water heater. Extracted steam is
allowed to mix with the feed-water in this type of feed water heater. This kind of heater will
normally require a feed pump at both the feed inlet and outle t since the pressure in the heater is
between the boiler pressure and the Surface Condenser pressure.
Indirect contact type feed water heater is known as closed feed water heater. It is typically
shell and tube type (surface) heat exchanger. Feed-water passes throughout the tubes of feed water
heater and is heated by turbine extraction steam. It does not require separate pumps before and after
the heater to boost the feed-water to the pressure of the extracted steam as with an open heater.
(5) Feed pumps:Feed pumps are used to supply feed water to the steam generator at required rate and
pressure. Generally, pressure of feed water is kept 20% higher then steam pressure. Feed pumps are
of three types i.e. centrifugal pump, reciprocating pump and injectors.
For small capacity, low pressure steam generator generally reciprocating pumps are
utilized as feed pump and for high capacity, high pressure steam generators generally multistage
centrifugal pumps are utilized as feed pumps. Generally, steam ejector t ype feed pump is utilized in
locomotive boilers.
by R.B.VARIA

by R.B.VARIA

13/23

RL

EXPERIMENT 4
STUDY OF VARIOUS FIRE TUBE BOILERS
AIM:
1) To study various fire tube boilers like Cochran boiler, Cornish boiler & Lancashire boiler.
VARIOUS TYPES OF FIRE TUBE BOILER:
(1)COCHRAN BOILER:
Cochran boiler is vertical, stationary, internally fired, multi-tubular, low pressure fire tube
boiler with natural circulation and natural draft. It is the modification of a simple vertical boiler
where the heating surface has been increased by means of a number of fire tubes. Generally, solid
fuels like coal, wood, paddy husk, .., etc can be used as a fuel in Cochran boiler.
Construction:
Construction of Cochran boiler is shown in the figure 4.4.As shown in figure Cochran boiler
consists of a vertical cylindrical shell with a hemispherical (dome) shaped top cover, where the
space is provided for steam. The fire box (furnace) is made up from single hemispherical shaped
steel plate, known as crown. The hemispherical crown is strongest for strength & permit s maximum
absorption of radiant heat. Hemispherical shape also gives maximum volume of space for given
mass of material in the form of plates. The constructions of the grate and the ash pit are created
below the furnace as shown in the figure. In the cylin drical shell, above the furnace crown, a fire
box and a smoke box are created opposite to each other. A fire hole (short flue) is provided to
connect the furnace and fire box. The fire box and the smoke box are connected with the help on
number of horizontal straight fire tubes (approximately 100 to 150 depending on space available).
The chimney is provided for the exit of the flue gases to the atmosphere from the smoke box. The
fire box and smoke box are provided with inspection doors, which are internally lined with
refractory material. Inspection doors of fire box and smoke box are kept exactly at the opposite
sides to each other so inspection and cleaning of fire tubes becomes possible. A manhole is
provided at the top cover of the shell, a man can enter the boiler for periodic cleaning and
maintenance of the boiler. Necessary mountings are provided at appropriate locations in Cochran
boiler.
Working:
Water level in the drum of Cochran boiler is kept in such a way that each end every fire
tubes is covered with the water. Fuel is fed into the grate through the furnace door and burnt. The
combustion of fuel takes place on the grate inside the firebox. The products of combustion flow
from firebox through the fire hole into the fire box lined with refractory material. It facilitates the
ignition of any unconsumed gases passing through the number of horizontal fire tubes to smoke
box, from where the gases pass into the chimney. Steam is formed due to heat transfer from the flue
gases and collected in the steam space of the drum, just above the water level. Ash formed during
burning is collected in the ash pit provided just below the grate and then it is removed manually.
These boiler range from 1meter dia. x 2meter height x 20 kg/hr evaporation to 3meter dia. x
6meter height x 3000kg/hr evaporation. The total heating surface area is about 10 to 25 times the
grate area. The steam pressure is up to 20 bars & efficiency is from 70% to 75%.
(2) Cornish Boiler :
The Cornish boiler was first introduced by Cornish engineer from whom it derives its name.
It consists of a cylindrical shell with flat ends through which passes a single flue tube (or furnace
tube) usually centered on the vertical centre line of the boiler. In some designs flue tube is arranged
two or three centimeters off centre to make internal cleaning easy. The claim has been made that
this eccentricity encourages water circulation.
The boiler is supported (set) on brickwork flues, forming two external side flues (passage
for flue gases) and one bottom flu e. Thus, the part of the heating surface is on the external shell.
The products of combustion pass from the fire grate to the end of the furnace, or flue tube. The
gases then enter the side flues and return to the front end of the boiler. The gases now enter the
bottom flue through which they pass to back end of the boiler and then to the chimney. The
brickwork setting should be well maintained to reduce air leakage. The longitudinal section and
other details of this boiler are similar to that of the Lancas hire boiler.

