Student Guidelines for Empirical Study

Empirical Study is a part of MBA Program and is introduced to achieve the universitys
mission of creating business ready managers. By enabling every MBA student to do a
theoretically-driven industry project under a faculty member's guidance, we will be able to
utilize our excellent faculty resources more effectively. Acquiring a thorough and firsthand
understanding of a topic will make a student more impactful and valuable to organizations.

These guidelines provide a structured format for successfully completing the project. This
project will be done either individually or by groups of two or three students jointly, will
count as eight credits (equivalent to two full credit courses), and will require not less than 56
hours of input per student. The expected outcome of the study is a paper coauthored by the
students with their faculty guides, to be submitted to a refereed journal or conference. All
coordination with respect to this empirical study will be handled by Deans office.

Doing joint work with faculty is an important form of education for students in higher- level
academic institutions all over the world. The most practical benefit of writing an empirical
article is that one learns how to actually persuade and convince others by culling out
relevant information, gathering and analyzing data, and presenting the output to support one's
stand and attain one's goals (for example, changing an institutional rule, mobilizing support
for a new project, or getting valuable resources). The skill of persuading others is among the
best predictors of success in life.

1. FINALIZE TOPIC AND GUIDE

Most students are likely to benefit by choosing their theoretically-driven industry project such
that it complements their proficiency in their major horizontal (functional area like
marketing) and uses data from organizations in their major vertical (industry sector like
manufacturing). The empirical study is an excellent means to achieve the mission of School
of Management, BML Munjal University to develop business-ready managers, by enhancing
real-life exposure to a particular vertical and complementing their proficiency in their major
horizontal.
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Students will identify a potential faculty guide from the list of guides drawn from the current
faculty of the SOM, choose a topic that will be of mutual interest, and then email the title and
a brief synopsis of not more than 300 words to the chosen faculty guide with a copy to
es@bml.edu.in as soon as possible. If you wish to choose someone as your faculty guide who
has not been associated with School of Management- BMU in the past, please contact the
Dean with a copy of the latest resume of the concerned person.

The first step in identifying the topic of your study is to choose a managerial or
organizational phenomenon of interest to you. The phenomenon could be a problem
managers or organizations face currently, a possible new way of enhancing managerial or
organizational functioning, etc. Define the phenomenon in a measurable manner. This is the
first variable in your study (a variable is something that varies and on which you can
normally say A is more than B, like for example, happiness; a broad domain like for example,
organizational behavior is not a variable since you cannot say A is more than B on
organizational behavior). The second step is to choose at least one factor that is related to
your first variablesomething that affects your first variable or is affected by your first
variable. Reading a standard textbook that covers your first variable should be of help in this
regard. Or your guide may also help at this point. This is your second variable. You could
similarly choose a third variable, etc. The proposed study should ideally include three
variables (minimum is two) clearly defined. The synopsis should clearly describe all the
variables and justify why they are worth studying together.

Frame the title of your study very carefully. A title should summarize the main idea simply,
and, if possible, with style. It should be a concise statement of the main topic and should
identify the variables or theoretical issues under investigation and the relationship between
them. An example of a good title is Effect of Transformed Letters on Reading Speed. A title
should be fully explanatory when standing alone. Although its principal function is to inform
readers about the study, a title is also used as a statement of article content for abstracting and
reference purposes in databases. Titles are commonly indexed and compiled in numerous
reference works. Therefore, avoid words that serve no useful purpose; they increase length
and can mislead indexers. For example, the words method and results do not normally
appear in a title, nor should such terms as A Study of or An Experimental Investigation
of. Avoid using abbreviations in a title. It is better to avoid mentioning your intended
sample, industry or organization as part of your title, since that would unnecessarily limit the
perceived generalizability and significance of your study. The length for a title should not be
more than 12 words.

The exploring of a faculty guide and a mutually acceptable topic will happen through email,
and the study topic and guide should be finalized as early as possible. Faculty members are
likely to decide on their choice of students to guide, on a first-come-first-served basis. You
may not get your choice of guide if you take too much time to decide your topic of study. A
faculty guide will normally guide a maximum of 5 studies.

