Electronic

Compone nt
Testing
Edited by W F Waller

Macmillan Education

ISBN 978-1-349-01586-3 (eBook)

ISBN 978-0-333-13791-8
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-01586-3

The Macmillan Press Ltd 1971

Student Edition 1972
Reprint of the original edition 1972

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
without permission

Published by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
London and Basingstoke
Associated companies in New York Toronto
Dublin Melbourne Johannesburg and Madras

SBN 333 13791 4

Preface
This book shows the student how to test the
working parameters of electronic components. It
is, of course, appreciated that manufacturers carry
out exhaustive testing of their products and in so
doing employ a range of sophisticated equipment
which is not generally available to the component
user; the contributors to this book therefore confine themselves to examining component evaluation exercises which are within the powers of the
component user and should provide him with
sensible and accurate data.
Chapters 1, 2 and 3 deal with conventional
electronic components-resistors, capacitors and
coils and transformers-and their treatment centres
mainly upon these devices being used within the
normal frequency ranges. The following three
chapters deal with three main classes of semiconductor devices before the book moves on to
integrated circuitry, which has been divided into
analogue and digital operations. Chapters on
gridded values and relays and switches complete
the component coverage.
A companion volume in the same format,
Electronic Measurements, shows how electrical
values may be accurately measured.

Conte nts
Chapter
9

Resistors

Page
9

S Osborne BSc MIEE M/MechE

Chief Inspector
Welwyn Electric Limited

2 Capacitors

R J Everitt BSc
Chief Chemist
Dubilier Limited

3 Wound Components

18

N A Eaton and H D M Overton

Principal and Senior Engineer
Components Laboratory
Product Assessment Laboratories
The Plessey Company Limited

4 General Purpose
Semiconduct ors

26

M R McCann CEng M/ERE

Senior Applications Engineer
Applications Laboratories
ITT Semiconductors

5 Power Semiconduct ors

34

R D Eveleigh
Ratings and Evaluations Engineer
AEI Semiconductors Limited

6 Microwave Semiconduct ors

43

A Hale BSc
Group Leader
Mullard Limited

7 Linear Integrated Circuits

56

A R Townsend
Quality Assurance Engineer
G EC Semiconductors Limited

8 Digital Integrated Circuits

63

R S Whiskin BSc(Eng)
Product Marketing Manager
G EC Semiconductors Limited

9 Electronic Tubes

71

D L Jones Grad/ERE and B G Kennett

A/ERE
Applications Engineers
Valve Product Division
ITT Components Group Europe

10 Relays and Switches

83

J J Langridge
Quality Control Manager
Keyswitch Relays Limited

Glossary of Terms

89

Chapter 1

Resistors

S Osborne BSc MIEE M/MechE

Welwyn Electric Limited

In the last ten years there has been considerable

activity with regard to the specification of resistors,
and also a fundamental change in attitude to the basic
parameters by which they are differentiated.
It was common practice for a specification to be

written for a particular basic type of resistor, for

example, carbon composition, pyrolytic carbon film,
etc, and the specification limits were partially a
statement of customer requirements, but very often
they reflected the characteristics of that particular
type of resistor, and hence the specification was
tailored to suit the component and its peculiarities.
As an example, the temperature coefficient of
pyrolytic carbon film resistors is invariably of negative sign extending from about -250 to -1 000
ppm/C according to value. This characteristic is
faithfully translated into certain specifications even
though it is almost impossible to produce carbon film
resistors that would deviate from this. This state of
affairs is to be expected, and a good specification will
be a compromise between what is wanted and what
can readily be achieved. Very often a particular
specification requirement can only be met to the
detriment of another feature. For example, the
climatic protection of a resistor can sometimes be
improved at the expense of load stability.
In recent years the number of basic resistor types has
increased and it has become possible to write specifications more in accordance with the designers
abstractions rather than a product peculiarity. This
was done to some degree in DEF5115 and is extended into BS9100 where the main parameter is the
'stability' of the resistor and, provided that the
requirements of the specification are fulfilled, the
exact form of construction is considered unimportant. If a metal film resistor and an oxide film can
meet the same detail specification they can both be
is

ous, and likely to fail in use. A more suitable name

for this deviation from nominal value might be
'manufacturing tolerance', which would have the
additional advantage of emphasising the point that
the resistor may not be within this tolerance at some
time after manufacture.

approved to it. It is evident that whilst this philosophy suffices for most 'general purpose' requirements, there are other cases when every aspect of the
resistor is of interest and may affect the ultimate
choice of type.
Table 1 shows the parameters of a resistor to be
assessed for a typical BS9000 approved type, and the
way in which the assessment is made by testing.
Certain tests can be made by customers as a 'goods-in'
check and these are indicated in the second column,
whilst the manufacturer will make other tests periodically as shown. The test parameters are given in order
of importance for general purpose use.

Resistors are invariably marked with the nominal

value and manufacturing tolerance and it is easy to
check a resistor by measuring the value and comparing it with the marked value. Measurement is not
difficult provided that the bridge sensitivity and
accuracy are adequate and as a rule-of-thumb it is
recommended that the uncertainty of the measurement should be not more than one tenth of the
manufacturing tolerance. For a 0.01% tolerance
resistor this requires sophisticated equipment and it is
necessary to take precautions with the terminations
and method of connection to the bridge, with
thermal emf's, with ambient temperature, with selfheating of the resistor and with the exact point along
the leads where the measurement is made preferably
by a four terminal technique. Although there is not
yet an international agreement with regard to the
position on the leads where a measurement is made,
the majority of manufacturers seem to specify a point
1 em down the lead away from the end of the body
of the resistor. For axial leads the preferred wire
gauges are usually 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 or 1 mm, and it is
useful to record the resistance of these so that an
assessment can be made of the effect of lead resistance on overall resistance value (see Table 2).

RESISTANCE VALUE
It is usual for a resistor to be specified by a 'Nominal
Value' and a tolerance on that value, which may be
wide in the case of certain composition types at
20%, or as tight as 0.01% for precision types. This
tolerance has been known as a 'selection tolerance'
which was appropriate for certain types of resistor
that could not be manufactured to a tight tolerance,
and therefore a precise initial value could only be
achieved by selection after a resistance measurement.
However, many resistors are now manufactured to
the required tolerance and a selection process is not
used. Furthermore, resistors which fall outside of this
tolerance may be abnormal in some respects and
therefore may be rejected as being potentially hazard-

Table 1. Resistor parameters which may be assessed.

By Manufacturer

By Customer
Test
Parameter
Resistance value
Solderability of leads
Solvent resistance
Dimensions
Visual appearance & marking
Voltage proof
Temperature characteristic
Robustness

Goods-In

lot-by-lot

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

*
*
*
*
*
*
*

Climatic

3-Monthly

*
*
*

3 Yearly
or Type Test

long term damp heat

Endurance (1000 hrs)

Weekly

Noise

Non-linearity

R F characteristics
Effect of soldering heat

*
*
*

Thermal emf's
Temperature cycling

Vibration

"

Lead
Wire
dia.

Resistance
of 1 em
of Wire

0.4mm

1.4
milliohms

0.6mm

Effect of 1 em of wire on total resistance for

nominal values below
1!2

10!2

100!2

1.4%

0.14%

0.014%

0.0014%

0.61
milliohms

0.61%

0.06%

0.006%

0.0006%

0.8mm

0.35
milliohms

0.35%

0.035%

0.0035%

0.00035%

1.0mm

0.22
milliohms

0.22%

0.022%

0.0022",.{,

0.00022",.{,

0.1!2

Table 2. The effect of lead resistance on overall resistance value.

The value of a resistor at the time of manufacture is

obviously of prime importance and it is common
practice to control this parameter closely to ensure a
high degree of confidence that the majority of
resistors are within the specified tolerance at the time
of manufacture. With resistors manufactured in large
quantity, for example oxidefilm types, the AQL
specified in the BS detail specification for resistance
value is 1% defective and sampling lot-by-lot is done
at level S4 (see BS9001). To ensure a high probability
of acceptance during these tests it is normal for the
process average to be well within the permitted AQL
and probably only one resistor in a thousand on
average will lie outside of the tolerance at the time of
manufacture. However, the stocking of resistors
before despatch to a customer will permit a change in
value and some resistors may drift outside of the
manufacturing tolerance. The shelf drift should therefore be considered in any assessment of the number
of resistors out of tolerance based on the time which
has elapsed since manufacture. It is common practice
to indicate the date code of manufacture on the
primary packaging of the resistors if not on the
resistor itself. A numerical code is used, the first two
digits giving the year and the next two giving the
week, eg 7116 is 1971 Week 16. BS9000 approved
resistors must be re-assessed for resistance value if
they have been in stock for 1 year after manufacture
before being despatched to customers.

The basic preferred value series of numbers was the

E6 series with six values in each decade of resistance.
All the preferred value series are based on geometric
progressions which give equal logarithmic intervals
between adjacent values. The ideal values are then
rounded off to two or three significant figures. In the
case of the E6 series the ratio between adjacent values
will be 10116 = 1.468 giving the series starting with
10 ohms shown by Table 3.
It will be noted that two of the actual preferred
values in the E6 series, namely 33 and 4 7, are not
correctly rounded off and should have been 32 and
46 respectively. The reason for this is obscure. With
the advent of higher stability resistors, finer series
were required leading to the E12 and E24 series. It
will be noted that the interval between the preferred
values in these series is roughly 20% for E6, 1 0%
for E12 and 5% for the E24 and it is usual for these
intervals to be related to the resistor manufacturing
tolerance in a general way, and again using metal
oxide resistors as an example, the most commonly
used manufacturing tolerance is 5% based on the
E24 series of preferred nominal values. The distribution of actual resistance value within a specified
manufacturing tolerance is unpredictable. It may be
gaussian, but if selection has been used the distribution will become irregular and may have gaps if a
particular tolerance band has been removed.
Table 3. Preferred values E6 series.

PREFERRED VALUES AND RESISTOR

MANUFACTURING TOLERANCES
The spectrum of resistance values is very large and it
is desirable to limit the number of different values
manufactured by selecting certain 'preferred values'
in each decade of resistance value. The number of
preferred values is normally related to the stability of
the resistor, and if, for instance, the drift in value
during use may be up to 15%, there is little point in
differentiating between a 100 ohm resistor and a 101
ohm resistor at the time of manufacture.

Ideal preferred
value
10 X 10
10

X 10 116

= 10 ohms

Rounded off
value

Actual value
used

10

10

= 14.68

15

15

10x 10216 =21.54

22

22

10x 10316 = 31.62

32

33

10 X 10416 = 46.42

46

47

10 X 10516 = 68.13

68

68

For even closer tolerance resistors the E6, 12 and 24

series are too coarse and finer series have recently
been agreed designated the E48, E96 and E192 series
rounded off to 3 significant figures. These series are
not in general use since it is almost as easy for a
manufacturer to make any specified value rather than
stock the large number of different preferred values
given in the E192 series. A further point to note in
the two groups of preferred values is that any value in
the E6 series occurs in both E12 and E24 series but
usually not in the E48, 96 and 192 series.
All the preferred values discussed above are listed in
full in BS2488 and I.E.C. publication No. 63.
RATING AND STABILITY
The maximum power rating of a resistor is usually
applicable in an ambient temperature of 70C and is
limited by the materials which are used and the
stability required after 1 000 hours testing at that
rating. To measure the temperature attained on the
surface of a resistor it should be mounted in free air
in a horizontal position and protected from draughts.
The resistor is supported by its leads (or fixing in the
normal way) to heat sinks at the end of the lead and a
fine wire thermocouple is hung. over the centre of the
resistor with small weights to keep the junction in
contact with the top of the resistor body. A little
silicone grease may be used to improve the thermal
contact with the resistor. The heat generated in a
resistor is dissipated in the usual way by conduction,
convection and radiation, and it is interesting to
compare different types of resistor to see how these
vary from one resistor to another as in Table 4.
Derating of the power will obviously decrease the
temperature of the resistor and usually improves the
stability. Derating of power to offset the effect of
increased ambient temperature will also have an
effect on the stability. This derating, if i:deal, would
ensure that for any given ambient temperature condition, the power rating is adjusted to give constant
stability, but in practice this is not often the case and
precautions should be taken in the interpretation of a
derating curve which must not be assumed to be a
line of constant stability. As an example the derating
Table 4. Heat dissipation in different resistor types.
Distribution of Heat Loss
Resistor

Convec- Conduction
Rating Hot Spot
at 70C Temp. Radiation
tion
via leads

Oxide Film
859111-N-002
Style 1 X-56-E

'hW

115C

7%

18%

75%

Vitreous Wirewound
859114-F-001
Style 2E -56-12

12 W

320C

57%

37%

5%

Resistor
. 859111-N-002
Style 1X-56-E

859111-N-002
Style 1 X-56-C

Point on
Derating
Curve

Hot
Spot
Temp.

Stability
Requirement

Remarks

0.176W@70C

81C

1%

Easy to meet
requirement

0.044W@125C

129C

1%

More difficult
to meet and
marginal
failures occur

2W@70C

170C

3%

Difficult to meet

161C

3%

Easier to meet
than above

o.35W@125c

Table 5. Data from derating curves {or two resistors.

curves of two resistors and the computed hot spot

temperatures at two points on the derating curve are
shown in Table 5. The surface temperatures may be
assessed to see whether the stability requirement is
likely to be achieved.
The implication of Table 5 is that for a particular
range of resistors there are usually certain combinations of rating, ambient temperature, and stability
which are much more critical than others and users
should be aware of this.

Temperature coefficient
The change in resistance with temperature is not
normally a linear function and this has led in recent
years to the adoption of other terms to describe the
effect without implying that a linear function applies.
In BS9100 the term temperature characteristic is used
and tests are made at certain specified temperatures
covering the whole range of application, and the
change in resistance value at that temperature is
measured and compared with the reference temperature of 20oc. Another useful concept is to derive
from such measurements a "chord" slope given by
Change in Resistance
Over the normal range of
Change in Temperature
.
temperatures experienced in practice it is only necessary to measure the resistance value at four temperatures to define the characteristic, because none of the
resistor materials currently used have such unusual
characteristics that a cubic curve could not be fitted
to the measurements to give adequate accuracy for all
applications. As an example consider the characteristic of a precision flat bulk metal film resistor which
is measured at four temperatures as shown in Table 6.
The whole characteristic can be fitted to a cubic
curve giving the change in resistance value relative to
20oc hence:
6R (ppm)
-25.41 +1.9591 T -0.035065T 2
+0.00003172T 3 (where T is ambient temperature in
oc.)
Using this expression the resistance value can be
computed for any temperature in the range -55C to

+125C. Such precision is rarely required and since

variations occur between resistors a designer usually
finds the average chord slope figure as sufficient for
his purpose.
Temperature chara<:teristic measurements are usually
made with the component immersed in an oil bath
and provided that precautions are taken to eliminate
thermal emf's and bridges of adequate sensitivity are
used, the measurement is not difficult. Like most
measurements, however, the accuracy of the determination depends on the time and care taken, and for
the most precise determinations such as the ones
quoted in Table 6 a whole week or more may be
required to complete the sequence of tests. Another
hazard of temperature characteristic measurements
occurs if there is any instability in the component
giving rise to an irreversible change in value on
heating or cooling. To eliminate such effects it is
necessary to repeat the cycle of measurements at
different temperatures until consistent results are
obtained. The most common error is based on the
general characteristic that film resistors will drift in
value at high temperatures and the temperature
characteristic should always be based on the difference in value occurring during the cooling cycle
rather than the heating cycle.
Insulation resistance and voltage proof
Most resistors are of the insulated type and have a
protective covering over the resistive film which may
be lacquer, cement, heat shrink sleeving, moulded
plastic, or any other material which is reasonably
inert and will give the resistor suitable properties.
Although there is theoretically a wide choice of
materials the conflicting requirements of all aspects
of performance, including climatic protection and
high temperature endurance, are particularly arduous
and the final resistor protection is chosen with great
care. The electrical characteristics are assessed by
mounting the resistor body in a metal vee-block (see
Fig. 1) and applying a potential between the block
and the resistor terminations joined together. During
the test, a force of 0.5N is applied vertically to the
resistor to hold it in contact with the faces of the vee.
It is usual for the voltage proof level to be at least
twice the maximum rated voltage of the resistor,
which means in practice 500 to 1 000 volts for
general purpose types in the 1/4 to 2 watt range. With

Table 6. Temperature characteristic for bulk metal film

resistor.
Temperature
- 49.2 ppm

- 266.5 ppm - 244.5 ppm

Chord Slope Related to 20C - 1ppm/C

- 2.5ppm/C - 3.3ppm/C

Resistance Change

INSULATED PLUNGER APPLYING

DOWNWARD FORCE OF 0 5 N

INSULATION
TESTER

500

OR

aov

METAL BLOCK EXTENDING

BEYOND ENDS OF RESISTOR BODY

Fig.l. Vee block test {or insulation resistance.

transistor circuitry there is usually no problem with

the mounting of resistors, which have insulation
breakdown levels far in excess of most circuit requirements, however insulation resistance may be a more
serious requirement with FET and other high input
impedance devices, and careful mounting of resistors
may be necesary in this case. The insulation resistance
to the vee-block on a new resistor will usually be
greater than 10 an but this can be reduced, by at
least an order of magnitude, by moisture effects.

MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Solderability of leads
The globule method of assessing solderability is a
quantitative test which correlates very well with
users' requirements. The use of printed circuits and
automatic flow-soldering techniques requires components which solder in about 2 seconds or less. The
solder bath method of assessing solderability is also
used but it is more difficult to assess whether the
soldering is satisfactory or not. However, recent
machines which can give varying immersion times,
can be very successful. Wherever possible the globule
method should be used for assessment and most
wire-ended components can be tested on the 'Multicore' machine. This machine is provided with a
thermostatically controlled anvil, on which is placed a
solder pellet of specified size. The component lead is
lowered into the globule of molten solder, thus
dividing the globule into two parts. When wetting
occurs the two halves join over the lead arid the time
for this to occur is noted. In the as-new condition the
component will usually solder in less than 2 seconds.
The effect of storage and ageing may reduce the
solderability and methods of accelerating this process
are being developed using either dry or steam heating.
For tags or other terminations which cannot be tested
on the Globule machine, a solder bath may be used.
The immersion time is varied to determine when
wetting and de-wetting occurs.

Components with wire-ended terminations should be

solderable up to 1.5 mm from the body, ie at any
point on the lead, outside of the gauge plate used to
assess the physical dimensions of the resistor (see
BS9110).
Solvent resistance
Unfortunately so many solvents are in common use
today that a standard test is impossible to specify.
However a 3-minute immersion in either Genklene or
Arclone E will give some appreciation of solvent
resistance properties.
Robustness of terminations,
bumping and vibration
The standard tests specified in BS9110 for resistors
are for bending, tensile or pull, and twisting of the
leads. For the tensile test a weight of 1 kg is used for
0.8 mm diameter leads and half of this load is used
during the bend test. The requirements of BS9110 are
for two bends or two rotations (of 18QOC) during the
twist test.

ENDURANCE TESTS AND STABILITY

These are usually done by the manufacturer at full
rating for 1 000 hours on a 3-monthly basis. Extended tests for 8 000 hours or more are often used for
reliability assessment. BS9110 calls for presentation of
major parameters such as endurance to be presented
on a CTR (certified test record) usually in the form
of a grouped frequency table. As an example of this
presentation, Fig. 2 shows the result of 30 000 hours
of testing in a 50C ambient temperature, over three
thousand oxide film resistors of half watt size.
Reliability calculations can be made from CTR
information as shown in Fig. 2, where 3282 components are tested for 30 000 hours and none have
changed more than 5% in value from the commencement of the test.
Using the Poisson distribution to obtain a 60% probability we get a failure rate
\

''60

A bumping test of 4 000, 40g shocks is made on BS

approved resistors and also vibration tests up to lOg
at various frequencies up to 500 Hz.

Accelerated damp heat and long

term damp heat
The accelerated test involves up to 6 daily cycles of
damp heat at 55C with saturated conditions in the
chamber. A freeze period is usually incorporated in
the sequence of cycles together with a low-air density
test. These severe conditions simulate extremes of use
and give a rapid assessment of a resistor's performance under moist conditions. The long-term test of up
to 56 days at 40C, 90 to 95% RH is rather like a
tropical exposure test with light d.c. and when
applied to the resistors gives rise to the most adverse
conditions for failure by electrolytic action.

Fig.2. Test record of endurance tests on

resistor. Number tested 3282.

W oxide film

DURATION Of TEST

~
30
20

24

48

168

500 1000

~
05

+ ~
aT
01_

=#:
.

dE
-2:.2....

5
I
I
3
22 106
4
136 605 1097
8
104 328 1069 1508 1547
340 580 825 570 278
2768 223( 1108 513 185
42
66 24 47 42
4
19
12
21
63
I
4
I
2
I
I
I
2
I

200050001/I~&>VJ7!
I
I
83
6
76
5
32
460 226
18
104 280 507 748 752
325 707 888 969 822 1090
12n 1391 '155 1!62 825 873
1278 867 678 531 328 312
206 141 232 23
16
9
174 66
14
II
5
5
I
2
I

Naturally designers are interested in the performance

of resistors under all conditions of use and most
specifications put emphasis on tests at maximum
rating, ie at 100% power rating and usually in an
ambient temperature of 70C.
To make tests over a range of power and ambient
temperature levels becomes very costly and tests of
the magnitude shown in Fig. 2 could not be
attempted. However, manufacturers of resistors
usually carry out sufficient tests at levels other than
the maximum, to indicate how their products behave
over a wide range of use. Tests are made at a few
selected combinations of power and ambient
temperature, and the stability over 1 000 hours (or
longer) is deduced from the results. Using either an
empirical technique or preferably a knowledge of the
type of correlation involved, a formula is deduced
which will fit the points at which tests were made,
and will enable other stabilities to be calculated by
interpolation from the formula at any combination of
power and ambient temperature. Fig.3 shows a set of
curves obtained in this way for the %watt oxide film
resistor using an Arrhenius expression as the interpolating formula of the form:
log (L':.R%)

Bx + T + C

I
I

= 0.0093 X 10 -6

STABILITY

CLIMATIC TESTS

HOURS

0 92

= 3282 X 30,000

where

and

x represents the power dissipation

T is the absolute ambient temperature
L':.R% is the change in resistance value.

----6R%

25

03

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

35

025

30

20

25

02

15
20

015
15
0

005

05

tI

2000hr STABILITY
I YEAR STABILITY
ANNUAL STABILITY (6R% PER ANNUM) AFTER lsi YEAR

Fig..3. Stability curves for~ W oxide film resistor.

It is interesting to compare Table 5 and Fig.3 locating

the two points on the derating curve for the 0.5 watt
resistor from Table 5 on the curves in Fig.3 where the
actual 2000 hour stabilities are 0.53% and 1.0%
respectively against a BS specification requirement of
1% for both points. It is very difficult of course for a
National Specification to reflect the true stability of
any component when the situation is complex and
differs between one manufacturer and another. The
requirement in BS9000 for information to be published as Certified Test Records will however be very
useful to users who will be able to assess for themselves how a particular manufacturer's product performs within the specification requirements.

NOISE MEASUREMENTS

In addition to Johnson noise in film resistors there is

also an additional noise component with a 1ft spectral
density, which is called 'excess' or current noise. Bulk
metal resistors do not produce excess noise, but all
types of film resistor and also carbon composition
types exhibit this effect. Whilst the Johnson noise is
not influenced by the type of resistor or the way in
which it is made, current noise is a highly individual
effect varying from manufacturer to manufacturer,
with the type of film and from one resistor to
another which may be nominally identical. The main
interest in current noise is due to its correlation with
unreliablity and it is common practice to use noise
screening techniques to eliminate potential rogues
from the population. The magnitude of current noise
may also be of interest to a designer of low noise
circuits where every attempt is being made to achieve
low noise. In this case the choice of resistor type
becomes important and it is of interest to compare
some typical resistors. As a basis for comparison the
current noise level expressed as microvolts of noise in
the decade of frequency from 100 to 1 000 Hz is
compared with the Johnson noise in the same bandwidth at 20C (see Fig.4), the resistors of equal size
being subjected to 1h W dissipation.
Within any batch of resistors which are nominally
identical it is not unusual for the spread in noise value
to be 15dB, and a large number must be measured
before any trend can be established.
The standard equipment used for resistor noise
measurement is the Quantech Model 2136
instrument.

Fig.4. Comparison between excess noise and Johnson

noise at ~ W. Bandwidth I 00-1000 Hz.

lmV

CARBON
COMPOS! TION

V 2 = 4kTBR
where k, Boltzmann's canst.= 1.38 X 10- 23 joules
T, absolute temperature, degrees Kelvin
B, Bandwidth
R, Resistance

l~~E

MAXIMUM
NOISE
LEVELS

IOO~V

,.

All resistors produce spurious noise voltages with a

uniform spectral power density. This phenomenon is
the so-called Johnson, Thermal or "White" noise and
the magnitude is given by the expression:

lI

RESISTOR

OXIDE
FILM
METAL
FILM

>

,-'JoHNSON
,NOISE

(})

6
z

(})

IJ.J.V-

0 ~ Yoo~.ll-___:,1..k---,O.l.k---,o-'=oc-k--::L,M:----:,-:!:o:-:-M-,:-;;oo~M
RESISTANCE VALUE

NON-LINEARITY
A perfect resistor has a linear voltage current characteristic. Resistors made from bulk metals or alloys do
behave in this way, but all film resistors and also
other types, such as carbon composition and silicon
carbide, have a non-linear volt&ge - current characteristic. The amount of non-linearity may be very
small and it is quite difficult to measure the effect on
metal film or oxide film resistors.

g,.,:~f~---~--=x-x--~k~
-~
x
x-x--x
-x-x--X--- xX

<r <r

9oa

x-

IOk .

lOOk

X--X~

06

04

" 'X

02

A piece of test equipment made by Radiometer is the

standard equipment used for the measurement and
functions by applying a pure-sine-wave signal at
10kHz to the resistor under test. Non-linearity of the
resistor will generate harmonic distortion of the
current which can be filtered off and measured. The
instrument can detect harmonics which are 150dB
below the level of the fundamental. For convenience
it is usual to measure the third harmonic distortion
only, which is invariably the predominant one. If the
voltage-current characteristic is a cubic curve then the
harmonic distortion will be third harmonic only,
without 5th or higher order harmonics.

RF MEASUREMENTS
Every resistor has stray inductance and capacitance
and when measurements were difficult to make a
great deal of effort was made using sophisticated
bridge techniques to assess the steady state performance of resistors. In many applications a knowledge
of the value of the lumped inductance or capacitance
will provide enough information to the user to enable
him to make a sensible choice of component. In
recent years the existence of good pulse generators
and fast oscilloscopes has made it easier to evaluate
the RF performance by direct experiment. For
instance in terminating a 50 ohm line by a single film
resistor the helixing of the track creates an inductance which predominates over the capacitance and
can be observed easily on the oscilloscope. The use of
two 100 ohm resistors in parallel will invariably
improve the performance and the optimum number
of resistors is easily found.
The ultimate geometry for this kind of application is
probably the disc and unhelixed rod forms which are
easily incorporated into coaxial systems and have
been successfully used at frequencies up to lOGHz.
At these frequencies the geometry is critical and the
materials used must be selected with great care to
minimise frequency dependent loss properties.
Capacitance of resistors is largely a function of size,
and small resistors are obviously better in this respect
than large ones. The actual capacitance may be of the
order 0.1 pF for 1/.t-watt sizes increasing to 0.5 pF for
a 2-watt oxide film type. Inductance is also
8

I
0 ~~----~~~~~~~~o~--~--~L-~~~~oo

FREQUENCY MHz

Fig.5. RF performance of 1h W metal oxide film resistor.

dependent on size but the construction of the resistor

can have an additional effect. In particular the cutting
of a helical groove to achieve the final value of the
normal type of film resistor increases the inductance
by creating several "turns" of resistor track. This
effect is reduced by adjusting a resistor to value
especially on values up to lkn by grinding "stripes"
in an axial direction along the resistor when the
inductance is reduced to the same value as an equivalent cylinder. The inductance of helical adjusted
cylindrical film resistors is usually less than 0.2 J,.LH
even on the highest values when many turns are used.
Precision resistors, if of the wirewound type, have
much higher inductance even when precautions are
taken to minimise the effect by reversed winding
techniques. The availability of flat bulk metal film
resistors of very low inductance gives high stability
and good RF properties.
The normal method of indicating the RF, properties
of a resistor is to indicate how the ratio of effective
a. c. resistance to d.c. resistance varies with frequency.
The properties of a typical general purpose oxide film
resistor are shown in Fig.5. Instruments used for
these measurements include the following types:Admittance, Schering, Q Meter, etc.

CONCLUSIONS
The advent of BS9000 is expected to have farreaching consequences and the extension in Europe
of similar systems of specification and Qualification
Approval should ensure a degree of uniformity in
components that has not been achieved previously.
As far as fixed resistors are concerned the generic
document BS9110 gives full details of the tests which
are appropriate to these components. Other useful
documents that are referred to in BS9110 are:
BS9000 - General Requirements for Electronic Parts
of Assessed Quality BS9001- Sampling Procedures.
BS2488 - Preferred Numbers. BS2011 - Test
Methods. BS1852- Marking Codes.

Chapter 2

Capacitors

R J Everitt BSc
Dubilier Limited
During the production and testing of capacitors, the
manufacturer carries out a large number of specialised
tests on the capacitor parameters. In most cases the
equipment used has been purpose built and in
consequence is not available to the average user. In
consequence many engineers find themselves in the
position of using components which they are not able
to adequately test or specify. The test methods
described in this chapter are generally suitable for use
in the average electronic engineering workshop.
Before describing test methods it will be useful to
examine briefly the implication of some of the
parameters to be examined.
In Fig.l a very much simplified equivalent circuit is
shown for a capacitor. The resistance in parallel with
the capacitor represents the leakage resistance and
will normally be measured in megohms. This resistance has the characteristic of increasing with time
and is also very temperature dependant. The series
resistance Rs represents the losses in the capacitor
and is normally referred to as the equivalent series
resistance or ESR. This can be divided into two parts:

R A represents the true dielectric losses and varies in

inverse proportion to the applied frequency. Hence
this results in a constant power factor when the
frequency is changed. The second component RB
represents the resistive components of electrodes,
leads, etc. This component remains constant with
change of frequency.
The inductance Ls represents the self inductance of
the capacitor and its connecting leads. At low
frequencies this component can normally be ignored.
These generalisations are of course only approximately correct within the normal rated working
9

cos

~---.0----~ct---.---~~-----o

</>~tan

where w

5 = Rs Cw

(1)

27Tf

f = applied frequency in Hz
Fig.l. Equivalent circuit for capacitor.

we

tan

8'_!f

;;;c

'RCw

Fig.2. Relationship between cos </>and tan~.

conditions specified for the capacitors. They do,

however, assist in understanding the effects found in
some constructions and in making a choice between
alternative types.
The power factor is defined as the proportion of the
applied a.c. signal which is dissipated as heat in the
component. In a perfect capacitor the current phase
leads the voltage phase by eKactly goo and in
consequence no power is lost. In practical cases the
current phase leads by slightly less than goo. The
difference between these angles is shown in Fig.2 as
the angle <J>, and cos </> is defined as the power factor
of the capacitor. In normal bridge measurements
however, it is easier to measure the resistive and
reactive components of the system rather than the
impedance vector. Tan ~ is therefore used, which for
small angles of ~ is very close to cos <J>.
Fig.3. Impedance versus frequency for various capacitor
constructions.

Capacitors with small resistive components ie low RB

will show relatively stable power factors as the
frequency is changed. This covers most nonelectrolytic capacitors. If the resistive component is
relatively high the power factor will show a fairly
rapid increase with applied frequency. At high
applied frequencies the effect of the inductance
becomes apparent and the capacitor passes through a
self resonant point after which the inductance becomes dominant and the impedance shows a rapid
increase. The value of the inductance is affected by
the size of the capacitor and the method of construction. Fig.3 shows typical curves for a number of
constructions.

MEASUREMENT OF CAPACITANCE AND POWER

FACTOR
Although values for capacitance and power factor can
be obtained by analysis of other characteristics, it is
easier to make use of a.c. bridge measurements for
this purpose.
Commercial bridges commonly available can be
divided into those using 50, 100 or 120 Hz and those
using the higher frequencies of 1000 or 15g2 Hz. The
effect of the bridge frequency on the measured
results is often not appreciated by many engineers.
Figs. 4 and 5 show the effect of frequency on the
measured values of capacitance and power factor for
a number of capacitor constructions. These show that
Fig.4. Capacitance versus frequency for various capacitor
constructions. (A) polyethylene terephthalate (B) oil
impregnated paper (C) 5 JJ/150V plain foil tantalum (D)
0.5 JJ.f 35V solid tantalum (E) 12.5 JJ.f 25V solid
aluminium (F) 500 JJ.f 25V aluminium foil electrolytic.
-5r-------~---------,

-c:

~ 0
1-

10

~<t

15

<t
u
0 01 pF TUBULAR

J:

;!. 20

10

a:
~

01

a:
w

a.. 001

100

IKz
FREQUENCY 1Hz)

ol

IOKz

Fig.5. Power factor versus frequency {or various

capacitor constructions. (A) polyethylene terephthalate
(B) oil impregnated paper (C) 5 JJ.f 150V plain foil
tantalum (D) 0.5 JJ.f 35V solid tantalum (E) 12.5 JJ.f 25V
solid aluminium (F) 500 JJ.f 25V aluminium foil electrolytic.

for electrolytic types an appreciable variation in the

measured values can occur when the measuring
frequency is altered. Normal UK practice is to use
either 50 or 100 Hz for electrolytic types. Most other
constructions show only small changes in capacitance
up to a few kilohertz, but in some instances there
may be an appreciable change in the measured power
factor.
One of the most common causes of error in bridge
measurements is the effect of lead resistance. Most
engineers are aware of the effects of stray capacitance
on low capacitance values and normally take appropriate precautions in these cases. When high
capacitances are being measured however there is a
tendency to assume that leads are not critical.
Reference to equation 1 shows that any resistance in
series with the capacitor will increase the power
factor reading and the effect becomes more serious as
the frequency is increased. Leads also contribute
inductance which affects the high frequency results.
For example, the resistance of 23 X 0.0076 in. tinned
copper wire is about 0.025 ohms per metre and a pair
of leads each 1 metre long will have a total resistance
of 0.05 ohms. This will then contribute approximately 3% to the power factor of a 2 000 microfarad
capacitor measured at 50 Hz. This error will be
directly proportional to the capacitance or frequency
ratio for other values.