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In some designs four cross -tubes, known as Galloway tubes, were inserted in the flue tube
to improve the circulation of water in the boiler. When feed water is heated by the furnace gases; its
specific gravity being thereby lowered, and an ascending or rising current of water is set up in the
Galloway tubes. This draws the cold water from the bottom of the boiler to be heated in turn. Some
of the Galloway tubes are vertical and other diagonal; the object of this is to break up the current of
flue gases passing along the furnace tube and to produce a scrubbing (rubbing) action of the gases
on the outside walls of tubes. This arrangement increases the heating surfaces of the tubes, as every
portion of the hot gases will, in turn, be brought into contact with plates having water to be heated
on the other side.
The Cornish boiler is sufficient for evaporation upto 2,000 kg of steam per hour and they
are normally made for pressures upto 11 bar. Usually the Cornish boiler has cylindrical shell from
1-25 to 2 m in diameter and from 5 to 8 m long. The diameter of the furnace or flue tube may be
about 0.8 times the shell diameter. But, Cornish boilers are now built with a shortened furnace tube
and fitted with smoke tubes for pressures up to 14 bar and having evaporative capacity of 3,000 kg
per hour. Cornish boilers fitted with smoke tubes are known as multi-tubular boilers. It may be said
that Cornish boiler is simple and with due care it can be an economical steam generator.
(a) Application of Cornish boile r:
1) Cornish boilers are used in many industries like textile, sugar, paper, tyre, chemical etc
2) Cornish boilers are also used to produce steam to run steam turbine.
3) Cornish boilers are also used in many marines.
(b) Advantages of Cornish boiler:
1) Cornish boiler has simple design and easy construction.
2) One of its main advantages of Cornish boiler is its Compactness and Portability.
3) Cornish boiler has low construction and maintenance cost.
4) Cornish boiler has ability to overcome load fluctuation.
(c) Disadvantages of Cornish boiler:
1) Cornish boiler has low steam production rate .
2) Cornish boiler has low maximum steam pressure range.
3) Cornish boiler needs more ground because of its horizontal structure.
by R.B.VARIA

(2)LANCASHIRE BOILER
Lancashire boiler is horizontal, stationary, internally fired, twin fire tube boiler. As
shown in figure, the boiler consists of a cylindrical shell, closed by two end plates which are
supported by gusset plates. The shell is installed on external brickwork setting with front end of
drum slopping downward for emptying. The shell is provided with two flue tubes, which go
throughout the length of the boiler. The front end of the flue tube contains a grate of about 2 meter
length.
Hot gases generated in the furnace travel through the internal flue tubes to the back of the
boiler, where they go down and enter into bottom flue passage. Hot gases travel through bottom
flue from back to the front of the boiler & then divide and enter into the two side flue passages &
travel through them from front to the back end of the boiler & then to chimney via smoke box. At
the end of the side flues dampers are provided to control draught in the boiler.
The boiler is provided with a blow off cock at the bottom of the front end. The mountings
usually provided on this type of boilers are water level indicators, pressure gauge, feed check valve,
steam stop valve, safety valve, combined high pressure & low water level safety valve, man hole,
fusible plug.
The size of Lancashire boiler ranges from a shell of 2 meter dia. x 6 meter length to 3 meter
dia. x 10 meter length. The working pressure ranges from 7 bar to 20 bar. The ratio of heating
surface to grate area varies from 24 to 30. The efficiency is about 65% without economizer & 75%
with economizer.
-----------------------------------------------xxxxxxxxxxxx--------------------------------------------List of figures:
1) Cocharan boiler (2)Cornish boiler (3)Lancashire boiler