The final synopsis should be submitted to es@bml.edu.in, with a copy to the faculty guide
(and to the other group members in the case of a joint ES), as early as possible, but no later
than XXXXX. Roll numbers and names in ascending order of roll number should be the
subject of the email (e.g., 15147 Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima). Except under
unforeseen and exceptional circumstances, no change will be allowed after this finalization.
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2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Your paper should have the following four sections: (1) Theory and Hypotheses; (2) Method;
(3) Results; and (4) Discussion. Use Heading 1 or first level heading (Centered Uppercase
Heading) for each of the four sections of the paper. The heading 2. LITERATURE
REVIEW above is an example of Heading 1 or first level heading.

The first step after deciding the topic of study is to know how people before you have studied
this topic; without knowing that you will be unnecessarily trying to reinvent the wheel. You
have to do a literature review of your topic. Using EBSCO, Proquest, etc., might be the best
alternative to start your search. Once you catch hold of any recent piece of academic writing,
you can thence proceed backward chronologically by looking at the references listed therein.
The objective is to summarize the existing body of knowledge about the variables and
hypothesize relationships between them. Cite all the sources from where you have drawn
your materials; otherwise, it may amount to plagiarism. Use past tense (e.g., Smith showed)
or present perfect tense (e.g., researchers have shown) for the literature review.

The review should normally cover three distinct thingsconstruct (defining the variable and
its components), causes (all other variables that affect this variable), and consequences (all
those variables that are affected by this variable). Distinguish between review articles
(theoretical or conceptual pieces) and empirical articles (actual studies) . It is expected that
you will read and cite at least 30 empirical articles published in refereed academic journals
for the study.

Content of Review

Discuss the literature but do not include an exhaustive historical review. Assume that the
reader is knowledgeable about the field for which you are writing and does not require a
complete digest. A scholarly review of earlier work provides an appropriate history and
recognizes the priority of the work of others. Citation of and specific credit to relevant earlier
works are part of the authors scientific and scholarly responsibility and are essential for the
growth of a cumulative science. At the same time, cite and reference only works pertinent to
the specific issue and not works of only tangential or general significance. If you summarize
earlier works, avoid nonessential details; instead, emphasize pertinent findings, relevant
methodological issues, and major conclusions. Refer the reader to general surveys or reviews
of the topic if they are available.
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Demonstrate the logical continuity between previous and present work. Develop the problem
with enough breadth and clarity to make it generally understood by as wide a professional
audience as possible. Do not let the goal of brevity mislead you into writing a statement
intelligible only to the specialist.

Controversial issues, when relevant, should be treated fairly. A simple statement that certain
studies support one conclusion and others support another conclusion is better than an
extensive and inconclusive discussion. Whatever your personal opinion, avoid animosity and
ad hominem arguments in presenting the controversy. Do not support your position or justify
your research by citing established authorities out of context.

Hypotheses

After you have introduced the problem and developed the background material, you are in a
position to explain your approach to solving the problem. At this point, a formal statement of
your hypotheses gives clarity to the paper. Bear in mind the following questions in closing the
section: What variables did I plan to study? What results did I expect, and why did I expect
them? The logic behind Why did I expect them? should be made explicit. Clearly develop
the rationale for each hypothesis.

Choose any of your variables as your Variable 1. First, read and summarize the literature on
Variable 1. Use Heading 2 or second level heading (Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and
Lowercase Side Heading) for first variable and for each other variable. The heading (
Hypotheses) above is an example of Heading 2 or second level heading. Use paragraph
headings (indented, bold, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period) to
organize your review. Use only two levels of heading (Heading 1 & Heading 2) besides
paragraph headings throughout the paper.

Then, read and summarize the literature on Variable 2. Then, include a section on the
relationship between Variable 1 and Variable 2, and include hypotheses linking Variable 1
with Variable 2. Every hypothesis has to be justified. Justification could be done by citing
relevant opinions or findings and by your own arguments.

If you are studying more than two variables, complete literature review for all the variables,
include hypotheses linking two variables at a time and all the variables together. All possible
relationships must be hypothesized. This completes the "Theory and Hypotheses" section
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(first of the four sections) of the paper. Use Heading 1 or first level heading (Centered
Uppercase Heading) for each of the four sections of the paper.