Fig.6. Variation of capacitance with temperature for

various constructions. (D) 4 JJ.f 150V tantalum foil
electrolytic (E) 50 p.f 12V tantalum {oil electrolytic (F)
25 p.f JOV solid tantalum (G) 32 JJ.f 275V aluminium
electrolytic.

Fig. 7. Variation of power factor with temperature for

various constructions. (A) paper impregnated with trichlorodiphenyl (B) paper impregnated with mineral oil
(C) polyethylene terephthalate (D) 5 p.f 150V tantalum
foil electrolytic (F) 25 JJ.f JOV solid tantalum (G) 32p.{
275V aluminium electrolytic(E) 50p.FJ2V tantalum foil
electrolytic.

~.

--~F

-.........:::. ~-------iD,E

- - x........_
......._

' x~

en

':i
~

x---x-x~-

~. ........__._./~
-40

-20

40
20
0
TEMPERATURE tC)

80

All measurements should therefore be carried out

with the minimum practical lead length to minimise
the effect of stray capacitance on low values and
II

resistance and inductance on high values. At room

temperatures t.his is not normally a serious problem,
but when measurements are conducted at extremes of
temperature it is often necessary to use special bridge
constructions to minimise these effects. For these
reasons it is normally easier to use impedance
measurements to check temperature characteristics.
Figs. 6 and 7 show the effect of temperature on the
capacitance and power factor for a variety of constructions.
Where a reliable a.c. bridge is not available it is
possible to obtain results which are adequate for most
purposes by using a simple 50 Hz impedance tester
operated from a low voltage mains transformer. Many
commercial multimeters are fitted with a range for
capacitance measurement. All that is then normally
required is a suitable low voltage transformer to
provide the driving voltage. This type of instrument is
of course subject to error when the impedance vector
differs appreciably from the reactive vector. For
reasonable power factors however the effect is quite
small and can be considered to be less than the
probable meter error. For example a capacitor with a
power factor of 20% will result in a measured value
approximately 2% low. A 10% power factor results in
an error of only 1/2%. It is only for power factors
above 20% that the error becomes appreciable and
capacitors with power factors in this range are not
normally required with accurately known capacitance
values.
Where measurements of this type are to be made on
polarised electrolytic capacitors, the a.c. voltage
developed across the capacitor must be less than one
volt or the capacitor may be damaged. The circuit
shown in Fig.8 will provide useful results for most of
the commonly used capacitor values. The primary
sources of error in an instrument of this kind are the
supply voltage and frequency. The supply voltage can

be checked by fitting a check position on the range

switch and if necessary can be stabilised. The supply
frequency is more difficult to stabilise but, fortunately, little variation occurs under normal conditions.

IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS
Although accurate measurement of capacitance is
useful in tuned circuits and a knowledge of power
factor essential for power loss calculations, the
majority of applications for capacitors in electronic
circuitry require a value for the impedance rather
than the separhte capacitance and power factor
vectors. The measurement of impedance is normally
well within the scope of the average engineer and can
be accomplished with equipment available in most
workshops or laboratories.
The circuit used consists of a resistance R, connected
in series with the capacitor and both housed in a
screened test box. The connections should be made
through separate coaxial sockets on the box. The
supply from an oscillator is made with a screened
lead. The resistor must be non-inductive over the
frequency range required and have an accurately
known value of 50 to 100!2. The oscillator should
have an output of at least 1 volt with pure sine wave
output. The presence of harmonics in the oscillator
output will result in erroneous impedanc~ values and
make the measurements non-reproducible.
The detector used can be either a calibrated oscilloscope or an electronic a.c. voltmeter suitable for the
frequency range to be covered.
The test is carried out as follows:
(1) Connect the capacitor in the circuit (preferably
with soldered connections).
(2) Set the oscillator to the required frequency and
adjust the outp'ut to approximately 1 V.

Fig. B. Simple impedance tester for capacitance measurement.

R3
lOOk

rih

(3) Connect the detector across R and note the

voltage Vl.
(4) Transfer the detector lead to the socket
connected to the capacitor and measure the voltage
V2.

32k

(5) The impedance of the capacitor is then given by:

XIO

z=Y2R
Vl
CAPACITANCE RANGE
500pF to 0 lfLF
001 to IOfLF

60

24

Rl
795k
795k

R2
630k
63k

M
50fLA
lmA

(6) Repeat operations 2 to 5 where required to

obtain the impedance frequency relationship.
When making tests at frequencies above 100kHz the
effective length of the capacitor leads must be kept to

12

It is interesting to observe the effect of the various

LEAD
LENGTH
2in

4
w

~ 3

<!

~ 2

xiOOOO

Fig.9. Impedance-frequency characteristic of 25 p.{ 25V

non-polarised Dubilier type TF tantalum {oil capacitor
can size llh in X 3/8 in total lead length 3/8 in and 2 in.

the minimum practicable value. Fig.9 shows the

effect of measurements carried out on a tantalum foil
capacitor with total lead lengths of 0.375 inches and
2 inches respectively.
The difference in these results is caused by the lead
inductance being added to capacitor inductance Ls.
The connections must therefore be made as close as
possible to the body of the component to reduce this
series inductance to a minimum. When used in
circuitry the same consideration should apply when
high frequency characteristics are important. It is
sometimes not appreciated that a capacitor standing
on end in a printed circuit board may have a
considerably higher impedance than the same component connected horizontally across the board. As a
general rule the high frequency performance of most
conventional capacitors is related to the length. All
other things being equal the shorter units are capable
of effective use at higher frequencies.
The exception to this rule is the feed-through
capacitor construction in which one pole of the
capacitor is taken through the core of the element
with the other side connected to the case. This
effectively provides a much lower inductance component and hence improves the high frequency
performance.

Fig. I 0 Structure of typical electrolytic capacitor.

ANODE
---METAL
1 - r - - - OXIDE LAYER
t.==:::::=:::::::::J -CONDUCTING
------------ELECTROLYTE

-------------~SEPARATORS

components of the equivalent circuit on the impedance characteristics. At the low frequency end the
impedance is controlled by the capacitance almost
entirely. As the frequency increases the resistive and
inductive components become increasingly important. If the resistive element is dominant the
impedance curve will lie above the theoretical value
for capacitance only, while if the inductive element
dominates the curve will dip below the theoretical. At
the minimum in the curve, which is the self resonant
point, the impedance is equal to the ESR and above
this the unit progressively takes on the character of
an inductor. The large deviation of the electrolytic
types results from the effect of the rather complex
resistance and capacitance combinations in the unit.
The capacitor is made up of an oxide film on the
surface of the positive electrode with a layer of
conducting electrolyte filling the space between the
oxide surface and the negative electrode. This is
shown diagrammatically in Fig.10. The true capacitor
is made up of a layer of negative ions on the
electrolytic-oxide interface and a positively charged
metal on the opposite face of the oxide. The
equivalent circuit for this can be expressed as shown
in Fig.ll, where the resistances represent the varying
electrolyte path lengths to small capacitance elements
on the oxide. There is therefore a series of elements
with varying time constants, thus when the frequency
is increased a smaller charge movement occurs in the
elements with long time constants with a consequent
apparent loss of capacitance. When the electrolyte
resistivity is increased, either at low temperatures or
by exhaustion of the electrolyte in service, the
impedance values will increase, particularly in the
region of 100 kHz. At frequencies above 10 MHz
these changes are generally much less pronounced.
Coupling impedance measurement
An important characteristic of capacitors having more
than one capacitance element in a single container is
the coupling impedance. This is a measure of the
transfer of signal from one element to another. The
test procedure consists of feeding current into one
element and the measurement of the induced voltage
in the other elements.

Fig.JJ. Equivalent circuit {or electrolytic capacitor

showing effect of varying resistive path to capacitance
elements.
~

~-r-----

__oc. .t_o_c!~oc
.
. .J_o_cf_oc
.
. .. . ___ _
13

A*

R is a non-inductive resistor with a value similar to

the impedance of the capacitor. The exact value is
not critical provided it is accurately known. The
detector used may be either an oscilloscope or a
suitably calibrated electronic a.c. voltmeter.

VARIAC

RESERVOIR
SECTION

Fig.J2. Circuit used for coupling impedance. A is a

rectified moving coil a. c. ammeter.

voltage out
.
.
.
The ratio current in has the dtmenswns of Impedance and is referred to as the coupling impedance.
Unlike a normal impedance, however, the required
condition of minimum signal transfer is obtained
when the coupling impedance is low.
Two measurement methods are in general use with
the choice between them being made on the basis of
the type of application and convenience of testing.
A typical circuit used in the first of these methods is
shown in Fig.12. The resistance R is used to simulate
the normal load condition of the capacitor reservoir
section. For a capacitor element of 200 iJ.F working
at 300 V, a value of around soon is reasonable. This
gives a ripple with the correct wave shape to be
passed through the reservoir section. The variac is
adjusted until the ammeter reads 500 rnA. The
induced signal on the remaining elements is then
examined on the oscilloscope and the value of the
peak to peak voltage is noted. A typical limit for this
is 40 to 50 mV P/P.
While this test is relatively simple it often requires a
screened transformer to isolate noise from the mains
supply and it suffers from the disadvantage of rather
high voltages on the capacitor. This means that either
the test can be carried out only by qualified engineers
or that elaborate safety precautions have to be taken.
The second method makes use of an oscillator to
provide the driving signal which can be set to any
desired frequency. The circuit used is shown in
Fig.13. For 50 Hz measurements a low voltage
transformer can be used to replace the oscillator.

Fig.l3. Circuit used

for coupling
impedance measurement.

R
OSCILLATOR
SUPPLY

Cl
0

14

(
I

The detector is first connected across R and the

oscillator set to the required frequency. The oscillator
output is then increased until approximately one volt
is developed across R. This voltage is noted as Vl.
The detector is then transferred to C2 without
alteration of the oscillator and the voltage developed
across C2 recorded as V2.
The coupling impedance is given as:
V2
Zc =-I.m
I in= Vl
R
z = V2~
c
V1
Typically Zc should be less than 0.0151"2.
This test is fairly easy to set up as a routine
inspection test since no elaborate safety precautions
are required and provided the oscillator is stable it is
not necessary to check the value of V1 for each
measurement. A limit can therefore be set on the
output meter and used to check units either on a
sample basis or as a 100% check on suspect units.

MEASUREMENT OF INSULATION RESISTANCE

OR LEAKAGE CURRENT OF CAPACITORS
Instruments designed to measure this property are
normally calibrated directly in terms of insulation
resistance. The property actually being measured,
however, is the current passing through the dielectric
or across the surfaces of the capacitor casing. If the
instrument is operated at fixed voltages the scale can
be directly calibrated in resistance units.
Many commercial instruments carry a number of
scales for a range of standard voltages, usually 85,
150 and 500 volts, so that a choice can be made to
suit the maximum working voltage of the system. In
the case of electrolytic capacitors the range of
working voltages extends over the range 1 to 500
volts and therefore it is more convenient to record
measurements directly in leakage current.
The standard electronic insulation testers are based
on the measurement of the voltage developed across a
high resistance arranged in series with the insulation
under measurement. Since this must be high enough
to develop a reasonable voltage, the maximum
charging current &vailable is always low and therefore

