Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Books
Daniel J. Inman, Engineering Vibration, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall International, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2001.
J.W. Tedesco, W.G. McDougal and C.A. Ross, Structural Dynamics, AddisonWesley, Menlo Park, Ca, 1999.
A.K. Chopra, Dynamics of Structures. Theory and application to Earthquake
Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 2001.
Geradin, M. and Rixen, D., Mechanical Vibrations, Theory and Applications
to Structural Dynamics, 2nd ed., Wiley, Chichester, 1997.
I. Langen and R. Sigbjrnsson, Dynamisk Analyse av Konstruktioner, Tapir,
Trondheim, 1979.
Journals
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics.
Journal of Sound and Vibration
Journal of Engineering Structures.
Journal of Structural Engineering.
Journal of Engineering Mechanics.
International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering.
Computers and Structures.
General Introduction
Offshore platforms
Wind Turbines
Pedestrian bridge
Undamped vibrations
Damped vibrations
Logarithmic decrement
Energy balance
State variables and state-space
Discrete time increments
Undamped vibrations
Equation of motion by balance of inertial force m
x and elastic force kx with
mass m and stiffness k,
m x + k x = 0
(1.1)
Obtain normalized equation by division by m
x + 02 x = 0
(1.2)
k
m
(1.3)
stiffness0
mass0
Solution
Solution requires initial conditions in terms of initial position x0 and initial
velocity v0 = x 0 .
x(t) = x0 cos(0 t) +
v0
sin(0 t)
0
(1.4)
v/
0 t
0 t
as function of time t.
The period T requires the phase 0 t to increase by 2, Note that the (angular)
frequency is determined by
2
T =
(1.5)
0
The natural frequency f is the number of oscillations per time unit, whereby
0
1
=
(1.6)
f =
T
2
Damped vibrations
Include energy dissipation through damping force cx,
m x(t) + c x(t)
+ k x(t) = 0
(1.7)
Note, that all three parameters m, c, k are positive, when the forces are
restoring.
Normalize equation by division by m
x + 20 x + 02 x = 0
(1.8)
k
m
(1.9)
2 km
(1.10)
0 =
Solutions
The free vibration solution is of exponential type and is found by substitution
of the partial solution x(t) = Aet into the homogeneous equation of motion,
yielding the characteristic equation
2 + 20 + 02 = 0
(1.11)
There are three different cases of damped vibrations, depending on the magnitude of the damping ratio . The solutions are given below for initial
conditions (x, x)
t=0 = (x0 , v0 ).
Underdamped, 0 < < 1 :
p
Two complex roots of characteristic equation, = 0 ( i 1 2 ).
1 2
(1.12)
amplitude oscillation
(1.13)
The last factor can be expressed in terms of sin(d t) and cos(d t).
x(t) = x0 e0 t [ cos(d t) +
0
sin(d t) ]
d
(1.14)
v0 0 t
e
sin(d t)
+
d
v/
0 t
0 t
for = 0.05.
Critically damped, = 1 :
The characteristic equation has the real double root, = 0 , and in this
case the amplitude A is replaced by a linear function A + Bt.
x(t) = [ x0 + (0 x0 + v0 ) t ] e0 t
(1.15)
Overdamped, 1 < :
p
The characteristic equation has two
real
roots
2 1). In0
p
troducing the parameter d = 0 2 1 < 0 the solution is expressed in
terms of hyperbolic functions as
x(t) = x0 e0 t [ cosh(d t) +
0
sinh(d t) ]
d
v0 0 t
e
sinh(d t)
+
d
(1.16)
Logarithmic decrement
x,a
a
aj+1
0 t
Figure 1.3: Displacement record with maxima aj and aj+1 for = 0.05.
2
aj
= ln e0 Td = p
(1.17)
= ln
aj+1
1 2
or for lightly damped systems
' 2
for << 1
(1.18)
Energy balance
Form the rate of work by multiplication of the equation of motion with x,
x(t)
m x(t) + c x(t)
+ k x(t)
= 0
(1.19)
Rewrite as time derivative,
d 1
m x 2 +
2
dt
2
1
2k x
= c x 2 0
(1.20)
(1.21)
1
2
2m x
(1.22)
2
1
2k x
(1.23)
against time t.
v/
as function of time t.
v / 0
x
x
0 t
on the phase-plane.