15/23
EXPERIMENT 5
STUDY OF BABCOCK-WILCOX BOILER.
AIM:To study Babcock- Wilcox boiler.
BABCOCK-WILCOX BOILER:
This is the best known water tube boiler designed by Babcock & Wilcox Co. in 1877 & is
made of horizontal steam &water drum. The drum is connected to upper (front) & lower (rear)
headers by short riser tubes. The series of inclined water tubes are connected to these headers. The
lower header is joined at the bottom to a mud box, which has a blow off cock for blowing off
action. Additional set of U shaped tubes, known as super heater, is arranged horizontally between
the drum & the water tubes.
The staggered arrangement of the water tubes will allow the surface of every tube to be
exposed to the hot gases. A hand hole is provided in the header in front of each tube, which allows
cleaning & inspection of the tubes. Each hole is covered by threaded or flanged cap.
The entire boiler, with all the mountings & accessories, is suspended from horizontal steel
beams by metallic slings so that each component can expand & contract freely depending on
temperature. The horizontal beams are supported on cast iron columns. The brickwork around the
boiler is only meant to enclose the furnace & hot gases.
The boiler is provided with usual mountings as well as super heater. When steam is raised
from cold boiler the super heater should be filled with water to avoid its burning.
Working:
As shown in the figure, feed water, supplied by the feed pump, occupies approximately 2/3
volume of the boiler shell and entire volume of water tubes and headers. The remaining space
inside the boiler shell is for collection of steam. When the fuel is supplied to the furnace and burnt,
the hot gases produced will passes through the particular path guided by the baffle plates. The
produced hot gas moves upwards around the portion of the water tubes lying in between the
combustion chamber and below the boiler drum, then down wards around the portion of the water
tubes in between baffle plates , and then once again upwards between the baffle plate and the down
take header before escaping to the chimney via smoke box. The movement of the gases in this
manner facilitates the heat transfer even to the highest part of the tubes. A damper is provided, at
the entrance of smoke box, to control the draught.
During the path of hot gas, the water extracts the heat from the hot gas and converted to
steam, then the mixture of steam and hot water raises to up take header and then collects in boiler
drum. The circulation of water is produced due to density difference created by temperature
difference. Thus a thermo-siphon effect is created, which results in continuous & rapid circulation
of water.
The steam collected in steam space passes to the super heater by entering into the anti
priming pipe . Arrangement of steam stop valves are made in such a way that either wet steam from
the steam space or superheated steam from the superheated can be extracted as per requirement.
Advantages:
1) Steam can be produced more quickly
2) Steam at higher pressure can be produced
3) Higher rate of evaporation
4) Sediment deposition is less
5) Suitable for any type of fuel
6) More effective heat transfer
7) Failure of water tubes will not affect boiler operation
8) Occupies less space
9) Easy maintenance
10) Easy transportation.
Disadvantages:
1) Not suitable for ordinary water
2) Not suitable for mobile application
3) High initial cost hence not economical
by R.B.VARIA