Reference Citations in Text

Document your study throughout the text by citing by author and date the works you used in
your research. This style of citation briefly identifies the source for readers and enables them
to locate the source of information in the alphabetical reference list at the end of the article.
The surname of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the
appropriate point.

When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in text.
When a work has three, four, or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference
occurs; in subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author followed by et
al. (not italicized and with a period after al) and the year. When a work has six or more
authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al. (not italicized and with a
period after al) and the year for the first and subsequent citations. (In the reference list,
however, provide the initials and surnames of the first six authors, and shorten any remaining
authors to et al.).

List of References

Add a list of references at the end with a first-level heading References similar to the
headings for the four sections of the paper. There should be a one-to-one correspondence
between sources cited in the text and the entries in the list of references. All sources cited in
the text and only those should be included in the list of references. The reference list must be
double-spaced, and entries should have a hanging indent.

Given below are examples of a book, a chapter in an edited book, a journal article, and an
unpublished paper presented at a meeting. More examples are available at
http://www.usq.edu.au/library/referencing/apa-referencing-guide.

Bass, B. M. (1998). Transformational leadership: Industrial, military, and educational

impact. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1993). Transformational leadership: A response to critiques. In

M. M. Chemers & R. Ayman (Eds.), Leadership theory and research: Perspectives

and directions (pp. 49-80). New York: Academic Press.

Waldman, D. A., Ramirez, G. G., House, R. J., & Puranam, P. (2001). Does leadership

matter? CEO leadership attributes and profitability under conditions of perceived

environmental uncertainty. Academy of Management Journal, 44 (1), 134-143.

Whittington, J. L., & Goodwin, V. L. (2001, August). Transformational leadership, goal

difficulty, and task design: Independent and interactive effects on employee outcomes.

Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Academy of Management, Washington, DC.

Sources on the Internet: Direct readers as closely as possible to the information being cited
whenever possible, reference specific documents rather than home or menu pages. At a
minimum, a reference of an Internet source should provide a document title or description, a
date (either the date of publication or update or the date of retrieval), and an address (a URL).
Whenever possible, identify the authors of a document as well.

Join the names in a multiple-author citation in running text of your paper by the word and.
In parenthetical material, in tables and captions, and in the reference list, join the names by an
ampersand (&).

Email your paper as a Microsoft Word file to your faculty guide with a copy to
es@bml.edu.in (and to the other group members in the case of a joint ES). Roll numbers and
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names in ascending order of roll number should be the subject of the email (e.g., 15147
Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima).

3. PROPOSAL

Data Collection

Introduce a separate section (second of the four sections) termed Proposed Method after the
"Theory and Hypotheses" section. Detail the plans for data collection. Provide justification
for whatever you propose to do. Include the data collection instruments that will be used.
Justify why you wish to use them and not some other instruments, and cite sources. Include
all possible demographic data items also, at the end of the questionnaire. Include the
questionnaire as an appendix in your paper, starting on a fresh page, after your list of
references

Executive Summary

Prepare an executive summary of your proposal to sell your study and get an organization to
support it. The summary should ideally be around one page long. It should first introduce the
study in a few sentences, and then elaborate the usefulness of the study for the organization
and the various benefits the organization will derive if they gave you permission to conduct
your study. Finally, the summary should briefly list your requirements in terms of desired
sample, the time that each respondent will take to answer your study questions, etc. Maintain
the executive summary as a separate file.

Send updated files, which include all work done till now. Your submission at this point should
include two files(1) your main file in Microsoft Word format consisting of title page (page
1), "Theory and Hypotheses" section (including literature review on all the variables, and all
hypotheses), Proposed Method section, References list, and your complete questionnaire
for data collection as Appendix; and (2) the executive summary of your proposal as a
separate Microsoft Word file. Email your two files to your faculty guide with a copy to
es@bml.edu.in (and to the other group members in the case of a joint ES). Roll numbers and
names in ascending order of roll number should be the subject of the email (e.g., 15147
Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima).

4. COMPLETE DATA COLLECTION

Complete data collection as soon as possible. For survey method, an effective minimum
sample size of 100 is needed. To get that effective size after allowing for loss of data on
account of missing values, plan on collecting data from a sample of at least 120 people. If
your study is going to use secondary data, at least 250 data points will be needed. If you are
going to do a laboratory or field experiment, at least 120 subjects will be needed. If you are
going to do a case study, firsthand interaction of at least 60 minutes each with at least 30
respondents is needed. A particular sample should not be used for more than one empirical
study. Student samples should be avoided, unless your study pertains specifically to students.