"EARTH" TERMINAL ON SCREEN

PORCELAIN BUSHING INSULATORS

IN METAL SCREEN
~~~~~NCASE OR

----------I

7k
2k
I
I

700
200
70.0.
20.0.

I
I

1-,!,-

7Sl

1::::
I

OFF o

I
1 SWITCH CLOSED I

...-I ~~0~fr1Jtg~A~CALLY OPERATED

5k.ll

1 BY SHUNT ARM)
.I

II I.Q

2.0.
1.0.

500

~------------------------1

Fig.14. Circuit for insulation resistance tester. Galvano2500 mm/p.A. Shunt S. 10 OOOf2
meter sensitivity
total resistance tapped at 1, 3, 10, 30, 100, 300, 1000,

>

3ooo, 1o ooon.

the response time constant for the system becomes

too large if the capacitor size is too great. In general
this type of instrument is suitable for measurements
on cables or small capacitors to between 0.1 to 0.5
microfarads depending on the characteristics of the
instrument. Above this capacitance the most reliable
method is to use a sensitive galvanometer with a
universal shunt and a battery power supply as shown
in Fig.14.
The instrument can be calibrated by using a standard
10 Mn resistor on one of the low ranges of the
universal shunt. The galvanometer should have a
sensitivity of at least 2500 mm per micro amp. To
prevent errors from stray leakage currents the
batteries should be insulated from the case by means
of polythene or wax insulation.
The operating voltage of this type of instrument can
be adjusted by suitably tapping a series battery chain.
The leakage current of electrolytic capacitors can be
measured by means of a similar instrument with a less
sensitive micrometer, or more simply with standard
meters by use of the circuit shown in Fig.15. The
push buttons A and B are electrically interlocked so
that both must be pressed together to obtain a
reading on the sensitive meter. With the switches in
the position shown the first meter reads 10 rnA full
scale. The meter shunt is given for the normal 100 n
1 rnA meter movement. For meters with any other
resistance the value should be suitably adjustEd. ThP
germanium diode is corwected across the shunt to
protect the movement against excessive current. C is
used as a charge-discharge switch for the capacitor
under test. It is essential that the voltage source used
for either leakage current or insulation resistwce
measurements of capacitors should be extremely
stable. On large capacitors or when very low leakage
currents are being measured, a voltage change on only
a few millivolts can result in relatively large short
term current surges. Unless large numbers are to be

Fig.15. Simple leakage current tester for electrolytic

capacitors.

tested a battery source will be both more reliable and

cheaper than a mains operated power supply.
For testing capacitors with leakage currents less than
3 rnA with a CV product not greater than 10 000
(where Cis in microfarads and V in volts) instruments
such as the BPL model RM 170 are now available.
This will operate over the voltage range 1 to 500 for
insulation resistances of up to 1000Tf2 (10 1 5 f2) or
leakage currents in the range 0.2 pA to 3 rnA. This
instrument therefore covers the normal range of
capacitors used in electronic equipments, apart from
the larger electrolytics used in smoothing circuits.
Unlike the measurement of most other component
parameters the measurement of both insulation and
leakage current gives a value which is time dependant.
In many cases these values are still changing even
after several days of electrification. In order to obtain
reproducible results it is therefore necessary to
specify a time at which the measured value will be
taken. For electrolytic capacitors this period has
varied over the years between different specifications
in the range of 1 to 10 minutes. The time specified in
BS.9070 is 5 minutes. For a capacitor which has been
given a preconditioning ageing the leakage current of
any reasonable capacitor should be less than the
specified value in less than 1 minute. Preconditioning
should be carried out on capacitors with an unknown
history or if the capacitors have been stored for more
than twPIVG months. Capacitors should then be aged

Table 1. Measuring voltages used {or testing insulation

resistance.
Voltage rating

Measuring Voltage

< 10volts

rated voltage 10%

10 to< 100 volts

10 Volts 1

100 to < 500 volts

>soo volts

100 15
500 50

15

Capacitor type

Tan

Insulation
Resistance

>1o,.;;; 25 pF o.oo3
> 25 ,.;;; 1000 pF 0.002
>1000pF
0.001

Mica

Small
paper

Grade

Grade

Small
paper

25,000 Ms-2
or 1,000 ri.F
whichever is less

<0.01

>5,000 r!F or
25,000 Ms-2
whichever is less

<0.01

>2,000nF or
10,000 Ms-2
whichever is less

<0.01

>2o,ooonF

H6

tubulars

tubulars

H5

Polyester film
Metallised
Polyester

<0.008 at 1 kHz
<0.015 at 10kHz

>30,000 Ms-2
below 0.33 #-( F
> 10,000 r2 F for
0.33 #-{F and above

Metallised
Paper

<0.02 at 1 kHz

>soonF

Tantalum
Foil (Plain)

v ,.;;; 16 v < 0. 15 )

(Etched)

v >16 v<o.1 l
v <so v <o~ 2 )

Leakage current

0.02 #-{A per #-{FV

at 120Hz

v ~5.0 v <0.15)
Tantalum
Solid
Aluminium
Electrolytics

Polystyrene

<

C 100 #-{F 0.06)

C > 100 #-{F 0.08) at 120Hz
v,.;;;10v
10<V<25V
25<V<63V
V>63V

0.5
0.35)
0.25)
0.2

at 100 to 120Hz

0.0005

0.02 #-{A per #-{FV

or 1 #-{A
whichever is greater
cv,.;;;10oo
0.05 #-{A per #-{FV or 5 #-{A
whichever is greater
cv>10oo
0.03 #-{A per #-{FV + 20 #-{A

250,000 r!F or
750,000 Ms-2
whichever is less

Table 2. Test parameters for various types of commonly used capacitors.

at rated voltage for one hour. The impedance of the

supply should be approximately 1 500 ohms for
capacitors rated above 100 volts and 150 ohml' for
ratings below 100 volts.
A word of caution is appropriate at this point with
regard to storage conditions for electrolytic
capacitors. It is essential that they should not be
subjected to long storage periods at high temperatures
since this results in degradation of the characteristics.
A position must always be chosen in a cool dry area
of the store and capacitors must be used in order of
delivery.
16

The position with regard to non-electrolytic constructions is much more standardised and in almost all
cases a test period of 1 minute is specified for
insulation resistance measurements. The voltage used
for insulation resistance should be as in Table 1.
SUMMARY

The test methods described in this chapter give the

characteristics generally measured at low voltage
stress. Measurements made at higher stresses may
produce characteristics which differ appreciably from

the low stress values. These measurements, however,

require equipment of a more specialised form and are
therefore outside the scope of this chapter. Thus it is
necessary to ensure that the manufacturers data is
used in any high stress application. Care must also be
taken to ensure that the capacitor is used within the
rated conditions. Many capacitors, eg those with
unstabilised chlorinated impregnants, are only suitable for use under a.c. conditions. Unless suitable
stabilisers are added to these capacitors during manufacture they will fail prematurely when operated with
a d.c. component. Similarly a capacitor rated at
relatively high d.c. voltages may be unsuitable for use
under a.c. conditions. It is impossible without
reference to the manufacturing conditions to determine whether a capacitor might be suitable for use
under conditions other than those stated on the
container or in the manufacturers published data. If
any doubt exists then the manufacturer should
always be consulted for clarification before a possibly

expensive mistake is made. The fact that prototype

equipment works for a trial period is no guarantee
that capacitors are correctly rated and will be
satisfactory under service conditions.
Table 2 provides a guide to the values of parameters
quoted in some current specifications.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Fundamentals of Electrical Measurements. C. T.
Baldwin. Harrap.
Higher Electrical Engineering. J. Shepherd, A. H.
Morton, L. F. Spence. Pitman.
Alternating current Bridge methods. B. Hague.
Pitman.
Power Capacitors. R. E. Marbury. McGraw-Hill.
Insulating Materials for design and engineering
practice. F. M. Clarke. John Wiley & Sons.

17

Chapter3

Wound
Components

N A Eaton and H D M Overton

The Plessey Company Limited
This chapter will deal with wound components and
will acquaint the reader with the basic parameters to
be measured, the test methods and instruments used
together with the error precautions necessary and
tolerances to be expected for each type of wound
component considered.
The components considered are inductors for low
frequency and radio applications and transformers for
low frequency applications. Coils are considered to be
of the following four main types.
Air cored coils. These are coils with no magnetic
material used in their construction. They include coils
wound on non-magnetic formers as well as self
supporting air spaced coils. Single and multitum
layered coils used in RF applications and layered
wound scanning coils for CRT use come into this
category.
Laminated iron cored coils. These are coils wound
around laminated iron formers. These cores are made
from laminated ferromanganese material insulated
between layers to reduce losses due to eddy currents.
Due to increasing losses, the thickness of laminations
must decrease as frequency increases, hence these
coils are limited to LF applications. Examples of
these coils are LF chokes and toroidal coils wound
around laminated magnetic materials.
Dust cored coils. These coils are wound onto composite material made up of ferromagnetic particles
coated with an insulated binder and compressed to
form a uniform mass. These coils can be toroid or pot
type and their applications include filters and RF
tuning coils.
Ferrite cored coils. Sintered ferrite with some of the
iron replaced by nickel or manganese forms the core
around which these coils are wound. These ferrite
18

cores can be made to possess quite high permeabilities, and are suitable for use up to 15 MHz.
Applications include LF and RF coils and rod
antennae.

lt is recognised that the foregoing are in the strict

sense measurements. These are typical measurements
which could be performed as received inspection
checks or pre and post-conditioning tests.

Transformers for LF applications are basically

primary and secondary coils wound around insulated
and formed laminated ferromagnetic cores, providing
a 'step down' or 'step-up' voltage or current. Testing
of transformers is a study in itself, and this chapter is
confined to a consideration of each winding as a
separate inductor and also to basic a.c. measurements
only.

If any form of approval testing is required the user

should be acquainted with BS2011 and the relevant
specifications in the BS9000 DEF and MIL Series.
From these specifications could be selected suitable
test categories or severities determined by the application or intended use of the components.

ACCEPTANCE TESTING
Acceptance testing on components received from a
manufacturer should ideally establish identification,
electrical functioning and mechanical fit. In many
instances the extent of acceptance testing and checks
will be defined either in a procurement specification
or 'in-house' document. In the absence of such
information and to assist in the compilation of a
suitable document the following factors should be
considered.
Test sample size: Depending on batch quantity, tests
could be 100% or on a sample quantity based on
batch size and Acceptable Quality Level. Reference
should be made to BS9001 and from the tables a
sample size determined.
Acceptance testing should include all or some of the
following checks.
LF Components
Identification
Robustness of terminations
d.c. Resistance at +25oc
Solderability
Resistance to soldering heat
Inductance
(with or without d.c.)
Insulation resistance
Voltage proof (on parts intended to be electrically
insulated).
On RF Components the following additional tests
should be included:
Q- Min value
Self-capacitance
Tuning range (if fitted with adjuster)
Self-resonant frequency
To enable the above tests to be made the following
instrumP.nts would be required: calibrated weights or
test fixture for termination test; ohmmeter - preferably digital reading; inductance bridge - commercial
grade of 0.25% accuracy; insulation resistance test set
to read to 106 M.Q; voltage proof test set to 5kV
a.c./d.c.; 'Q' meter; grid dip oscillator

WOUND COMPONENTS ELECTRICAL

PARAMETERS
LF inductors
The following seven basic LF coil parameters are
considered to be the most important and some or all
of these are used in inspection or acceptance testing:
(a) Continuity. This is a basic test to check for
continuity of windings and search for open circuits. It
is performed either on a meter with a suitable
resistance range or some other simple continuity
indicator.
(b) Inductance (L). Inductance is a basic primary
parameter of any coil and varies from J.tH in air cored
coils up to Henries in large laminated iron core coils.
As every coil is not a perfect inductor ie it has some
resistance, it can be considered as a series combination or a parallel combination. Which concept is
adopted depends on the losses in the coil, the
frequency of measurement and the measuring techniques. For the purposes of LF measurements detailed in this chapter most coils are considered as an
unknown series L and R combination.
In the case of iron cored coils inductance is often
stipulated with a superimposed d.c. Measurement
under such conditions requires special bridge facilities
and precautions, and is covered in detail under the
Sub-heading Test Methods and Instruments.
(c) d.c. Resistance. d.c. series resistance is a measure
of the resistive element of a coil only in ohms. It is
necessary for calculations of Q and the behaviour of a
coil in a d.c. circuit.
(d) Impedance (Z) This parameter is usually calculated from resistance and inductive reactance, although some impedance bridges are available. It is a
measure of the total effect of an inductor at a
particular frequency.
(e) Insulation Resistance, (IR) This is a measure of
the insulation between windings, between windings
and cores and all parts not electrically connected
together. It is measured in megohms.
19

(f) Voltage Proof, (VP) This is a similar test of

insulation applied to all parts not electrically connected together. A voltage calculated, to test the
insulation strength, which can be limited to a very
low current, is applied and any insulation failure is
shown as a breakdown on the test instrument.
LF Transformers
Each transformer winding either primary or
secondary can be considered as an inductor. As such,
primary parameters, such as inductance and d.c.
resistance and to a lesser extent Q and impedance,
can be measured on each winding separately. Insulation resistance and voltage proof tests are also
applied between all parts not electrically connected.
Turns ratio, which is the ratio of the preliminary
winding turns to the secondary winding turns, is also
often stipulated as a transformer parameter.
Three basic LF a.c. measurements, (usually taken at
50 or 400 Hz) which check transformer performance
are as follows.
(a) Input current at no-load or full load. This is a
measure of the current drawn from an a.c. supply by
a transformer when the secondary windings are either
not loaded or loaded with their rated current.
(b) No-load power loss. This is the power loss
(primary copper losses and iron loss) in a transformer
when all secondaries are not loaded.
(c) Loaded output voltage. This is the value of output
voltage across each secondary, with the primary
connected to an a.c. supply and the secondary
loaded to a rated current. Ratio of loaded and
unloaded output voltages gives the regulation of the
transformer.
(d) Temperature rise. This is the rise in temperature
of any winding from room ambient to working
temperature.
RF Inductors
The following 3 parameters are important in RF
applications:

to 500 in RF applications. This parameter is of greater

significance in RF measurement, although one
method of measurement at LF is described under
Test Methods and Instruments.
(b) Self capacitance (Co). The effects of selfcapacitance of a coil can for almost all practical
purposes be considered the same as that of an
equivalent capacitance in parallel with its terminals.
This capacitance results from the distributed capacitances between the turns of the windings of the
coil. The significance of the effect can be seen from
the foregoing statement and must be considered when
coils - and this includes air cored, iron dust and
ferrite pot-cores - are required to operate or be
measured particularly at high frequences.
The stability of Co is important and may be most
affected by changes in the dielectric properties of the
insulation of the winding wire. An example of this is
where moisture is absorbed in cotton or silk covered
windings and the effect is to modify the dielectric
properties of the elements forming self-capacitance.
(c) Self resonant frequency. This is the natural
frequency at which an inductor resonates resulting
from the effects of self inductance and self capacitance. The significance of this parameter is that where
self resonant frequency occurs, the inductor appears
wholly resistive because inductive and capacitive
reactances cancel. It is important that this parameter
is known or measured and the effect considered in
circuit design.

MEASUREMENTS ON LF INDUCTORS
Inductance, a.c. resistance and impedance
A widely used precision bridge for series measurement of inductance, a.c. resistance and impedance at
low frequencies is shown in Fig. I. It is basically a
Maxwell comparison method. This bridge consists of
Fig.l. Basic schematic of a bridge for the measurement
of inductance, a.c. resistance and impedance at low
frequency.

~---~

(a) Magnification factor (Q). Q or Magnification

factor is a method of expressing the ratio of leading
inductive reactance to effective d.c. resistance and is a
measure of the losses in a coil.

Rz
AMP/

DETECTOR

It is of great importance in a circuit design since

losses in an inductor determine the damping of a
circuit. Iron cored inductors have large losses ie low
Q, whilst ferrite and air cored coils have Q values up
20

D.C.

A.C.

INPUT

D.C.

A.C.

two equal resistive arms Rl and R2, a third balancing

arm with a decade inductance and decade resistance
in series, and the unknown inductor completing the
bridge network. A signal generator is connected to
the a.c. input terminals and set up with a valve
voltmeter if necessary.
The bridge is suitable for precision measurements of
inductors at frequencies from 50 - 20 kHz with an
accuracy of 0.1 %, providing a sensitive detector
amplifier is used. Measurements of inductance and
a.c. series resistance of the unknown coil are obtained
directly from the decade dials at balance when used
in the a.c. mode. The a.c./d.c. switch is provided in
order to measure d.c. series resistance only if required, and operation of the bridge in the d.c. mode
is described in a later section on d.c. resistance.
Impedance is calculated from series resistance and
inductive reactance. Impedance Z = R + j XL (where
XL is the inductive reactance). This bridge is particularly suitable for measurements of precision inductors
such as air cored coils and some ferrites. Coils with
laminated iron cores usually have higher inductance
values, even up to values of Henries in some cases.
This precision inductance bridge can be used to
measure coils of this type providing they do not have
very high inductance or series resistance values.
However, most measurements of these inductors are
considered accurate enough to 2%, making the use
of a precision bridge unnecessary.
A bridge which is widely used for LF measurements
of laminated iron cored inductors is a commercial
form of the Owen bridge as shown in Fig.2. This
bridge consists of ratio arms Rl and Cl which are
Fig.2. A commercial form of an Owen Bridge.

AC
INPUT

1.

SUPERIMPOSED

D.C.

SUPPLY

II

variable and controlled by a range switch. The third

or balancing arm consists of a decade resistance in
series with a decade capacitance. The fourth arm
comprises the unknown inductor. The bridge has an
a.c. input with amplitude control and also facility for
connection of a d.c. input for measuring inductance
with a superimposed d.c. bias if required. Balance is
achieved by alternate adjustment of the decade
resistance until a null balance is achieved on the
amplifier detector. This bridge has the advantage that
the method is particularly suited to measurement of
iron cored inductors - the bridge components give a
wide measurement range of inductance and series
resistance within which most of these coils lie.
There are a number of precautions which should be
taken to obtain accurate and repeatable measurements using the two bridge methods described. All
connections to the inductors must be kept short and
rigid. If this is impractical, twisted leads should be
used and their inductance and resistance balanced out
on the bridge before measurement, or subtracted
from the readings obtained from the coil when
measured. This applies particularly to precision
measurements. The close proximity of magnetic
materials should be avoided and the bridge and
component under test should preferably be left
unmoved under conditions of stable temperature. The
supply source and detector should be kept remote
from the bridge and connected to the bridge by
screened leads - a balanced input to the amplifier/
detector should be achieved by a screened transformer if required. When measuring inductors with
high losses, (iron cored coils), first approximate
balance settings may be difficult to find. The gain of
the amplifier should be reduced when commencing
the balance and increased as the balance proceeds.
The measurement of inductors should be carried out
under identical conditions of connecting lead length,
magnetic interference etc. as far as practical. As a
check on repeatability of measurements, control coil
samples of known previous inductance should be
remeasured at frequent time intervals to determine
any variance in measurement technique.
Inductance with d.c. bias
For iron cored coils used in filter reactors, rectifier
circuits and other applications, inductance measurements are required with a d.c. component superimposed on an a.c. component. The inductance of such
coils varies with d.c. bias. For the measurements
under these conditions the bridge described in Fig.2 is
commonly used. An appropriate d.c. input is applied
to the bridge and adjusted to give the required d.c.
current through the coil, measured on the ammeter.
The requrred a.c. is set (measured with an external
valve voltmeter), and the bridge is balanced similarly
as before to give the inductance at the specified d.c.
bias. An LF choke is inserted in the d.c. circuit to
21

present a high impedance to the a.c. source. The

magnitude of the a.c. component as well as d.c. bias
affects the apparent value of inductance of these
coils, three measurement conditions should therefore
be specified: (a) d.c. current bias value, (b) a.c.
component voltage and (c) frequency of a.c. component.
Due to losses in an iron cored coil a sinusoidal voltage
does not produce a sinusoidal current. The amplifier
detector used to detect balance must therefore be
capable of accepting some distortion in waveform - a
suitable waveform analyser or filter arrangements
should be used. Due to this effect and that three
measurement conditions have to be maintained, this
measurement of inductance cannot be made with the
same precision as a similar measurement without d.c.
bias. However, for the most practical uses a lower
order of accuracy is satisfactory for d.c. biased
inductance measurements; 5% is an acceptable
figure. Any d.c. bias should be applied for a time as
short as possible to obtain balance since any resistive
elements in the bridge will change in value slightly
due to heating.
It is important to know, as in (b) above, the amplitude
of the applied a.c. to the coil under test, or to know
that this is maintained at a low level. In some
measuring instruments this facility is provided by a
front panel amplitude control and voltage indicating
meter - but again it must be clearly established
whether this voltage is total bridge energisation or the
voltage appearing across the coil under test.

An alternative practice, limited unfortunately to lower

frequency bridge measurements, is to measure
directly the a.c. appearing across the coil under test
whilst connected to the measuring terminals of the
test instrument. This practice is necessary where