RL

by R.B.VARIA

16/23

RL

EXPERIMENT-6
STUDY OF STEAM CONDENSERS
AIM:
1) To know function & effects of steam condenser with respect to steam power plants.
2) To study classification of steam condens ers.
3) To know working of various types of steam condensers.
INTRODUCTION:
Steam condensers are the devices in which steam is condensed by absorption of heat energy
(mainly latent heat) from it. Condenser helps to remove heat energy to sink (usually atmosphere) as
per second low of Thermodynamics in steam power plant.
FUNCTIONS & EFFECTS OF STEAM CONDENSER:
With respect to steam powers, steam condensers are utilized for condensation of working medium
i.e., steam-water. The functions & its effects are as under.
1) The main or primary function of steam condenser is to reduce back pressure of steam
turbine (or steam engine). Due to this, turbine expansion ratio increases, this results in
increment of turbine work output.
2) The secondary functions of the condensers are as follows.
a) It provides better situation to reject heat energy to the atmosphere as per second law
of Thermodynamics.
b) It provides pure (distilled) & relative hot feed water in the form of condensate for
the boiler. Due to this there is great reduction in power generation cost.
c) Due to supply of hot feed water to the boiler in the form of condensate, the steam
generation rate can be maintained at desired level. So condenser helps to maintain
steam generation rate at desired value.
d) Condenser helps to re duce corrosion, erosion & scale formation by providing pure
feed water to the boiler. Thus condenser helps to increase the life time of the boiler.
e) Condenser helps to reduce demand of fresh feed water of boiler by providing pure &
relatively hot feed water. This reduces load on water treatment plant utilized for
softening the feed water.
f) Due to reduction in specific volume of working medium due to condensation, the
power required to pump feed water to the boiler pressure is greatly reduced & thus
net work output of the plant increases.
CLASSIFICATION OF CONDENSERS:
Condensers are classified as follows,
1) Jet condensers or direct contact type condensers.
a) Low level jet condensers.
b) High level or barometric jet condensers
c) Ejector jet condensers.
More over according to flow direction of target medium (steam to be condensed) & cooling
medium (cooling water) jet condensers are classified into,
a) Counter flow jet condensers.
b) Parallel flow jet condensers.
c) Cross flow jet condensers.
2) Surface condensers or indirect contact type condensers.
a) Down flow surface condenser.
b) Central flow surface condenser.
c) Evaporative condenser.
More over according to number of passes the surface condensers are classified as,
a) Single pass surface condensers.
b) Multi pass surface condensers.
WORKING OF CONDENSERS:
In the condenser latent heat or enthalpy of evaporation is absorbed from target medium
(steam) by cooling medium (cooling water or air) by direct contact or indirect contact. Due to this