"Method" Section

Complete data entry. Data entry is best done in Microsoft Excel, and then copied and pasted in
SAS or SPSS. Calculate Cronbach Alpha to test for scale reliability for each multi-item scale.
Calculate demographic details of sample. Change the Proposed Method section containing
future tense into "Method" section containing past tense, and complete the section (second of the
four sections of your paper). Use Heading 1 or first level heading (Centered Uppercase Heading)
for Method section and for each of the four sections of the paper.

The Method section describes in detail how the study was conducted. Such a description
enables the reader to evaluate the appropriateness of your methods and the reliability and the
validity of your results. It also permits experienced investigators to replicate the study if they
so desire.

Appropriate identification of research subjects and clientele is critical, particularly for

assessing the results (making comparisons across groups); generalizing the findings; and
making comparisons in replications, literature reviews, or secondary data analyses. Present
the detailed procedure by summarizing each step in the execution of the research. Remember
that the Method section should tell the reader what you did and how you did it in sufficient
detail so that a reader could reasonably replicate your study.

Use past tense throughout the method section. Report range and median for each
demographic variable. Describe the organization surveyed in terms of its core activities,
culture, size, geographic spread, nature of functioning, etc. Provide details about the profile
of respondents in terms of their hierarchical levels, reporting relationships, etc. Describe each
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questionnaire used by providing dimensions, number of items, scoring scale (e.g., "0=not at
all; 1=Once in a while..."), etc.

Send updated files, which include all work done till now. Your submission at this point should
include three files(1) your main file in Microsoft Word format consisting of title page
(page 1), "Theory and Hypotheses" section (including literature review on all the variables,
and all hypotheses), Method section, References list, and your complete questionnaire for
data collection as Appendix; (2) your raw data in Microsoft Excel format, along with a key
mentioning which column corresponds to which item in the questionnaire; and (3) the
statistical output file for reliability, demographics, etc., in html or text format. Email your
three files to your faculty guide with a copy to es@bml.edu.in (and to the other group
members in the case of a joint ES). Roll numbers and names in ascending order of roll
number should be the subject of the email (e.g., 15147 Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima).

5. COMPLETE RESULTS SECTION

Prepare data for analysis by creating variables. A variable is usually created by taking the
mean of the relevant items. Do appropriate analyses of variables.

The Results section (third of the four sections of your paper) summarizes the data collected
and the statistical or data analytic treatment used. Use Heading 1 or first level heading
(Centered Uppercase Heading) for Results section and for each of the four sections of the
paper. Report the data in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions. Mention all relevant
results, including those that run counter to the hypothesis. Use past tense (e.g., anxiety
decreased significantly) to describe the results. Discussing the implications of the results is
not appropriate here.

Tables. Tables are efficient, enabling the author to present a large amount of data in a small
amount of space. Use tables for presenting crucial data that are directly related to the content
of your paper and for simplifying text that otherwise would be dense with numbers. Every
study that uses quantitative data should present a correlation matrix as the first table in the
Results section. Include Cronbach Alpha along the diagonal in parentheses for each multiitem scale in the correlation matrix. Vertically align decimal points in table columns. Identify
statistically significant correlations, proportions, and inferential statistics such as t, F, and
chi-square with asterisks, and provide the probability values in a probability footnote; avoid
columns of probability values. Use the following notation to indicate p-values or sig-values:
= p < .10. * = p < .05. ** = p < .01. *** = p < .001, and not the star notation SPSS, etc. might
use.
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Report findings, whether hypothesized or not. Use exactly two decimal points for numbers at
all places including tables throughout your paper. Complete the "Results" section (third of the
four sections) of the paper.

Send updated files, which include all work done till now. Your submission at this point should
include three files(1) your main file in Microsoft Word format consisting of title page
(page 1), "Theory and Hypotheses" section (including literature review on all the variables,
and all hypotheses), Method section, Results section including tables,
References list, and your complete questionnaire for data collection as Appendix; (2)
your raw data in Microsoft Excel format, along with a key mentioning which column
corresponds to which item in the questionnaire; and (3) the statistical output file for all
analyses done, in html or text format. Email your three files to your faculty guide with a copy
to es@bml.edu.in (and to the other group members in the case of a joint ES). Roll numbers
and names in ascending order of roll number should be the subject of the email (e.g., 15147
Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima).