repeated readings on the same component are required but requires strict observation of the following
points and is more suited to controlled laboratory
conditions. A sensitive voltmeter, down to low orders
of p.V should be used and must be fully floating,
otherwise earth loops will be established. Suitable
voltmeters are available as battery operated transistorised instruments. The instrument on the lowest
measuring range must present a high impedance of at
least 1 megohm. The leads must be kept as short as
possible. It is sometimes necessary to disconnect the
voltmeter immediately prior to obtaining the most
sensitive null-voltage, having already established the
amplitude of the energisation - this is best achieved
by displacing the lead of the voltmeter by the
minimum amount necessary to give a complete
disconnection.
It is of the utmost importance that the results
obtained from measurements on iron-cored and ferromagnetic cored coils are interpreted correctly. The

22

core in these components will have only its initial

permeability due to the low value of the a.c. potentiai
applied from the bridge. The effective permeability at
full operating voltage may be as much as twenty
times higher.
With high permeability materials the effective permeability changes so rapidly with excitation, even at
low levels of magnetisation, that widely differing
values of inductance may be obtained on different
ranges of the measuring instrument. Therefore, unless
the exact operating conditions are maintained, the
results obtained are of value for comparison purposes
only.
A bridge type instrument suitable for measurement of
inductors with the full a.c. operating voltage applied
is available commercially as an inductor analyser.
Magnification factor Q
A bridge suitable for measurement of Q at LF up to
50 kHz, together with associated inductance is shown
in Fig.3a. In this bridge, basically a Maxwell bridge,
the coil under test {taken as a series combination) is
compared with a standard capacitance value in an
appearing arm of the bridge. The inductor loss is
Fig.3. (a) measuring inductance with series resistance.
(bj inductance with parallel resistance.

' '
RANGE
RESISTORS

i
NULL

o-----~(o)

0
L-----~l

....

0ARSE
NDUCTANCE

FINE
INDUCTANCE
~--------~

(b)

balanced out by a variable resistance in parallel with

the standard capacitor. This type of bridge has a
direct reading of Q and inductance and is balanced by
achieving a null position on an internal meter. An
internal frequency of 1kHz and/or 10kHz is often
provided in this bridge with facilities to measure up
to 50 kHz with an external oscillator input.
Measurement of a coil in the parallel mode is possible
by a modification of this bridge as shown in Fig.3b.
Note that when using an external oscillator with this
bridge the Q scale is not direct reading and has to be
multiplied by a factor dependent on input frequency
and amplitude. This type of bridge is often made in
readily portable form and accuracy is usually in the
order of 0.25% of reading.
d.c. resistance
As can be seen from Fig.l. the bridge has a facility to
switch the inductance decades out of the bridge
network. When the a.c./d.c. switch is thrown to d.c.
these decades are removed from the bridge circuitry
leaving a simple resistive bridge network. This bridge
is then balanced giving d.c. series resistance as a direct
measurement on the resistance decades and the
amplifier detector is replaced by a d.c. meter to
determine balance.
Insulation resistance
This parameter is measured on a megohmmeter. Any
readings of IR should be taken after a specified time,
usually one minute or until stability of readings is
obtained - this is due to the applied voltage reaching
a maximum dependent on the time constant of the
circuit under test. Care should be taken to allow a
period for the instrument to stabilise after switching
on. The test voltage applied by the instrument must
not under any circumstances exceed the voltage
rating of the component.
Voltage proof
Again voltage should be applied for the specified time
and precautions noted for IR applied. The instrument
used for this test should be capable of applying a
proof voltage greater than the operating voltage of
the component under test.
MEASUREMENTS ON TRANSFORMERS- LF

For each winding of the transformer considered as a

separate inductor, the applicable test method and
instrument as previously described for measurement
of iron cored coils is used.
Measurements of basic a.c. parameters are as follows:
Input primary current - (secondary windings loaded
or unloaded). This measurement is made with an
appropriate current meter allowing time for the
transformer to attain its working t~mperature.

No load power loss. A dynamometer wattmeter is

used for this parameter. The current coil of the
instrument is inserted in the primary circuit and the
voltage coil is connected across the primary circuits
terminals as below. This gives direct reading of no
load power, taking into account the range multipliers
of the instruments.
All secondary windings must be unloaded and this
measurement gives a measure of primary copper
losses and iron losses of the transformer.
Loaded output voltage. A suitable a.c. voltmeter is
connected across each coil secondary winding when
loaded to its rated current. Regulation can be
calculated from the voltage across each secondary
when loaded and unloaded.
Temperature rise testing. Temperature rise of
laminated iron items is also often required. 2 test
methods for measurement of this are detailed below,
both of these methods being applicable to transformers and other laminated cored items.
d.c. method. A constant current d.c. source is
connected across the winding under test with a d.c.
voltmeter across it.
Resistance at room ambient temperature is first
calculated from the voltage across the winding and
the set constant current. The voltage reading is taken
just after application of current to obviate any
initial temperature rise. The rated current is then
allowed to flow in the winding until stabilisation at
working temperature is obtained. The voltage is again
measured, the current remaining the same whatever
the changes in resistance of the winding.
Temperature rise is calculated from the formula:
.
Temperature nse, oc

RH-RC
RC (234.5 +TC)

Where TC = Temperature of winding, cold,

(room ambient)
RC = Resistance of winding, cold,
(room ambient)
RH = Resistance of winding, hot
a.c. method. The apparatus shown in Fig.4. is used to
measure temperature rise of a winding energised at
working voltage. TR is a 1:1 250 V transformer, R is
a 250 Q, 100 W variable resistor, C1, C2 and C3 are
400 p.F, 300 V capacitors.
TR has the secondary and primary windings
connected to attain low voltage a.c. with reference to
the bridge. By means of the nulling resistor R, the
voltage (measured by an a.c. voltmeter) is adjusted to
<1.5 V. The bridge then measures total d.c. resistance
of the winding under test in series with the secondary
23

WINDING UNDER
TEST

DC BRIDGE

~------~

o-----~

~--~~c23________~

Cz

L---~------------;~c~'--------~
Fig.4. Measuring the temperature rise of a winding
energised at working voltage.

The practical aspects of connecting a test inductor to

the instrument are particularly important insofar as
they affect not only the instantaneous measurements
but the longer term repeatability where measurements are repeated. These precautions fall into two
categories, the physical connection and positioning of
the test coil and the instrument corrections. The
measurement of any coil or wound component will
include all resistive and reactive components between
the measurement terminals. In nearly all cases this
will include these components existing in the
connecting leads. To reduce these effects to a
minimum the component under test should be
connected with the shortest possible leads.

~---------------------------------------~

of the TR which is known. A similar procedure to the

d.c. method is carried out, resistance at room
temperature and after stabilisation is measured, and
the temperature rise calculated using the formula
quoted under the d.c. method.
A test of IR at working temperatures is often
required on power transformers to detect any insulation breakdown with heat. A working figure of IR for
this requirement is 10 3 M.Q. Oil filled 'C' core
transformers usually also have some form of leak test
at temperature.

MEASUREMENT OF H F INDUCTORS
As the frequency of measurement on air cored, dust
cored or pot core components increases, direct
measurement by bridge type instruments becomes
impractical. Whilst it is acknowledged that certain
measuring instruments with direct read out of the
inductance are available up to about 10 MHz, an
instrument most suited to this measurement is the 'Q'
meter. The 'Q' meter is widely used where measurements involving coil wound items are to be found and
is a useful instrument for routine testing.

'Q' Meter measurements

The coil under test forms the inductive element of a
series resonant circuit. Direct measurement of Q
factor is indicated and inductance values can be
readily obtained by reference to conversion charts
supplied with the instrument. Self-capacitance and
effective resistance and other quantities can also be
evaluated by simple calculation.
The basic range of a typical instrument covers 40 kHz
to 300 MHz giving an inductance range of about
25mH to 0.05pH. A 'Q' factor range of 5 to 1000 can
be obtained. Maximum measurement accuracy of
about 5% up to 100 MHz can be obtained with a
'Q' value of 50 and long-term measurement repeatability is in the order of 10% at the lower
frequencies decreasing somewhat at the higher
frequencies.
24

In cases where repeated readings over extended

periods on the same component are required, it is
essential that the coil is jig mounted and connected
by the shortest possible rigid connecting leads .. Where
conditioning tests are being performed control
specimens maintained under controlled climatic conditions and not subjected to conditioning tests should
be included. These specimens should be measured
immediately prior to the conditioned specimens.
Stable connectors made from copper-strip with either
socket or clip connections are suitable for general
measurements. The user should ensure that the
attitude and positioning of the coil is maintained
during initial and subsequent measurement of
sections and a jig fixture will ensure that this is so. In
practice it has never been found necessary to resort to
elaborate screening to eliminate capacitance and
magnetic effects. In fact this had been found to lead
to even greater errors. To ensure absolute maximum
accuracy particularly at high frequencies corrections
associated with the coil under test must be made, the
most important being self-capacitance. Components
within the instrument, mainly the resonating
capacitor, require correction of effective values
against indicated values. These corrections can be
readily obtained from charts supplied with the
instruments.
Measurement of self-capacitance - Q meter method
The most practical measurement of this parameter is
achieved by using a 'Q' meter. Two resonance
methods are available, natural frequency and frequency doubling. By noting readings of capacitance
and frequency and substitution in simple formulae, a
reliable value for Co can be established. The procedure and formulae for calculations for carrying out
these measurements are fully described in the
operating instructions supplied with the instrument.
Measurement of self resonant frequency
A useful test instrument for determining the fundamental self resonant frequency of an inductor in its
passive state is the grid dip oscillator or its transistorised equivalent.

The principle on which this instrument operates is by

absorption of energy by mutual coupling. The GOO is
a simple variable frequency oscillator with range
coverage achieved by plug-in coils. The calibrated dial
indicates frequency and a meter the oscillatory circuit
current, or grid current.
The coil of the GDO mounted on the outside of the
instrument is loosely coupled to the inductor under
test by placing the two coils adjacent to each other.
The oscillator frequency is then adjusted until a
pronounced 'dip' in current is obtained on the meter.
This is the fundamental frequency of the two
resonant circuits and is read-off the calibrated dial of
the GDO. An important precaution to observe is that
the meter will also indicate at harmonic frequencies
of the test inductor and a search therefore should be
made and the most pronounced 'dip' position used,
approached from the lowest frequency. Loose
coupling and the attenuation produced at frequencies
other than the fundamental readily eliminate this
error.

INDUCTOR TOLERANCES
The tolerances to be expected are to a large extent
governed by the materials used and me.thod of
construction. Considering an air cored coil wound on
a bobbin or former, a realistic production spread
would yield tolerances of about 2% on inductance
and up to 10% on d.c. resistance. Self capacitance is
dependent largely on the method of winding and
could give values of between 5 and 20 pF.
Precision

air

cored

inductors wound on rigid

mechanical assemblies and aged after assembly can be

produced to a much greater degree of precision with
figures of better than 0.1% of nominal value.
Ferrites require more complex considerations since
the coil winding tolerances for air cored inductors
must be considered together with the tolerances
associated with the ferrite material. Yields of fairly
standard production components would produce
tolerances in the order of 10% on inductance. The
figure will vary due to the permeability of the core
material and its construction. For a zero gap core
tolerances of +30 to -40% permeability are common
but this figure can be reduced to within 3% with a
large ground gap. Toroids will also give a tolerance of
permeability of +30 to -40%. These are also the
figures for inductance as the effect is nearly all due
to the ferrite material and in these instances a design
minimum value is invariably stated.
Iron cored laminated items are usually produced to
within 10% of inductance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Electrical Measurements and Measuring Instruments
Pitman 1950 Golding E. W.
Alternating Currents Measurements Methuen 1953
Owen D.
Radio Frequency Measurements Chapman and Hall
1942 Hartshorn L.
Soft Ferrites lliffe 1969 Snelling E. C.
Theory and Design of Inductance Coils MacDonald
1960 Welsby V. G.
Small Transformers and Inductors Chapman and Hall
1953 MacFadyan K. A.

25

Chapter 4

General
Purpose
Semiconductors
M R McCann CEng MIERE
ITT Semiconductors
There are many different types of semiconductors
available on the market and used in a multitude of
applications. It is difficult to state categorically what
constitutes a general purpose device but these devices
have been selected as being most commonly used:
bipolar transistors, small signal diodes and zener
diodes. Since technology is advancing so rapidly it is
now necessary to include integrated circuits of both
digital and linear types.
With semiconductors three testing procedures are
common:
(1) Testing the devices as individual components
before insertion in the circuit.
(2) Testing a circuit board as a functional element
containing one or more semiconductors.
(3) Testing the complete system.
All or some of these tests might be made depending
upon the economic/quality compromise. Testing of
devices in a board is rare and is often rather complex
compared with items (1) or (2) due to the interaction
of other components on the measurements.
If item (1) is required then there are various factors
to consider before testing a device to a given
specification: (a) What parameters should be tested?
(b) The size of the sample on which to test any given
parameter (c) What test limits to apply compared
with the specification limits (d) How many samples
should fail the test specification limit before a device
is rejected. (e) The system of measurement.
What parameters should be tested? It is a lengthy and
costly business to test all the parameters of any
semiconductor except for the application where
extreme reliability is needed as for devices in submerged repeaters. At the other end of the scale a
device might need no testing since it is used well

26

within its capabilities in an uncritical circuit. Under

these circumstances testing procedure as in items (2)
and (3) could be used and item (1) might include a
visual inspection.
Thus the degree of parameter testing needed depends
very much on how critical the parameters are to the
performance of the circuit and on what can be
afforded in testing time and equipment.

Parameter variations with temperature are predetermined by measurements on extreme values of product. In the following tests the temperature depen
dence is indicated for each parameter where
applicable.
Test systems. Equipments are available for tf'sting and
measuring semiconductors. These range from the
simplest which test semiconductor junctions to automatic digital printout systems for propagation delays;
also systems range from measuring a small sample to
computer controlled systems handling at least 5
million devices a year with a separate tape programme
for each specification. Whichever system is employed
it is essential to have a knowledge of the parameters
of a device for the reasons already stated if one is to
make the most efficient use of the test equipment
employed. This also applies when testing devices on a
board or a complete system in that tests can be
tailored to reveal all the major faults liable to occur
due to 'out of specification' products.

Sample size. Although the size of the sample and the

number of rejects in that sample can mathematically
be related to the overall quality level, attention
should be given to whether the deviations of a
parameter from a typical value ar-e a function of
individual devices or variations between batches of
devices. For example, leakage current across a junction is very dependent upon a batch and individual
devices within a batch, whilst junction capacitance is
much more dependent upon the batch and devices
within a batch are very consistent. Knowledge of this
kind can be useful since, when testing, considerable
time can be saved when measuring junction capacitance but it would be very unwise to reduce the
measurement sample size for leakage current.

Assuming testing is to be made on individual semiconductor devices then testing methods are described in
detail in the following publications: British Standard
Publication 1 , The USA Department of Defence
Standards 2 , Electronic Industries Association and
National
Electrical
Manufacturers
Association
Standards 3 , and the Commission Electrotechnique
Intemationale
International Electrotechnical
Commission Recommendations 4 . Within these publications there is considerable detail on circuits for
measuring most parameters, certainly those for
general purpose semiconductors.

Test limits. The test limits applied must be wider than

those quoted on the data sheet to allow for the
accuracy of the measurement plus any error introduced by measuring the parameter at the incorrect
ambient temperature. During manufacture, semiconductor devices are tested to a closer specification than
the data sheet to allow for the same factors.

Table 1. Common parameters.

SYMBOL

GIVEN
CONDITIONS

APPROXIMATE
TEMPERATURE
COEFFICIENT

hFE

'c VeE

+ 1%/C

Common emitter collector saturation voltage

VcE(SAT)

lc. Is (usually
ratio of 10: 1)

Very small

Common emitter base saturation voltage

VsE(SAT)

lc. Is (usually
ratio of 10: 1)

-2.0 to -2.5 mV/C

Common emitter base-emitter voltage

VsE

'c VeE

-2.0 to -2.5 mV/C

Collector base breakdown voltage (the rating is VcsM)

Vcso

lc(IE=O)

Very small

Collector emitter breakdown voltage (the rating is VcEMl

VcEo

lcOs=Ol

Very small

Emitter base breakdown voltage (the rating is VEsM)

VESO

IE Oc = 0)

Very small

Collector base leakage current

1cso

Vcs (IE= Ol

Varies

Collector emitter leakage current

I cEO

VeE (Is= 0)

Varies

Emitter base leakage

1ESO

VEs Oc = 0)

Varies

PARAMETER
Common emitter forward current

gain~~]

27

}150

... 100

'

a so
lr

,u

l(){ftA

lmA

IOOmA
IOmA
COLLECTOR CURRENT lc

lA

Fig.l. Variation of hFE with collector current for three

typical transistors.

TESTING TRANSISTORS
General purpose transistors include both germanium
and silicon each available as p-n-p and the majority of
n-p-n are in silicon. The circuits for testing all types
remain essentially the same except to reverse the
polarity of the d.c. supplies depending upon whether
it is p-n-p or n-p-n.
Static characteristics
Most of these include current gain, leakage current
and saturation voltages under various conditions. The
ratings of transistors rarely need be checked since
they are inherent in the design of the device. The
exception to this is the breakdown voltage which can
be very low in a faulty transistor but these need not
be measured if tests are made of leakage current,
which should be specified on the data sheet.
For completeness the common parameters are shown
in Table 1. Most equipment suitable for the measurement of silicon transistors can be used for measuring
germanium transistors.
Current gain (hFE)
The d.c. common emitter current gain is one of the
most important parameters of a transistor since it
determines the static operating point in an amplifier
and the base current drive in a switching application
(if it is quoted at a low Vce> The hFE is dependent
upon collector current and voltage (see Figs.1 and 2)
and ambient temperature.
The gain increases with junction temperature at a rate
of about 1 %/OC. If the transistor is not mounted on a
heat sink then the increase in hFE is dependent in the
same manner with ambient temperature. There are
many equipments available and many circuits recommended for measuring hFE An approximate method
(if it is necessary to construct a test circuit) which is
simple to use is shown in Fig.3.
This circuit directly measures the base current IB
required under given conditions of IE and V CE
28

02

2V

20V

VeE

Fig.2. Variation of hFE with collector v. ltage.

Since IE is approximately equal to Ic, and VBE varies

only slightly from device to device for a given type,
the conditions in the circuit can be set for one
transistor and the rest measured without the need for
any adjustments. The base current IB can have limits
which correspond to the limits determined by the .
specified spread in hFE and the tolerance on its
measurement. The following tolerances are easy to
achieve: 2% in the measurement of IB; 2% for
temperature variations during the experiment; 1% on
hFE due to changes in V CE and lc during the
measurement.
Variations in VCE are greater if VCE is specified to be
measured at a low voltage (+0.25 V) but these
conditions are rare since VCE is usually 5 V, 6 V or
lOV.
If the total power in the transistor is more than 1% of
the total free air dissipation of the device then this
contributes another factor which varies the gain. In
automatic test equipment the measurement is made
under pulsed conditions reducing this effect to a
minimum. For example a device measured at Ic = 2
mA, VCE = 5 V with 300 m W maximum dissipation i?
free air raises the junction temperature by a maximum of 5oc adding another 2.5% to the measure-

Fig.3. Measurement of hFE

ment accuracy. In a d.c. testing system as in Fig.3

cooling of the transistor is necessary if the dissipation
is too high (a clip on the case, a flow of air near the
devices etc). Thermal heating makes the measurement
difficult since a device heated significantly takes
many seconds to reach equilibrium. Assuming the self
heating is not high then the method using Fig.3 is
within the maximum total of 10% error in the
measurement. This is adequate for small sample
testing on a parameter which varies 150% in most
cases.

CURRENT
LIMITING
RESISTANCE

Some equipments, in particular the display measuring

types, use a rectified a.c. voltage as the source of
power. Again this generates less power within the
transistor than the d.c. method.
Many of the measurement errors discussed for the
measurement of hFE apply to other parameters.
The hFE on modern transistors varies from about 20
to 900 and can still be as high as 300 at a collector
current as low as 1 p.A on some devices. This means
that base currents have to be measured down to a few
nanoamps. This current is still within the range of the