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phase change occurs in target medium i.e., steam (gas phase) is converted into water (liquid phase).
Here we will study the working of various types of condensers.
[1]LOW LEVEL COUNTER FLOW JET CONDENSERS:
Figure 1 shows the arrangement of various equipments in low level counter flow jet
condenser. The exhaust steam and any air mixed with it, enters the lower part of the condenser and
rise to the top through the falling water spray, which enters at the side near the top of the condenser.
Rapid condensation of exhaust steam takes place because of direct mixing of cooling water and
exhaust steam. The condensate and cooling water descend through a vertical pipe to the extraction
pump, which delivers water to the hot well. The air and uncondensed water vapour is withdrawn at
the top of the condenser by a separate dry air pump or an ejector. The cooling water is usually lifted
from the source of supply to the condenser top by means of vaccume created within the condenser.
[2]LOW LEVEL, PARALLEL FLOW JET CONDENSERS:
In this type of condensers, the cooling water and exhaust steam flow in the same direction
downwards to the bottom of the condenser from where they are all withdrawn by a single pump
unknown as wet air pump and delivered to the hot well. Since the pump has to deal with the
condensate, air and water vapour, the capacity of the condenser to the maintain vaccume is limited
and the vaccume produced in such a condenser will, therefore, be low. The exhaust steam enters
either at the top or the side of the condensing vessel and the cooling water enters immediately
below. (Fig.2)
[3] HIGH LEVEL OR BAROMETRIC JET CONDENSER:
This type of condenser is elevated at about 10.33 meters above the hot well to prevent
flooding of the engine. The water outlet of tail pipe extends from the bottom of the condenser to the
ground level and has its lower end is immersed in the hot well. The exhaust steam enters at the
lower part of the condenser and rises to the top through the falling spray of cooling water. Rapid
condensation of steam takes place due to direct contact. The condensate and cooling water flow out
of the condenser by gravity in to the hot well, thus there is no need of water extraction pump. The
air released from the condensed steam passes upwards through falling water sprays and gets cooled.
It is then removed by separate dry air pump. (Fig.3)
[4] EJECTOR CONDENSERS
The principle of operation of this condenser is that the momentum of flowing water ejects
the condensate and air without the aid of pump.
As shown in fig. 4 exhaust steam enters the left and surrounds the central tube. The cooling water
enters the converging nozzle at the top under a head of 5 to 6 meters & attains high velocity while
passing through it. In flowing past the steam ports the water produces a vaccume and the vaccume
causes the exhaust steam and air to flow through the ports in the central tube & mix with the
cooling water. The exhaust steam gets condensed as a result of which the vaccume is further
increased. The condensate and air then pass on to the diverging cone where the kinetic energy is
partly transformed into pressure energy so that the condensate and air will be discharged into the
hot well against the pressure of atmosphere. The condenser acts as an air pump as well as a
condenser.
[5] SURFACE CONDENSER;
Figure -5 shows two pass surface condenser, in which water flows in to the tubes which are
surrounded by exhaust steam. The exhaust steam from the engine enters at the top of the condenser
and is condensed by coming in contact with the cold surface of the tubes. The cooling water enters
at one end of the lower tubes and after flowing to the others end returns in the opposite direction
through the upper tubes. The condensate formed and air associated with the uncondensed water
vapour, are extracted from the bottom of the condenser.
by R.B.VARIA

[6] EVAPORATIVE CONDENSER;

As shown in figure -6 exhausts steam is passed in to coil of grilled pipes or series of tubes,
the outlet of which is connected to the wet air pump. Cooling water is allowed to flow in a thin
film over the outside of the tubes. A natural or forced air current causes rapid evaporation of this
water film of this is that not only the steam inside the tube is condensed but some of the cooling
water evaporated on the outside of the tubes the process of evaporation cools the water.

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The water which is not evaporated falls in to an open tank kept under the condenser, from
which it can be drawn by circulate pump to use again.
--------------------------------------- xxxxxxxxx-----------------------------------------------------------List of figures:
1) Low level counter flow jet condenser
2) Low level parallel flow jet condenser
3) High level or barometric jet condenser
4) Ejector condenser
5) Two pass surface condenser
6) Evaporative condenser.
by R.B.VARIA