6. COMPLETE PAPER

"Discussion" Section

Create a new section termed "Discussion" (last of the four sections of the paper). Use
Heading 1 or first level heading (Centered Uppercase Heading) for Discussion section and
for each of the four sections of the paper. Use the present tense (e.g., the results indicate) to
discuss the results and to present the conclusions. By reporting conclusions in the present
tense, you allow readers to join you in deliberating the matter at hand.

After presenting the results, you are in a position to evaluate and interpret their implications,
especially with respect to your original hypothesis. You are free to examine, interpret, and
qualify the results, as well as to draw inferences from them. Emphasize any theoretical
consequences of the results and the validity of your conclusions.
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Open the discussion section with a clear statement of the support or nonsupport for your
original hypothesis. Similarities and differences between your results and the work of others
should clarify and confirm your conclusions. Do not, however, simply reformulate and repeat
points already made; each new statement should contribute to your position and to the
readers understanding of the problem. Acknowledge limitations, and address alternative
explanations of results.

End the Discussion section with a reasoned and justifiable commentary on the importance of
your findings. This concluding section may be brief or extensive, provided that it is tightly
reasoned, self-contained, and not overstated. In this section, you might briefly return to a
discussion of why the problem is important (as stated in the introduction); what larger issues,
those that transcend the particulars of the subfield, might hinge on the findings; and what
propositions are confirmed or disconfirmed by the extrapolation of these findings to such
overarching issues.

You may also consider the following issues:

What is the theoretical or practical significance of the outcomes, and what is the basis for
these interpretations? If the findings are valid and replicable, what real-life phenomena might
be explained or modeled by the results? Are applications warranted on the basis of this
research?

What problems remain unresolved or arise anew because of these findings?

The responses to these questions are the core of the contribution of your study, and justify
why readers both inside and outside your own specialty should attend to the findings. Your
readers should receive clear, unambiguous, and direct answers.

Analyze the implications and use of your findings. To the discussion of results, add
limitations of your study, suggestions for future researcher, and a conclusion. This completes
the "Discussion" section.

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Abstract (Page 2)

Include an abstract (page two of your paper) at the beginning of the paper. Repeat the title
mentioned on page 1 before the abstract on page 2. This title and abstract on your page 2 will
be published on our website. Since this will be a permanent record of your work presented to
the outside world, write your abstract very carefully.

An abstract is a brief, comprehensive summary of the contents of the paper. A well-prepared

abstract can be the most important paragraph in your paper. Readers frequently decide on the
basis of the abstract whether to read the entire paper. The abstract needs to be dense with
information but also readable, well organized, brief, and self-contained. Type the abstract as a
single paragraph. Ensure that the abstract correctly reflects the purpose and content of the
paper. Make each sentence maximally informative, especially the lead sentence. Be as brief
as possible. Abstracts should not exceed 120 words. Begin the abstract with the most
important information (but do not waste space by repeating the title). This may be the
purpose of thesis, or perhaps the results and conclusions. To conserve characters, use digits
for all numbers, except those that begin a sentence (consider recasting a sentence that begins
with a number). Use the active rather than the passive voice (but without the personal
pronouns I or we). Use the present tense to describe results with continuing applicability or
conclusions drawn; use the past tense to describe specific variables or tests. Abstract should
describe (a) the problem under investigation, in one sentence, if possible; (b) the sample,
specifying pertinent characteristics, such as number, type, age, and sex; (c) the method,
including the data-gathering procedures and test names; (d) the findings, including statistical
significance levels; and (e) the conclusions and the implications or applications.

Introduction (Page 3)

Repeat the title mentioned on page 1 and page 2 at the top of page 3. After the title on page 3,
add a paragraph or two before the "Theory and Hypotheses" section introducing this study
and highlighting its importance. The body of a paper opens with an introduction that presents
the specific problem under study and describes the research strategy. Because the
introduction is clearly identified by its position in the paper, it is not labeled (i.e., no separate
heading termed Introduction). Before writing the introduction, consider

What is the point of the study?