best galvanometers but is more accurately measured
by some commercially available equipments. When
the base current is very low some screening of the
components is necessary to reduce errors from noise.
The circuit in Fig.3 has two advantages in this
respect, the collector of the transistors can be a.c.
grounded and one side of the base current meter can
be directly grounded as would be needed for some
current meters.
Leakage current (ICBO, lcEO, lEBO etc.)
If leakage current is of concern in the application
then the largest sample which is practical to measure
should be used. There are two important requirements in the measurements of leakage current:

Fig.4. Measurement
of leakage current.

Fortunately specification limits on bipolar transistors

are usually higher than 10 nA and the check of
devices to be within specification is no great problem.
BSI recommend 20% on the accuracy of this
measurement. Fig.4 shows a typical circuit for
measuring leakage current.
Saturation voltages VBE (SAT) and VeE (SAT)
The saturation voltages are amongst the easier parameters to measure if a high impedance sensitive
voltmeter is available. There are many digital voltmeters on the market suitable for meeting this
requirement. A resolution to the nearest 10 mV is
adequate since specification limits are in excess of
100 m V in both germanium and silicon devices.
The measurement is made at defined base and
collector currents. (See Fig.5). ThPse currents can be
supplied by constant current power supplies or a high
voltage supply with a high series resistance. In either
method a zener diode clamp should be provided on
the collector to prevent exceeding the collector
breakdown voltage VCEM

1. Always limit the voltage to within the guaranteed

breakdown voltages of the transistor.
2. Limit the power dissipation by a series resistance
(if the short circuit current is less than 100 p.A this is
adequately safe).
The accuracy of the measurement is not important
since all that is required is to ensure that the devices
are less than a limit normally well above the typical
value. The transistor leakage current is sensitive to
junction temperature to a degree depending upon the
physical mechanism of its derivation.

Fig.5. Measurement of saturation voltages.

+

CURRENT DEFINING
RESISTANCE

The leakage current of germanium transistors can be

as high as 1 rnA whilst for silicon power transistors
can be as low as tens of picoamps (and for metal
oxide transistors can be almost unmeasurable where
the conductivity of the air becomes significant!).

29

The base-emitter saturation voltage is sensitive to

ambient temperature (between -2 and -2.5 m V/ 0 C)
and allowance should be made of the error due to
junction temperature in a similar method as with
hFE The collector-emitter saturation is typically
insensitive to temperature compared with VsE(SAT)
but a transistor which is only just in saturation can be
very sensitive to temperature due to the variation in
hFE
The measurement of VsE is identical to VBE(SAT)
but VCE is fixed as opposed to Ic.
Breakdown voltages (VCBO VCEO V EBO)
On sample testing of transistors it is rare to measure
the breakdown voltages (rather than check if the
breakdown is above a certain limit by applying the
rated voltages and measuring the current) but if
necessary it is advisable to check with the manufacturer as to the conditions of measurement for the
following reasons: if the current is too high it might
damage the device. This damage could be destructive
(or it could be partial) especially when the secondary
collector breakdown is reached. Common measurement conditions are Vcso ,VEBO at 100 p.A, VcEO
at 10 rnA and all pulsed; an incorrect measurement
condition might cause oscillation from a negative
resistance region and a false reading.
Thermal resistance
It is not necessary to measure the junction to air
thermal resistance since it is dependent upon the
physical size, radiation properties of the package and
the mounting of the leads. The measurement of
junction to case thermal resistance should only be
required if the device is being used under power
conditions (the measurement is complex and the
particular method should be related to the application in which the device is to be used).
Small signal a.c. characteristics
These are usually defined in terms of the 4 terminal
network parameters 'h' and 'Y'. The 'h' parameters
are most suitable for low frequencies and are generally quoted at 1kHz. The 'Y' parameters are specified
at high frequencies where they are easier to measure
than the h' because they are all defined under short
circuit conditions (this does not apply above about
500 MHz where 's' parameters are used with terminations in 50 ohms).
To understand how these parameters vary under
various conditions (VeE lc, frequency etc) and what
spreads are likely to occur, it is best to consider how
they relate to the elements in an equivalent circuit
which has a physical significance. A suitable equivalent circuit is the hybrid - as shown in Fig.6.
Although the circuit is approximate it is a useful tool.
Fig. 7 shows an approximation of the circuit.
30

c'

r bb' b"

'cc

~~

v ,

b'c

9,\/sc

'co

Cbe

'b'e

e
r cr'

e
'bc=

9m-

h~ '

r. =..!!.!r...!s_
r

ce

cb'e

JL

be

= ....!L
JL

I
7e

=c junct;on+
(bose)

ColfFUSION

Cbc= c,unct;on+ fLCDIFFUSION

(collector)

Fig.6. Hybrid 1T parameters.

Most of the parameters can be related to:

a. A slope resistance re of the emitter base diode
which is directly a function of the emitter current.
b. The d.c. gain hFE which depends upon the width
of the base junction.
c. The capacitances which are partly due to the
junction depletion layers and partly the diffusion of
carriers through the base region. Stray capacitances
are often negligible.
d. The bulk resistances of each electrode rbb' ree'
and rcc' (they are distributed to some extent). These
can significantly effect some 4 terminal parameters
(Y fe Yie hie .)
The emitter resistance re is directly related to lc but
hFE is only slightly dependent. Items in (c) are most
affected by the bias voltages and some are slightly
dependent on lc. Items in (d) are almost independent
upon the operating conditions. From these
comments, it is possible to determine how all the

Fig. 7. Approximate hybrid 1T parameters.

..

b'e

=--~
w-rh~

'

parameters in the hybrid 7T depend upon the operating conditions. Since the hybrid 1r parameters can be
directly related to the 4 terminal parameters the same
can be said of them, their spreads and typical values.
SENSITIVE
VliLVE
VOLTMETER

It can be seen that given hFE Ic, VCE #J. and the
extrinsic resistances there are very few unknowns.

The grounded emitter 'h' parameters are shown

below:
V in = hie I in + hre V out

GENERATOR
I VOLT
AT IOOMHz

I out = hfe I in + h 0 e V out

and the parameters approximate to:

hre = #J. (Early feedback factor)

h

oe

re

=-

#l

Where hfe

Fig.9. Measurement of fr-

>>1 andre=

26 (IE in rnA, rein ohms).

IE

All the 'h' parameters can be approximately determined if hfe J.~ and rbb are known at the given Ic
and VCE Similar approximations can be made on the
other 'h' parameters. With 'Y' parameters at high
frequencies it is impractical to make approximations
of this kind.
The measurement of the small signal parameters is
best done using the many equipments available on the
market specially designed for this purpose. Alternatively the circuits provided by BSI are adequate but
eircuits have to be constructed and addition:al test
equipment is needed.

Fig.B. Comparison of small and large forward current

gains.

TANGENT AT A

The small signal forward grounded emitter current

gain hfe is the most important parameter but this is
not very much different from hfe measured under the
same lc and VCE- This is shown in Fig.8 as a
difference in the tangents of two angles. Typically
hFE is only 10% less than hfe at low frequencies.
Noise factor or figure can be measured by commer
cially available equipment as a narrow band or a wide
band (in the audio spectrum) measurement.
High frequency current gain
Although hfe is often specified at 1 kHz it is usually
also given indirectly at a high frequency by its
relation to fT the transition frequency. At high
frequencies (above a frequency of fTihFEL)
The modulus of hte falls at a rate of 6dB per octave
change in frequency. FT is defined as the frequency
when ihfel is unity, hence ihfel can be determined
where the 6dB/octave is applicable. A method of
measuring fTis illustrated in Fig.9. An alternative to
measuring fT is to measure Yfe and Yie on a high
frequency admittance bridge and calculating ihfel =
IYfei/IYiel
It should be noted that the fall of gain of 6dB is not
correct if the emitter lead inductance is significant.

c
hFE AT A

AC
= Be
= TAN 8

AC
hte AT A = DC

= TAN

A.
't'

Switching characteristics
The switching times are very often given on transistors. The measurement of these parameters is slow
and needs specially constructed test jigs made to the
switching test circuit shown in the manufacturers
31

data sheet. If the parameters must be measured the

following precautions should be made:
SPECIFIED

1. Avoid ringing on the waveforms by the correct

terminations of cables and reduce lead inductance

where possible to a minimum.
2. Adequately decouple the supplies with ceramic
capacitors and high value electolytic capacitors if the
repetition frequency is low.
3. The time durations of the transistor in the
saturated and 'OFF' states should be adhered to as
close to the specifications as possible. In some tests
the storage time can be sensitive to the time the
transistor is 'ON' and in other tests it might be
completely non-critical.
4. The rise time of the test signal and the oscilloscope should be small compared with the times
measured.
5. The input capacitance of the oscilloscope must
not affect significantly the switching times. A
sampling oscilloscope with high impedance probes is
the best instrument for this measurement.
6. Ensure that the pulse generator used has sufficient
amplitude for the required rise time. Usually the
generator has to provide a pulse of more than 10 volts
into 50 ohms with rise and fall times of less than 10
nsec.
Table 2 illustrates the order of switching times to be
measured.

SMALL SIGNAL DIODES

Most of the characteristics include forward voltage at
some specified current and reverse current at a
specified reverse voltage. Other characteristics might
include switching i:imes (reverse recovery and forward
overshoot), rectification efficiency and capacitance.
To avoid repetition many of the techniques and
comments are very similar to those mentioned in the
transistor section.
The forward voltage VF is similar to the V BE (SAT)
measurement where there is no collector circuit. The
reverse current is the same as measuring the leakage
Table 2. Typical switching times.
Silicon Transistors

Typical Switching Times

inns
td

tf

tr

ts

Medium/fast switching

10

30

Amplifier transistor
(non-gold doped)

10

30

500

tpd = ton +toft

32

~UBR.f:NJ

CURRENT

/;J-_

_ _ _

LEAKAGE
CURRENT

_!

i~ENT
SLOPE IS
R,

u,
REVERSE VOLTAGE

Fig.l 0. Zener diode characteristics.

currents but there is only one configuration in this

case. The junction capacitance can be measured on a
variety of impedance or admittance bridges providing
the signal is kept sufficiently low as to not affect the
average capacitance of the junction. The switching
time and stored charge measurements need a pulse
generator with rise and fall times of 1 ns or less and
the oscilloscope should be a sampling type with a pass
band of 1 GHz or more.

ZENER DIODES
The high resolution digital voltmeter is one of the
best instruments for the accurate measurements of
zener diodes. The zener voltage is specified at some
reverse voltage often to an accuracy of 5%. Also
zener diodes can have a very low slope resistance ( 5
ohms on an 8.2 volt planar zener diode at a current of
2 rnA) and a resolution of at least 0.1 mV is essential
for an accurate measurement. Fig.10 shows the
specified parameters. The other parameters present
no special problems.

INTEGRATEO CIRCUITS
Digital integrated circuits are specified for having
defined limits of logic level, propagation delays and
operating to a given truth table. A check of the
operation of a simple logic gate to its truth table is
easy to perform. However, with a complex logic
function it can be very difficult to generate all the
sequence of events necessary to cover every logic
transition especially when signals have to be applied
in a particular order within certain times, ( i~ a 4 bit
clock left clock right presettable shift register). A
preferred method of measuring integrated circuits is
when they are wired together to perform a logic
function or the circuit used on one circuit board, or a
complete system.
Often logic checks and propagation delays can be
performed on circuit boards which might contain at
least ten packages, and then a similar check made on

the complete system with a temperature run if this is

important. The stage at which tests are performed is
very dependent on the type of circuit and the
complexity of the overall system. A simple logic test
can be performed on individual logic packages to
determine if anything is very wrong rather than a
complete logic level test with extremes of supply
voltage and ambient temperature. This type of test
can be performed easily on a voltage-current curve
tracer if ambient temperature effects are disregarded.
Linear integrated circuits present much the same
difficulties as the digital types since they can have a
very detailed specification even on the simplest audio

amplifier or comparator. Any testing on individual

devices should be examined to ensure that there is no
evidence of instability or noise pick up under the test
conditions. There are instruments available on the
market to test the more common linear integrated
circuits.

REFERENCES
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

BSI standard 3494.

US military standard MIL-STD-202.
JEDEC E1A- NEMA standards.
CE1 -1EC publication 147.

33

Chapter 5

Power
Semiconductors

R D Eveleigh
AEI Semiconductors Limited
Semiconductor manufacturers of power diodes and
thyristors, like other component manufacturers put
their products through rigorous tests before the
customer receives them. It is essential that these tests
are understood before discussing any tests that
semiconductor users may apply. The nomenclature
and symbols used in the test are those given in
BS9300:1969

INTERPRETATION OF THE MANUFACTURERS

DATA
The data can be divided into two sections; the first
gives the absolute maximum ratings of the family of
devices and the second the device characteristics. The
maximum ratings are the maximum limits to which a
device may be used without incurring any permanent
degradation. The characteristics are not necessarily
limits, but give the user information regarding the
spreads of expected values for the devices. Some
characteristic values are frequently quoted at certain
percentile limits to indicate the likely spread of
measurements, whilst other characteristics are expressed as maximum and minimum limits when they
can be so measured. Some characteristics can be
measured relatively precisely whereas others can only
easily be measured to 10%.
The manufacturers data sheet should be studied
carefully with any general notes that may be
pertinent. It is important to read the specified test
conditions and these should be adhered to when any
subsequent testing is carried out.
Ratings
The voltage ratings are one of the most important.
Most device manufacturers quote four voltage figures
for diodes and eight for thyristors. These are:VRSM
Non-repetitive peak reverse voltage
. 34

VRRM Repetitive peak reverse voltage

VRWM Crest (peak) working reverse voltage
Continuous (direct) reverse voltage
VR
For thyristors only;
Non-repetitive peak off-state voltage
VosM
VoRM Repetitive peak off-state voltage
VowM Crest (peak) working off-state voltage
Continuous (direct) off-state voltage
Vo
The temperatures at which these tests are performed
are specified on the data sheet or assumed to be the
maximum case temperature and should not be
exceeded.

v.RSM ----

Each of the values has a separate meaning and are

best shown diagrammatically as in Fig.l.

Fig.l. Voltage ratings definitions

VRSM and VosM These non-repetitive values must

never be exceeded otherwise permanent damage to
the device will almost certainly occur. These values
must not be exceeded by the occasional voltage
transients which occur on the supply. The device
manufacturer may well test for this parameter with a
single half sine wave pulse but will not quote a
leakage current limit.

cathode. There are two test methods for ~ rating,

one is with a linear voltage ramp and the other an
exponential voltage rise. The magnitude of the
voltage rise should be specified, together with the
testing temperature, on the device data sheet.

VRRM and VoRM These repetitive values include

the voltage transients which occur regUlarly, perhaps
every cycle, on the supply. The peaks of these
transients must not exceed the stated value.
VRWM and VoWM These crest working values are
those recommended for normal operation and are
equivalent to the peak of the a.c. voltage wave. It is
essential, however, even when using the recommended values of VRWM and VoWM that voltage
surge limiting circuits are employed to ensure that the
non-repetitive or repetitive voltages are not exceeded.
In practice, it is normal for the industrial user to
apply a 2 to 2.5 multiplication factor on the working
voltage to arrive at the non repetitive voltage, VRSM
or VosM This is due to the fact that on 'normal'
mains supply, transients in excess of twice the supply
voltage are encountered. These may relatively easily
be attentuated to a value of 2 to 2.5 times the supply
voltage.
Va and Vo. These direct values are considered when
the devices are used to block a d.c. voltage. Sometimes this test is made at a lower junction temperature than the previous tests and/or at a lower voltage,
to prevent the device going into a thermal runaway
condition. This is due to the continuous reverse
power which is generated by the voltage and leakage
current.
:: the rate of rise of off-state voltage. This is the
inaximum rate that will not initiate conduction.
Thyristors can be accidentally turned on if a fast
rising positive voltage is applied between anode and

Mean current rating IT(AV) for thyristors and

IF(AV) for diodes. This is derived from the power
loss, thermal resistance and the mechanical construction of the device. The data sheet gives curves of
mean current against power loss, at various conduction angles and for different wave shapes. It is
important to use the right graph for determining the
power loss. For single phase calculations, at full
conduction angle, the 180 half wave curve is used
but for three phase calculations, the 120 rectangular
curve is used. It is important to realise that the terms
half wave, full wave and rectangular wave refer to the
wave shape presented to the device in the circuit and
not to the output wave shape of the circuit.
ITRM or IFRM This is the repetitive peak on-state or
forward current and is the maximum current which
may be passed repetitively through a device for a
specified period in a cycle. The pulse width is
specified in the test conditions. This figure is included
for the user who requires a high current pulse for
short periods or has a duty with a high initial current
followed by a low mean current.
ITSM or IFSM surge (non-repetitive) on state or
forward current. An important rating for the user.
The current pulse is a sinusoidal wave shape lasting
one half cycle. As the title implies, this is the
maximum current that the device will withstand
without failure, and thus the circuit fault current
should either be kept below this value or the
protective devices in the circuit should clear below
this level. It is normal for the device manufacturer to
test his devices with a reverse voltage following the
forward current pulse.
35

12 t for fusing. The other rating closely allied with the

surge rating is the 12 t 'for fusing' figure. This figure is
compatible with the 12 t figures quoted by the fu~e
manufacturers. The semiconductor manufacturer will
normally quote two figures for 12 t, one at 3 ms, or 3
to 8 ms, and one at 10 ms. Some data sheets include a
graph of J2 t with time. The correct 12 t can be
selected after calculations of the circuit fault current
magnitude and time. It is important to use the correct
fuses with semiconductors as the arcing voltage of the
normal HRC fuse can destroy the semiconductor
devices. There are special semiconductor fuses available and the fuse manufacturers can supply details
and characteristics of these.
dl/dt on-state current. For thyristors there is a limit
on the permissible rate of rise of on-state current
dl/dt. This is due to the fact that a thyristor initially
turns on around the area of the gate electrode and
unless the spreading of the conduction area is rapid,
excessive heating can take place and the device can
fail. The quoted dl/dt limit, should not be exceeded
and should only be approached, in fact, if the test
conditions, especially the high gate drive requirements, are met in practice.
Most of the ratings concerned with the gate characteristics of thyristors are self explanatory and do not
require much comment. The peak forward gate
voltage VFGM and gate current IFGM are normally
shown as a graph with a .peak power limit curve
drawn as a parameter. Forward gate current ideally
should not be applied to the trigger of a thyristor
whilst it is 'blocking' a reverse voltage, as this
increases the reverse leakage current and can lead to a
device failure due to the reverse power dissipation
being exceeded, unless the increased dissipation is
allowed for. This is because the thyristor behaves like
a transistor in the common base mode. A change in
the gate current will produce a change in the anode
leakage current. The temperature ratings as stated in
the data sheet should be strictly observed and
similarly the frequency limit. Usually above this
frequency limit the switching losses become considerable and have to be allowed for.
High frequency ratings
Thyristors which are designed for high frequency
operation are rated by a different method to those
used at normal industrial frequencies. At high frequencies the parameters of dl/dt, tum off time, and
dV /dt must all be considered. It is not sufficient to
consider each of these parameters individually to
ensure satisfactory performance since all three are
applied during each cycle of operation. The parameters are given in graphical form and show peak on
state current against frequency with pulse base widths
as parameters. The curves are given at each temperature considered and at various dl/dt values. Watts loss
36

curves are given in a similar manner. The curves are

generally repeated for square and sine waves. The
manufacturers data sheets give the interpretation of
the curves and should be consulted before use.
Characteristics
The on-state or forward voltage, VTM or VFM is
normally quoted for a particular peak current which
should be approximately 3 x IT(AV) Curves .are
normally shown of instantaneous volt drop agamst
instantaneous current for two temperatures, one
being 25oc and the other the maximum junction
temperature. It is from the on-state or forward
characteristic that the power loss curves are derived.
To eliminate the heating effect that occurs when
testing by d.c. or continuous a.c. methods, the device
manufacturers frequently use a single a.c. pulse
technique to give more accurate readings. The leakage
current limits - IoM the peak repetitive off state
current IRM the peak repetitive reverse current- are
normally quoted. These are the maximum currents to
which the repetitive peak voltages VoRM or VRRM
are tested. Limits are normally quoted at 25C and
maximum junction temperature.
Latching current, I L is normally quoted as a spread
of values of the 5 percentile, typical and 95 percentile
figures. The maximum value of latching current for a
family of thyristors is the minimum value of forward
current that will maintain all the thyristors in the
on-state when the gate signal is removed. Conversely,
the minimum value of latching current is the value of
forward current below which all thyristors revert to
the off-state when the gate signal is removed.
The holding current IH, like latching current is