by R.B.VARIA

19/23

RL

EXPERIMENT-7
STUDY OF COOLING TOWERS
AIM:
1) To know function of cooling towers.
2) To know working of various types of cooling towers.
The hot cooling water coming out from the condenser is recirculated again and again by
cooling it to lower temperature with the help suitable method. Hot water is cooled down with the
help of atmospheric air into cooling tower.
Purpose of cooling towers:
The main purpose of cooling tower is to provide suitable mechanism to reject heat from the
working medium to the sink of lower temperature (atmospheric air).
The other purpose of cooling tower is to reduce the temperature of cooling water, coming
out from the conde nser, with the help of atmospheric air for the purpose of reuse.
Cooling towers are mainly classified into two categories (1) Natural draft cooling tower and
(2) Mechanical draft cooling tower.
(1)Natural draft cooling tower:
The density difference causes a natural "draft" also known as the chimney or stack effect. If
the temperature of the air outside the cooling tower is less than the temperature of air inside the
cooling tower, the dense outside air forces the hot and humid inside air to travel upwards and thus
provides the natural ventilation. This effect is known as thermo-siphon effect. Air flows naturally
through the tower without any type of fan in natural draft cooling tower and gives effect of
required cooling to the water. The natural draft cooling tower is classified into three categories
depending upon their construction (a) Natural draft spray filled cooling tower (b) Natural draft
packed type cooling tower (c) Hyperbolic cooling tower
(a)Natural draft spray filled cooling tower:
Figure shows arrangement of natural draft spray filled cooling tower. This tower is cross
flow tower. The air enters from one side of the tower through gaps between louvers and flows
across the tower in a transverse direction. The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow into the
tower and retain the water within the tower. The air circulation depends on wind velocity and
direction. Hot water, coming from condenser, is sprayed down with the help of nozzles. Uniform
water distribution of water in minute droplet form is essential to achieve proper mixing of water
and air flow. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round or square patterns, or they can be part
of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers. Minute droplets of water
come in contact with air flow and get cooling effect due to evaporation. Finally, this cold water is
collected in the hot well, from where; it is circulated back to the condenser. The capacity of this
type of cooling tower varies from 50 to 100 liters per minute per m2 of base area depending on the
air velocity.
These types of cooling towers are used only for diesel engine power plants, where wind
flow is not cut off by any type of obstructions. Sufficient large height of tower is necessary to get
better performance, so anchoring is required to withstand against wind load. As a result initial cost
of the tower and pumping head is higher. These types of cooling towers are not utilized for high
capacity power plants due to its lower capacity. The wind losses are higher and control over the
outlet temperature of water is poor in these types of cooling towers.
(b) Natural draft packed type cooling tower:
Figure shows arrangement of natural draft packed type cooling tower. The construction of
this tower is similar to spray filled cooling tower except that water distributing fills (packings) are
used which helps to break the water into small droplets.
Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximizing
water and air contact. There are two types of fill (a) Spla sh fill: water falls over successive layers of
horizontal splash bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill
surface. Plastic splash fills promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills and (b) Film fill:
consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, forming a thin film in
contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns. The

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film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the
splash fill.
This tower is cross flow tower. The air enters from one side of the tower through gaps
between louvers and flows across the tower in a transverse direction. The purpose of louvers is to
equalize air flow into the tower and retain the water within the tower. The air circulation depends
on wind velocity and direction.
Hot water, coming from condenser, is sprayed down with the help of nozzles. Uniform
water distribution of water can be improved with the fills, provided at suitable distances in the
downward flow of the water. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round or square patterns, or
they can be part of a rotating assembly. Minute droplets of water come in contact with air flow and
get cooling effect due to evaporation. Finally, this cold water is collected in the hot well, from
where; it is circulated back to the condenser. The capacity of this type of cooling tower varies from
50 to 100 liters per minute per m2 of base area depending on the air velocity. Sufficient large height
of tower is necessary to get better performance, so anchoring is required to withstand against wind
load. As a result initial cost of the tower and pumping head is higher.
These types of cooling towers are used only for diesel engine power plants, where wind
flow is not cut off by any type of obstructions. These types of cooling towers are not utilized for
high capacity power plants due to its lower capacity. The wind losses are higher and control over
the outlet temperature of water is poor in these types of cooling towers.
(c) Hyperbolic cooling tower:
Originally, natural draft cooling towers were cylindrical in shape. As the design of these
types of towers developed and the towers were made increasingly larger, the cylindrical shape was
changed to hyperbolic, since a hyperbolic shape offers superior structural strength and resistance to
ambient wind loadings..
Despite the initial cost, hyperbolic cooling towers are most cost efficient cooling
towers. Hyperbolic cooling towers are popular natural draft cooling towers in the power generation
field.
Figure shows arrangement of hyperbolic cooling tower. The structure of cooling tower must
accommodate long duration dead loads imposed by the weight of the tower components, circulating
water, snow and ice plus short term loads caused by wind, maintenance and seismic activities. The
most prominent component of a natura l draft cooling tower is the huge, towering shell. This shell is
supported by diagonal or vertical columns bridging the air inlet. The columns, made of highstrength reinforced concrete, are either prefabricated or cast in situ type. After the erection of the
ring of columns and the lower edge member, the climbing formwork is assembled and the stepwise
climbing construction of the cooling tower shell wall begins.
Hyperbolic cooling towers have a water basin with a cold water outlet at the base. The
cooling water basin serves the two fundamental functions (1) collecting cold water and (2) acts as
towers primary foundation. Hot water, coming from condenser, is sprayed down with the help of
nozzles. Uniform water distribution of water can be improved with the fills, provided at suitable
distances in the downward flow of the water. The fill construction inside the tower is a
conventional frame structure and is always prefabricated. It carries the water through a large piping
system, the spray nozzles, and the fill package. Often, dripping traps (drift eliminators) are applied
on the upper surfaces of the fill to keep water losses through the uplift stream under 1%. The
operation of this cooling tower is same as that of other natural draft cooling towers. The wate r is
cooled by the natural draft of the ambient air traveling up through the fill and cold water is
collected into the basin.
(2)Mechanical Draft cooling towers:
Now a day, the mechanical draft cooling tower becomes popular as they provide closer
approach to wet bulb temperature (WBT), give higher efficiency, reduce spray and windage losses
and require reduced ground area. Mechanical draft cooling towers require less space and less piping
compare to natural draft cooling towers. Its characteristic of lower water consumption with higher
cooling effect improves overall plant economy in spite of its higher operating cost.
Mechanical draft cooling towers use fans (one or more) to move large quantities of air
through the tower and due to these they do not depend on natural draft or wind velocity. Better
by R.B.VARIA