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How do the hypothesis and the study design relate to the problem?

What are the theoretical implications of the study, and how does the study relate to previous
work in the area?

What theoretical propositions are tested, and how were they derived?

A good introduction answers these questions in a paragraph or two and, by summarizing the
relevant arguments and the data, gives the reader a firm sense of what was done and why.

Final Submission

Send updated files, which include all work done. Your submission at this point should include
three files(1) your main file in Microsoft Word format consisting of title page (page 1),
abstract (page 2), introductory paragraphs (starting on page 3), "Theory and Hypotheses"
section (including literature review on all the variables, and all hypotheses), Method
section, Results section including tables, Discussion section, References list, and your
complete questionnaire for data collection as Appendix; (2) your raw data in
Microsoft Excel format, along with a key mentioning which column corresponds to which
item in the questionnaire; and (3) the statistical output file for reliability, demographics, and
for all analyses done, in html or text format. Email your three files to your faculty guide with
a copy to es@bml.edu.in (and to the other group members in the case of a joint ES). Roll
numbers and names in ascending order of roll number should be the subject of the email (e.g.,
15147 Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima).

If you do not submit your final version before the deadline, your previous submission shall be
deemed to be the final version. Late submissions will not be accepted for the final deadline of
XXXXX.

GRADING

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The grade for the empirical study will be calculated by giving 10% weight for the course on
doing an empirical study and 90% weight for the paper. All submissions for the 90%
component should be made through email to the concerned faculty guide with a copy to
es@bml.edu.in (and to the other group members in the case of a joint ES). Roll numbers and
names in ascending order of roll number should be the subject of the email (e.g., 15147
Mayuri 15181 Swati 15423 Garima).

The paper will be graded by the concerned faculty guide on the regular grading scale of the
SOM just like any course. There will be continuous assessment of the submissions by the
faculty guides. Each of the first four submissions (Literature Review; Proposal; Complete
Data Collection; and Complete Results Section) will get a 10% weight, and the final
submission (Complete Paper) will get a 60% weight.

Total penalty for late submissions will be deducted from the score given by the faculty guide
to arrive at the final score for the paper. The penalty for late submission will be 0.2% per day
of delay for each of the first five deadlines, irrespective of the reason for the delay; late
submissions will not be accepted for the final deadline. The final time of receipt of email with
all required attachments by es@bml.edu.in will be the basis for calculating the penalty. The
deadlines are:

Activities

Submission deadlines for Students to

their respective faculty mentors

Finalization of Empirical Study Mentor/Mentors

1st August, 2016

Finalization of topic and Brief synopsis

1st September, 2016

Submission of Literature review

1st October, 2016

Submission of Empirical study proposal

25th October, 2016

Data collection Update 1

25th November, 2016

Data collection Update 2

25th December, 2016

Data analysis

31st January, 2017

Submission of complete paper

28th February, 2017

APPENDIX 1: WRITING STYLE

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Use A4 (210 x 297 mm) as paper size and double spacing throughout. Double-space between all
lines. Leave uniform margins of 1 in. (2.54 cm) at the top, bottom, left, and right of every page.
Do not justify lines. Instead, use the flush-left style, and leave the right margin uneven, or ragged.
Indent the first line of every paragraph by inch or 1.27 cm The final paper should be in
Microsoft Word format and normally not exceed 8,000 words in size, including title page (page
1), abstract (page 2), references, appendixes, tables, and figures. It should follow the APA
Publication Manual instructions very strictly. APA Style Resources are available at
http://www.psywww.com/resource/apacrib.htm.

Language. Whatever you write should be devoid of language errors. Use the U.S. English for
spelling. The general rule is to use figures to express numbers 10 and above and words to
express numbers below 10. Make sure you do a thorough grammar, punctuation, and spelling
check before you email anything to your guide.

Smoothness of expression. If you find that your writing is abrupt, more transition from one
topic to another may be needed. Possibly you have abandoned an argument or theme
prematurely; if so, you need to amplify the discussion. Abruptness may result from sudden,
unnecessary shifts in verb tense within the same paragraph or in adjacent paragraphs. By
being consistent in the use of verb tenses, you can help ensure smooth expression. Past tense
(e.g., Smith showed) or present perfect tense (e.g., researchers have shown) is appropriate
for the literature review and the description of the procedure if the discussion is of past
events. Stay within the chosen tense.