normally shown as a spread. The maximum holding
current for a family of thyristors is the lowest current
which will maintain all thyristors in the on-state. The
minimum holding current is the current below which
all thyristors will return to the off-state.
Delay time td is sometimes quoted in the data sheet
as this has more meaning than turn on time, which is
normally quoted. The delay time is defined as the
time from the instant the gate trigger pulse is applied
until the off state voltage has fallen to 90% of its
original value. The data sheet normally gives a spread
of 5 percentile, typical and 95 percentile values. The
conditions under which the test is made should be
observed.
The gate controlled turn on time tgt, is a measure of
the speed a thyristor will turn on. As before, the
figures are quoted at 5, 50 and 95 percentile. Care has
to be taken in interpreting the figures and they are
dependent on circuit characteristics. At low voltages,
for example, the tum-on time increases rapidly but
this is seldom indicated in the data sheets.

The circuit commutated turn off time tq, is generally

shown only for fast turn off thyristors. There are
several parameters which affect the turn off time as
follows: the initial forward current; the rate of decay
of forward current; the peak reverse current; the rate
of rise of re-applied forward voltage; and the junction
temperature.
The device manufacturer will test to certain limits
and may indicate with graphs, the change in turn off
time by varying certain test conditions. This test can
only give an idea of the turn off time of a device
under the specified conditions. If the other conditions exist in a practical circuit then the turn off
time. will differ from the values quoted.
The gate trigger voltage, VGT is shown as the
maximum value, as is the gate trigger current, IGT
Thermal resistance, Rth is usually shown in most
data sheets as the d.c. value but some manufacturers
additionally quote the single and three phase values.
The data sheets have to be carefully scrutinised to
determine how the manufacturer has measured the
thermal resistance. Some manufacturers measure
from junction to case, referred to as Rth(j-c) the
device thermal resistance and from case to heatsink,
Rth(c-h) the contact thermal resistance. Other
manufacturers measure from junction to heatsink and
include the contact thermal resistance in one value. If
a figure is not quoted it can be obtained from the
power loss and dissipation curves. If the dissipation
curves are plotted, watts against temperature, the
slope of the curve gives the thermal resistance.
Otherwise a suitable mean current value can be
selected, the mean power loss and the case
temperature rise noted at this current, the thermal
resistance then being:
Rth

= Max Tj -case temp rise = OC/W

W mean

It should be pointed out that all these parameters are

not necessarily measured on every production device,
but exhaustive tests are made to obtain the limits
which are subsequently checked on a sample basis.

TEST EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS

Unfortunately for both the semiconductor manufacturer and the user there is very little commercially
available test equipment. Even using the equipment
available, difficulty will be experienced when making
tests on devices employing very high voltages and
currents. However, most of the circuits required can be
simplified, with some loss in accuracy and will be
described later in the chapter.
The circuits to be described require components
which are normally available in most electrical and

electronics laboratories. The oscilloscopes can be

plug-in type with the appropriate accessories or two
oscilloscopes, one capable of displaying X- Y traces
and the other a double beam unit. Most of the test
circuits can be built from commercially available
items.

ACCEPTANCE TESTING
The manufacturer will have carried out comprehensive tests on the product before shipping and therefore the acceptance test should only be necessary to
check any damage occuring in transit. When making
any test it is essential that all precautions are taken
not to inadvertantly damage the devices or exceed the
stated rating. There are two main acceptance checks
for thyristors and one for diodes.
Voltage testing
As previously discussed there are up to four voltage
ratings given for diodes and eight for thyristors. If
each rating is taken in turn, it will become evident for
which it is possible to test.
VasM and VnSM non-repetitive peak voltages,
require only a single pulse of voltage for testing and if
the voltage peak is exceeded the test devices will be
damaged. To test for this limit is not very satisfactory.
VaRM and VnRM repetitive peak voltages, can be
tested but the voltage could be close to the nonrepetitive value, therefore, if transients occur while
measuring the device could be damaged. The current
limits laM and InM are frequently quoted at this
voltage.
VawM and VnWM crest (peak) working voltages are
the maximum recommended peak of the voltage
under normal working conditions. These are the
safest values to test to as there is usually sufficient
safety margin between these and the non-repetitive
values.

Fig.2. (a) Diode VII characteristic. (b) Thyristor VII

characteristic.
FORWARD
CURRENT

FORWARD
CURRENT

FORWARD
CONDUCTION

ON-STATE
CONDUCTION
HOLDING

CURRENT~

REVERSE
VOLTAGE

REVERSE
VOLTAGE
/ REVERSE
AVALANCHE
BREAKDOWN

FORWARD
VOLTAGE

REVERSE
CURRENT

tal

REVERSE
/' AVALANCHE
BREAKDOWN

~ ~-

FORWARD
BREAKOVER
_v2i-,!AEJE

FORWARD
VOLTAGE
OFF-STATE
BLOCKING
VOLTAGE
REVERSE
CURRENT
ibl

37

DEVICE
VARIABLE
UNDER
a. c.
SUPPLY 1----='c:.._--'---...J TEST

(a)

VARIABLE

de.

SUPPLY

DEVICE
UNDER
!---""'---......_-_. TEST
(b)

Fig.3. Two basic circuits for voltage grading testing. (a)

An a.c. test method in which V is an a.c. rectifier
voltmeter, RsH a current shunt resistor {or use if
oscilloscope is available, and S a surge suppression
network. (b) A d.c. test method in which A is a d.c.
ammeter fsd 100 mA, Sa transient absorbing network.

VR an<l Vo, continuous direct voltages, are the d.c.

values of reverse voltage and can be tested for if a d.c.
method of testing is used.

The characteristics for diodes and thyristors are

shown in Fig.2 and two basic circuits are shown in
Fig.3 for voltage grading testing, an a.c. method for
repetitive peak voltages or crest working voltages and
a d.c. method for continuous (direct) voltages. The
a.c. method Fig.3a is to be preferred as the voltage is
only applied every half cycle whereas in the d.c.
method, Fig.3b, the voltage is applied continuously
whilst measurements are taking place and thermal
runaway can occur unless the cell under test is
adequately cooled. The capacitor and resistor series
combination are surge supression components to
absorb any damaging transients that may occur from
the variable supplies. A more detailed circuit for the
a.c. test method is shown in Fig.4. If a transistor
curve tracer is available then it may be used for the
test provided the voltage required is within its range.
It should be noted that all the voltage grading tests on
thyristors are made with the gate open circuit.
Precautions must be taken to prevent any
unnecessary voltage transients from appearing across
the device under test. For acceptance testing. a room
temperature test is usually considered adequate.

SAFETY
INTERLOCK

Fig.4. Off-stale and

reverse blocking vollage
test.

Test procedure
Before commencing any test it is essential to ensure
that the conditions are as stated in the manufacturers
data sheet. The temperature should be noted and, if
required at elevated temperatures, the device should
be raised to the temperature by external means and
allowed to stabilise within the normal temperature
tolerance of 2oc. To commence the test ensure the
voltage supply is at zero, insert the device into the
test position and turn the switch to 'reverse'. The
voltage is increased and the reading observed on
either the meter or, the oscilloscope if used. When the
specified voltage is reached or when the leakage
current has reached the maximum limit quoted, the
voltage reading should be noted. The voltage should
not he held for more than five seconds. The voltage is
then reduced to zero. For a thyristor, the switch is
changed to 'forward' and the test repeated. The test
device is then removed from the test position. If the
meter measuring leakage current is a mean reading
instrument then the reading obtained should be
multiplied by 1r to convert it to the peak value or the
reading may be taken directly from the oscilloscope.
A similar procedure is adopted when using the d.c.
method but the starting temperature should be noted
from the data sheet as this may be lower than the
.maximum junction temperature.
Gate characteristic testing
The gate current and voltage to fire a thyristor can be
measured very simply. The circuit in Fig.5 consists of a
low voltage half wave d.c. supply capable of giving
about 3 to 5 amps and another variable low current
d.c. supply, to provide the gate requirements.
The test procedure is to increase the variable d.c.
supply until the ammeter I 1 just reads or lamp L
lights. The switch SW 1 is opened and readings of gate
voltage and current are read fron1 the meters V and A
respectively. Points to note are the inclusion of a gate
to cathode resistor if specified in the data sheets and
the temperature at which the test is performed, for
acceptance tests this is normally room temperature.

3XSJ
1403F

47k.U

---a'o250Vno~JI

R. TO BE CALCULATED WHEN VOLTMETER

V RESISTANCE IS KNOWN
C. TO BE SELECTED SUCH THAT THE CR
TIME CONSTANT IS LONG. TYPICAL VALUE,
05,uF AT 35kV WORKING
S..SURGE SUPPRESSION

38

OSCILLOSCOPE
HORIZONTAL-VOLTS

.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ OSCILLOSCOPE
VERTICAL-CURRENT

takes account of most of the errors. The test circuit

described has been kept as simple as possible to
enable a device user to build and use it. However,
certain assumptions have been made which lead to
the loss of accuracy.

SLI03~

11 MEAN CURRENT METER

IN POWER CIRCUIT
L. 25V LAMP CAN BE USED
IN PLACE OF 11

A. GATE CURRENT METER

200mA FSD.
V GATE VOLTAGE METER
41/ FSD.

Fig.5. Gate trigger test set

POST MOUNTING TESTS

There are four possible tests when a device has been
mounted on a heatsink and a final one when
connected in a circuit. These are:
ii
iii

iv
v

Voltage check test.

Gate trigger check test.
Thermal resistance test .
Forward voltage drop test.
Temperature rise test.

(i) & (ii) The first two tests are as previously

described and will show if any damage has resulted in
the mounting down procedure. When mounting a
device on to a heatsink it is essential that the
recommended heatsink compound is used, this will
reduce the thermal resistance between case and
hcatsink.
(iii) The thermal resistance test is the most important

test after mount down to ensure that the device is

seated down properly. Unfortunately, it is not an
easy test to perform neither is it very precise in its
results. The semiconductor manufacturer has sophisticated test equipment for this measurement which

Fig.6. Thermal resistance test set.

For this test an electronic thermometer or equivalent

is necessary. An outline circuit for thermal resistance
testing is shown in Fig.6. The main circuit consists of
a low voltage high current transformer fed by a
variable transformer, a shunt, blocking diode and the
device under test. The measuring circuit is fairly
complex as it needs a bistable relay oscillating in
synchronism with the mains and a stable voltage
source. The calibrating supply requires a good quality
constant current unit. The test device will be
mounted on a cooling fin or a water cooled heatsink.
The fin should be the one onto which the device is
mounted for its service life and even if it is a naturally
cooled fin it can be force cooled for purposes of this
test. It is necessary to have a reference point
temperature, the position of which should be given
on the manufacturers data sheet. If it is not stated or
the reference point is not suitable, a hole may be
drilled in the fin 1/16" from the edge of the device
and 1/16" deep. A thermocouple is inserted in this
hole with a heatsink compound to make good
thermal contact. The thermocouple wire should be as
thin as is practicable and thermally insulated close to
the fin to prevent heat losses by conduction. The
leads of the thermocouple are connected to an
electronic thermometer.
The test device is mounted on the fin or water cooled
block with a layer of heatsink compound between the
mating surfaces. The calibrating current leads are
connected so that a small calibrating current of up to
1 amp is passed either from anode to cathode for a
diode, or from gate to cathqde for a thyristor. The
oscilloscope should display a chopped square wave, if
the circuits are correctly phased. This can be balanced
to a straight line by the 15 turn potentiometer (see

CONSTANT
CURRENT
CALIBRATION
SUPPLY

~II
39

~BEFORE

BALANCE

--'--.,....---"--.--AT BALANCE

4 c~(. T
CALIBRATION

2~5~ty;
HOLE
STORAGE
SPIKE

(a)

AT
BALANCE
ON LOAD

(b)

Fig. 7. Thermal resistance test waveforms.

Fig.7a) this reading, V 1 , is noted from the potentiometer dial, as is the temperature T 1 , from the
electronic thermometer. Current is then passed
through the device by increasing the variable transformer until a current appropriate to the device is
passed. The temperature is allowed to settle and the
potentiometer reset to balance at a point after the
hole storage spike, (approximately 2 to 5 ms after
current zero, see Fig. 7b ). Readings of the potentiometer dial V 2 , temperature TB and power W, are
noted. If a wattmeter is not available readings of
mean current, as indicated on the meter across the
shunt, and peak volts across the device are recorded.
The latter can be displayed either on a separate
oscilloscope or the second trace of a double beam
oscilloscope. Thus mean power dissipated is equivalent to mean current times peak voltage, to an
accuracy of approximately 5%. The property of
semiconductors of having a negative voltage temperature coefficient at low forward currents is useful in
determining the junction temperature without having
to put thermocouples or other temperature measuring
devices inside the capsule. The temperature coefficient is approximately -1.8 m V jC. This can be
checked by passing the calibrating current through
the device and measuring the voltage drop at various
temperatures. To evaluate the thermal resistance;
(V 1 -V 2 ) X Temp.Coeff.+T 1 =TJ,
then

TJ-TB
W
= Rth

When testing certain thyristors the waveforms displayed on the oscilloscope may jump. This is caused by
different areas of the silicon slice turning on due to
temperature effects and reducing the voltage drop.
This may upset the readings but may be overcome by
passing a constant current 0. 5 to 5A, anode to
cathode, through the device in addition to the gate to
cathode calibrating current.
Points to note for this test are that at the commencement, the device and heatsink are at ambient
temperature, since the test is based on this assumption and that the device is damped down to the
recommended torque. The readings of thermal resistance should be within the manufacturers specification, if not the mount down should be suspected.

40

(iv) The forward or on-state voltage test can be used

as an acceptance test if required. It is unlikely that
the forward or on-state voltage will vary significantly
during the service life of the device and hence it is not
listed as an acceptance test. The forward or on-state
voltage test can also give an indication of the mount
down provided the current is taken from the fin and
not from the lug or take off point attached to the
device. The voltage drop can be measured from the
device base to the heatsink and if it is high, over 50
m V then it could be due to poor mount down. This
test is important on the button, disc or hockey-puck
type of device where the user has to mount the device
and clamp them to the correct operating pressure.
This test will also act to check that this reading is
within the manufacturers stated limit. If the voltage
drop is high this may indicate that the device is
clamped under insufficient pressure. There are several
ways of making this test but one has to consider how
the manufacturer performs the test if compatible
results are to be obtained. The d.c. method is easy to
construct and use but it gives the most unreliable
results, the reason for this will be discussed after
considering the other methods. The a.c. method
which uses Vz sine wave pulses is more accurate, but
the measuring circuitry is more complex. The final
method, and the one that most manufacturers have
adopted, is the single pulse technique. This involves
passing a single pulse of current at a time through the
device under test and recording the current and
voltage drop.
Consider the three methods from the view point of
the measurement accuracy.
(a) The d.c. method. When passing current through
almost any resistive material the resistance changes
due to the heating effect and thus the volt drop
across it alters. Thus when passing a smooth d.c.
through a semiconductor diode or thyristor, heat is
generated at the junction so the forward volt drop
will change. It is easy with this method to measure
the current and voltage with moving coil or digital
readout meters. The settling time for the former is in
the order of several seconds whilst in the latter case it
is less than one second, but in both cases readings
have to be recorded, and this takes time. So the
readings are taken when the junction is at some
arbitrary temperature and not at the starting temperature.
(b) The a. c. method overcomes a lot of the limitations of the d.c. method as between pulses the
junction will cool down. There will still be a
temperature drift but this will be much smaller than
with previous techniques.
(c) The pulse method is similar to the a.c. method
except that only a single pulse is passed through the
device at one time. Several of these pulses, at

IO.UIOW

Fig.8. Forward voltage

drop test set.

250V

a. c.

...- - - . S J

203F

Jkc;o:F
~

TEST
SWITCH

lk.U

A ANO B MERCURY
WETTED RELAYS

250V

oc.

intervals, may be required before the reading is taken.

It can be appreciated that whilst the junction
temperature is raised during the current pulse it drops
again before the next pulse and thus more stable and
accurate answers will be obtained. An outline circuit
for making forward volt drop measurements using the
single pulse technique is shown in Fig.8. The basic
circuit shown consists of a low voltage high current
transformer in series with a current shunt, thyristor
and device under test. The variation in current passing
through the test unit is made by the variable
transformer feeding the high current transformer. To
obtain a single pulse the thyristor A is fired by a
single shot firing circuit which is tied to the mains
frequency. If the test device is a thyristor it can be
triggered from a separate single shot firing pulse or a
d.c. supply. Voltage signals are taken from the shunt
and from the test device and backed off by voltages
derived from two stabilised power supplies and are

controlled by 15 turn potentiometers. The voltages

are each fed to one contact of bistable mercury
wetted relays, the other contact is earthed and the
moving contact is taken directly to an oscilloscope.
The oscilloscope ideally requires to be set up in the
X-Y display mode with current fed to the X axis and
voltage to the Y axis. The waveform can, if necessary,
be displayed on a double trace oscilloscope against
time. Unless the test device and shunt are directly
connected, it is advisable to measure one oscilloscope
input differentially to eliminate the IR drop in the
connecting lead. Fig.9 shows the waveforms to be
expected. The oscilloscope settings should be as
sensitive as possible to obtain accurate readings, this
requires the trace zeros to be supressed. Some
oscilloscope amplifiers may be overloaded by this
technique so care is required. The X-Y display in
Fig.9a shows the peak of the trace only. The spot is
biased by the potentiometers, thus when the tip of
41

the trace and spot are coincident the voltage given on

the calibrated potentiometer dials are the equivalent
current and voltage drop of the test device. Similarly,
on the Y display, Fig.9b, the peak of the waves
should be level with the horizontal part at balance,
and again the readings can be taken from the
potentiometer dials. A meter can be used to monitor
the voltage across the potentiometerS instead of using
the calibrated dials. The accuracy of this test relies
largely on the sensitivity of the oscilloscope used, but
should be better than 10 m V and with 5 m V
repeatability. It is necessary to keep the measuring
points separate from the current carrying connections
to eliminate the contact IR drops.
The final post mounting check is to .run the equipment for a reasonable time and then to test the device
case temperatures. The maximum permissible case
temperature can be calculated from the data sheets
and if any device exceeds this temperature an investigation into the cause is required. It would be more
normal for the device to run cooler than the calculated value and in a narrow temperature band.
Devices which run excessively hot should be checked
for mount down and, if satisfactory, the forward or
on-stage voltage should be measured. If this is within
the manufacturers limits, the position of the device in
the circuit may need to be investigated to see if it has
adequate cooling space and air flow.
There are of course many other tests which can be
made, especially on thyristors, but the foregoing will
probably be of most help to the user. Most device
manufacturers are only too pleased to assist the users

42

~TRACE

-----rf\1 CURRENT

TRACE
AT BALANCE

\Y--SPOT

IT'"\1 VOLTAGE TRACE

r

(a)

AT BALANCE

(b)

Fig. 9. Forward voltage drop test waveforms.

with special measurements or selections of certain

parameters, provided that the yield and quantities
required will permit them to do so.
Semiconductor power diodes and thyristors are of
rugged construction and will perform faultlessly for
many years in well designed circuits. However, when
performing the tests detailed in this chapter, the user
is close to the boundary between safe operation and
device destruction. Therefore, it is essential that all
testing is kept within the manufacturers defined limits.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
For further details of test methods and procedures
covering diode and thyristor testing refer to
BS9300:1969 Specification for semiconductor
devices of assessed quality: Generic data and method
of test.
For further reading SCR Manual, General Electric
Company, Editor F. W. Gutzwiller

Chapter 6

Microwave
Semiconductors

A Hale BSc
Mullard Limited

The frequency range 1 GHz to 40 GHz is commonly

referred to as the microwave band. It is the purpose
of this chapter to describe briefly three major groups
of microwave semiconductors used in radar and
communications and to indicate their important
parameters together with some of the measurement
techniques used for assessment.
The varactors and Gunn devices are important solid
state replacements for low power Klystrons and their
power supplies. The mixers and detectors are products well established in their own field of application and recently their performance has been
improved by the use of Schottky barrier diode
techniques.

VARACTOR DIODES
Varactor diodes are a broad class of semiconductor.
diodes useful for electronic tuning, harmonic generation and parametric amplification. Diodes have been
developed specifically for each of these applications.
Silicon is the material most commonly used and
offers the advantages of an advanced technology.
These include low thermal impedance, high breakdown voltage, high operating temperatures, reliability
and low cost. The other material in use is gallium
arsenide which offers high efficiency and operation at.
higher frequencies than silicon. Silicon varactors are
normally used at J-band (12-18 GHz) and below, and
gallium arsenide devices are more appropriate for
operation at Q-band (26-40 GHz).
For silicon, a diffused planar epitaxial construction is
used as shown in Fig.1 whilst the gallium arsenide
varactors employ a diffused mesa construction as in
Fig.2.
43

E.,, :g

. . - - - - - - - METALLISED CONTACT
:

OXIDE
n- TYPE EPITAXIAL LAYER