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control is possible in mechanical draft cooling towers for maintaining correct amount of air flow to
meet desired cooling effect. All mechanical draft towers must be located in such a place so that the
discharge air diffuses freely without recirculation through the tower, and so that air intakes are not
restricted. There are two different classes of the mechanical draft cooling towers:
(a) Forced draft cooling towers and (b) Induced draft cooling towers.
by R.B.VARIA

(a) Forced draft cooling towers:

The arrangement of the forced draft cooling tower is shown in the figure. The forced draft
fan is located at the base of the tower and air is blown by the fan in the cooling tower. During
operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity first horizontally and then vertically against the
downward flow of the water. There are no louvered exterior walls. The air moves upward in the
cooling tower and hot water coming from the condenser is sprayed downward from the top with the
help of spray nozzles. Uniform water distribution of water can be improved with the fills
(packings), provided at suitable distances in the downward flow of the water. Drift eliminators are
provided at the top to reduce drif t losses of water. The water is cooled by air traveling up through
the fill and cold water is collected into the basin. Vibration and noise are minimal since the rotating
equipment is built on a solid foundation. The fans handle mostly dry air, greatly reducing erosion
and water condensation problems.
(b) Induced draft cooling towers:
Induced draft cooling tower may be subdivided into two categories (1) counter flow type
and (2) cross flow type.
The arrangement of the induced draft (counter flow) cooling tower is shown in the figure.
The induced draft fan is located at the top of the tower and air enters through the louvers located at
the bottom of the cooling tower. The air moves upward in the cooling tower and hot water coming
from the condenser is sprayed downward from the top with the help of spray nozzles. Uniform
water distribution of water can be improved with the fills (packings), provided at suitable distances
in the downward flow of the water. Drift eliminators are provided at the top to reduce drift losses of
water. The water is cooled by air traveling up through the fill and cold water is collected into the
basin. Since the airflow is counter to the water flow, the coolest water at the bottom is in contact
with the driest air while the warmest water at the top is in contact with the moist air, resulting in
increased heat transfer efficiency
The air flow in either class may be cross flow or counter flow with respect to the falling
water. Cross flow indicates that the airflow is horizontal in the filled portion of the tower while
counter flow means the air flow is in the opposite direction of the falling water.
The counter flow tower occupies less floor space than a cross flow tower but is taller for a given
capacity. The principle advantages of the cross flow tower are the low pressure drop in relation to
its capacity and lower fan power requirement leading to lower energy costs.
Now a day due to restricted ground area round mechanical cooling towers as well as inline
mechanical cooling towers are popular in power generation field. They are known as multi cell
cooling towers.