Verbs. Verbs are vigorous, direct communicators. Use the active rather than the passive voice,
and select tense or mood carefully. Prefer the active voice. The passive voice is acceptable in
expository writing and when you want to focus on the object or recipient of the action rather
than on the actor. Use the past tense to express an action or a condition that occurred at a
specific, definite time in the past, as when discussing another researchers work and when
reporting your results. Use the present perfect tense (e.g., have used) to express a past
action or condition that did not occur at a specific, definite time or to describe an action
beginning in the past and continuing to the present. Use the subjunctive (e.g., if the
experiment were not designed this way) to describe only conditions that are contrary to fact
or improbable; do not use the subjunctive to describe simple conditions or contingencies. Use
would with care. Would can correctly be used to mean habitually or to express a
conditional action. Do not use would to hedge; for example, change it would appear that
to it appears that.

Punctuation. Use a comma between elements (including before and and or) in a series of
three or more items, and to set off the year in parenthetical reference citations. Use the dash
to indicate only a sudden interruption in the continuity of a sentence; overuse weakens the
16

flow of material. Do not use a slash when a phrase would be clearer (e.g., each child handed
the ball to her mother or guardian and not each child handed the ball to her
mother/guardian). Avoid using a slash for simple comparisons; use a hyphen instead (e.g.,
test-retest reliability and not test/retest reliability).

Spacing. Space once after all punctuation as follows: (a) after commas, colons, and
semicolons; (b) after punctuation marks at the ends of sentences; (c) after periods that
separate parts of a reference citation; and (d) after the periods of the initials in personal names
(e.g., J. R. Zhang). Do not space after internal periods in abbreviations (e.g., a.m., i.e., U.S.)
or around colons in ratios. Use no space before or after hyphen, em dash, and en dash. For the
minus sign, use a hyphen with a space on both sides (e.g., a - b). For a negative value, use a
hyphen with a space before but no space after (e.g., -5.25).

Gender. Sexist bias can occur when pronouns are used carelessly: when the masculine
pronoun he is used to refer to both sexes. The use of man as a generic noun or as an ending
for an occupational title can be ambiguous and may imply incorrectly that all persons in the
group are male. Be clear about whether you mean one sex or both sexes. There are many
alternatives to the generic he, including rephrasing, using plural nouns or plural pronouns,
replacing the pronoun with an article, and dropping the pronoun. Replacing he with he or she
or she or he should be done sparingly because the repetition can become tiresome.
Combination forms such as he/she or (s)he are awkward and distracting. Alternating between
he and she also may be distracting and is not ideal; doing so implies that he or she can in fact
be generic, which is not the case. Use of either pronoun unavoidably suggests that specific
gender to the reader.

Capitalization. Use capitals only where necessary. Do not use capitals for variable names.
Arbitrary use of capitals is distracting and gives a poor impression of your work. Capitalize
the first word after a colon that begins a complete sentence. Capitalize nouns followed by
numerals or letters that denote a specific place in a numbered series (e.g., as shown in Table
2). Do not capitalize effects or variables unless they appear with multiplication signs.

Styles. Use only "Body Text" as the "style" for all paragraphs ("styles" are sets of predefined
formatting rules used by word processing software). This paragraph and all other paragraphs
in this file are in Body Text style. Use only two levels of heading for the paper, besides
paragraph headings. Use only "Heading 1" and "Heading 2" as the "styles" for first-level and
second-level headings respectively.

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Use first level heading (Centered Uppercase Heading) for each of the four sections of the
paper (Theory and Hypotheses; Method; Results; Discussion), the References list, and
Appendix containing your questionnaire. The heading "1. FINALIZE TOPIC AND GUIDE
(DUE XXXXX)" in this file is an example of first level heading. Use second level heading
(Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side Heading) for first variable and for
each other variable. The heading "Content of Review" in this file is an example of second
level heading. Use paragraph headings (indented, bold, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period) to organize your review. The heading "Styles" for the previous
paragraph is an example of paragraph heading.

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