Use of normalized coordinates x, x/
0 reduces to near-circle.
x0 cos(0 t) + x 0 01 sin(0 t)
x = x0 0 sin(0 t) +
x 0 cos(0 t)
0.
State vector (x, x)
1 at time t = t in terms of initial state vector (x, x)
Recurrence relation for any pair of state vectors with time separation t.
Time separation only appears in the form of the non-dimensional parameter
= 0 t
Non-dimensional form, when x is replaced with tx.
#
#"
"
#
"
1
x
cos
sin
x
=
t x
sin
cos
t x
i+1
1 2
0
x 0 0 t
0 t
sin(d t) +
e
sin(d t)
cos(d t) +
x = x0 e
d
d
0
02 0 t
0 t
cos(d t)
sin(d t) + x 0 e
sin(d t)
x = x0 e
d
d
Two non-dimensional time scales, conveniently defined as
= d t
= 0 t
x
t x
=
i+1
"
cos + sin
(2 + 2 ) sin
sin
cos sin
#"
x
t x
y0 = (x0 , t x 0 )T
for i = 0 : n 1
yi+1 = A yi
= yT
(x, t x)
Exercise 1.1
The natural frequency of a single-degree-of-freedom-system depends on the
ratio of stiffness to mass. For a simple massspring system the relation is
02 = k/m.
a) For the beam shown in the figure the force-displacement relation for a
transverse force at the end is
EI
F = 3 3 u
l
What is the natural frequency for transverse vibrations of a heavy mass
M fixed to the end of the beam, when the mass of the beam is neglected.
b) Let the mass M = 1000 kg be supported by a beam of length l = 10
m. What is the bending stiffness EI necessary to give the frequency
f = 2.0 Hz.
Exercise 1.2
Consider the mass m supported by a spring with stiffness k. The motion of the
mass m is described by x. The mass of the spring ms is small relative to the
mass m, and therefore the motion of the spring is quasi-static. This implies
that the spring extends uniformly. Thus, the left end point is a rest, while
the right end point moves x. A non-dimensional coordinate is introduced
such that the spring is described by 0 1. This implies that the motion
of a point described by the position is x.
a) Find the total kinetic energy of the mass m and the spring in terms of x.
b) Use energy balance to find an expression for the natural angular frequency 0 .
c) The contribution from the spring can be included as an extra contribution to the effective mass mef f ,
02 = k/mef f
Exercise 1.3
The figure shows a water column of total length l and cross-section area A.
The mass density is . When the water surface at the left side is displaced
the distance x downward, the water surface at the right side is lifted the same
distance x and conversely. The system is exposed to downward gravitation
with acceleration constant g.
a) Express the potential energy Epot and the kinetic energy Ekin as function
of x and x,
respectively.
b) Use an energy balance argument to find an expression of the natural
angular frequency 0 .
c) The angular frequency 0 is independent of the mass density . Why?
Summary
Examples have been given of structures that often exhibit dynamic behavior and must be analyzed for dynamic effects.
Free vibrations of a single degree-of-freedom system constitute an exchange between potential and kinetic energy. The time scale is characterized by the natural angular frequency 0 .
The square of the natural (angular) frequency is determined by the ratio
stifness/mass, i.e. 02 = k/m.
Damping is charactized by the non-dimensional damping ratio , describing attenuation per vibration cycle. Vibrations with < 1 are
underdamped and may have damping ratio as low as 0.001.
Damping may be measured from attenuation of free vibration response
in terms of the logarithmic decrement = 2.
The equation of motion may be considered as the time derivative of
an energy balance equation. For simple systems with distributed mass
or stiffness the equation of motion may be obtained from the energy
balance relation.
The displacement and velocity may be combined into a state vector
(x, x)
describing the response of the system. Initial conditions and response are conveniently represented in a phase-plane.