by R.B.VARIA

RL

22/23

EXPERIMENT 8
STUDY OF TWO STAGE RECIPROCATING AIR COMPRESSOR
AIM:- (1) To study various parts of reciprocating air compressor.
(2) To study working of reciprocating air compressor.
INFORMATION SHEET:Specification of air compressor: Make
: KHOSLA
Type
:Two Stage, Air Cooled (Forced convection intercooling
and after cooling), Reciprocating compressor.
Pow er
: 7.5 h.p. (5.5 Kw)
Speed
: 650 r.p.m.
Swept Volume
: 24 c.f.m. (0.68 m3 / min)
Receiver Capacity
: 80 gallon (363 liters)
No. of Cylinders
: 2 L.P. Cylinders and 1 H.P. Cylinder
No. of Stages
: 02 nos.

The constructional details of Two Stage KHOSLA air compressor is shown in figure. It
consists of pistons which are enclosed within cylinders and equipped with suction and discharge
valves. The piston receives the power from main shaft through a crankshaft and connecting rod.
The compression of air is done by first drawing a volume of air into its cylinder through
suction valve during suction stroke by piston and then compressing and discharging it on the return
stroke of the piston through delivery valve.
In two stages KHOSLA air compressor air first enters into two low pressure cylinders
where it is compressed to intermediate pressure and is then discharged in to intercooler. In the
intercooler the air is cooled at approximately constant pressure. It is then taken into the high
pressure cylinder (second stage) where it is compressed to delivery (final) pressure.
SR. MAIN PARTS
FUNCTIONS
NO.
1
Electric Motor
To supply power to compressor
2
Pulley (Motor)
Transmit power from motor to compressor with the
help of Vee belt.
3.
Vee belt
----------------do-----------------4.
Pulley (compressor)
Receiver power from motor and transmit to
compressor
5.
Air compressor
-----------------6.
L.P.Cylinders
Increase pressure of atmospheric air to intermediate
pressure
7.
H.P. Cylinder
Increase pressure of air received from L.P. cylinder to
final pressure.
8.
Air filters
It filters the intake air from dust etc.
9.
Inter coolers
It cools the air heated up in L.P. Cylinder.
10.
Comp. Return Pipe
To return the compressed air from crank case to L.P.
cylinder.
11.
Oil sight hole
Indicate level of oil inside air compressor.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

Drain Pipe (oil)

Inter cooler safety valve
After cooler (H.P.Delivery pipe)
Non return valve
Wheel cocks
Cleaning holes
Air receiver

It is an outlet provided for used oil to remove off.

It operate in case of valve failure.
It cools the air before entering to receiver.
Allow the flow of air into cylinder only.
Outlet of air for uses.
Cleaning purposes.
Storage of air

by R.B.VARIA

RL

19.
20.
21.

Inlet to receiver
Pressure gauge
Air receiver safety valve

22.

Pressure Switch

23.
24.

Drain (Receiver)
Pipe receiver to pressure switch

23/23
Air flows in to receiver through this opening.
Indicate the pressure of air inside receiver.
Operate when the air pressure inside increase the
limiting valve.
It is the automatic switch off system for loading and
unloading the compressor.
It is hole provided to drain off the water from receiver.
It allows air to pass from receiver to pressure switch.

----------------------------xxxxxxxxxxxx---------------------------------------Figure:
1, Two stage , inter cooled, reciprocating air compressor.