~~~i~r~:igs~~~~2T

Fig. l . Diffused planar epitaxial construction used for

silicon uaractors.

Fig.2. Diffused mesa construction used {or gallium

arsenide uaractors.

The varactor package is of major importance because

it provides the means of electrical connection,
thermal contact and protection from environmental
conditions. A selection of packages commonly in use
is shown in Fig.3.
The large D0-4 encapsulation offers good thermal
properties and is easy to mount, but has high package
inductance and capacitance making it unsuitable for
use above 1 GHz. In contrast the micropill encapsulation has low package inductance and capacitance but
is difficult to mount and has relatively poor thermal
properties. This package is normally reserved for
operation at Q-band frequencies. The most common
microwave package is the S4 or pill package with two
pins for electrical and thermal contact.
Ratings
The three most important ratings of a varactor are the
maximum reverse voltage Va, the maximum total
dissipation PTOT and the maximum junction
temperature Tj.
Reverse voltage (Va). The maximum reverse voltage
is determined by the resistivity of the material near
the junction and limits the maximum voltage swing of
the signal source. It is of particular importance for
varactors used in harmonic generation since the
power handling capability is a function of VR 2
Junction temperature (Tj) The maximum junction
temperature is limited by the material parameters and
the device fabrication techniques. For silicon devices
this temperature is in the range 175oc - 200C and
for gallium arsenide, 15ooc.
Maximum dissipation PTOT The maximum dissipation allowed is usually only important for varactors
used in harmonic generation when large input powers
at microwave frequencies are applied. It is, therefore,
defined as an RF dissipation and care must be taken

44

to ensure that the difference between the input and

output powers in an harmonic generator is less than
the rating given in the data. For this purpose it is
usual to neglect the power losses in the circuit.
Associated with the maximum dissipation allowed
and the maximum junction temperature is the value
of thermal impedance between the junction and the
pin or case. This is largely determined by the wafer
size and the bonding of the wafer to the central pillar
within the package. Methods are available for the
measurement of thermal impedance using the forward
voltage as the temperature sensitive parameter. Power
is dissipated in the diode and the change in forward
voltage produced by this power is monitored. A
separate experiment may be used to determine the
voltage - temperature coefficient. which for silicon
devices is approximately 2 m V /C. The accuracy
achieved is not better than 20% and long term life
tests are used to ensure reliability.
Equivalent circuit
The normally assumed equivalent circuit of a varactor
is shown in Fig.4. The junction capacitance and series
resistance are both shown as a function of voltage.
Low frequency and microwave frequency measurement techniques are used to evaluate the parameters
contained in the equivalent circuit.
Fig.3. A selection of uaractor packages.

I
Cs

~=

-'

gls
tfci

~Rs

WHERE: Ls IS SERIES INOUCTANCE

Ci IS JUNCTION CAPACITANCE
R5 IS SERIES RESISTANCE
Cs IS DISTRIBUTED STRAY CAPACITANCES
C5 IS STRAY CAPACITANCE MAINLY DUE
TO CERAMIC RING

Fig.4. Varactor equivalent circuit.

Low frequency measurement

Voltage/current characteristics. The varactor is of
course a diode and has the normal d.c. voltage current characteristic. This characteristic can be
displayed conveniently using a transistor/diode curve
tracer or by application of a suitable ramp voltage
generator, monitoring voltage and current simultaneously on an oscilloscope. Care should be taken to
provide an adequate heatsink if moderate d.c. powers
are to be dissipated without causing failure.
The reverse voltage characteristic should be well
defined and free from discontinuities which could
manifest themselves as noise in a microwave circuit.
In addition the level of leakage current IR at voltages
below breakdown should ideally be low - typically
less than 10 IJA. A degree of softness in this area
could indicate the presence of surface contamination
and could result in eventual failure.
The characCapacitance-voltage characteristic.
teristic of a varactor diode which is made use of in
the three applications already mentioned is the
variation of junction capacitance with applied
voltage. The function is theoretically:
Cjo
Cj(V) = (1 -.Y)n
( </J)

be made. A transformer ratio arm bridge at 1 MHz

may be used provided the diode is not biased beyond
the breakdown voltage or in forward conduction. The
value of capacitance obtained includes the stray
capacitance Cs and any capacitance due to the diode
mount. A separate experiment may be employed to
correct for these strays by measuring empty cases in
the same holder.
Microwave measurements
There are several measurement techniques available
for evaluating diodes at microwave frequencies under
the general headings of reflection and transmission
measurements,
Reflection measurements of impedance. In this
method the equivalent circuit is assumed to be a
simple C and R. This assumption is made when the
device is mounted at the end of a coaxial slotted line
and the impedance is evaluated in terms of vswr and
phase shift relative to a short circuit placed in the
same plane as the active device. The short circuits is
usually the same package machined in the solid or a
dummy diode containing a short circuit junction .
.The measured values of vswr and phase shift can be
converted into values of C and R with the aid of a
Smith's chart.
Reliable information may be obtained with measurement frequencies up to 2 GHz and with large area
diodes. Heterodyne techniques allowing the use of
high gain IF amplifiers as in Fig.6 have been used to
measure accurately vswr's up to 40 dB.
Suitable corrections are made for slotted line errors
associated with residual vswr, probe effects and
losses. Potential users of this type of measurement are
referred to the manufacturers operating instructions
for further information.
Fig.5. Typical voltage/capacitance relationship (or a 1/3
power varac tor diode.

where: C?j(V) is the junction capacitance at voltage V.

Cj( 0 ) is the junction capacitance at zero
voltage.
n is a constant dependent on the type of
junction
<P is the contact potential of the material used.
For graded junctions n = 1/3 and for abrupt junction
n = lfz. For silicon <P = 0.5V and for gallium arsenide <P
= 1.0V. A typical voltage/capacitance relationship for
a 1/3 power varactor diode is shown in Fig.5.
Although the low frequency measurement of capacitance does not necessarily describe the behaviour of
the diode at microwave frequencies, it is useful as a
quality check and allows a comparison of diodes to

5
4

a.
u-

10

-70

FORWARD~

VOLTAGE

45

16
1-4

12

Fig.6. Heterodyne technique (or the accurate measurement of vswr's up to 40dB.

LEVELLING LOOP

04
02
10
FORWARD-+- REVERSE
VOLTAGE
VOLTAGE

DEVICE HOLDER

Fig. 7. Transmission measurement of impedance.

The method suffers from several disadvantages which

become more acute as the measurement frequency is
increased and the system is impractical at X-band.
Diodes made for use at X-band frequencies are
necessarily small area devices with relatively low
capacitance and series resistance values. Using a
slotted line technique, the impedance manifests itself
as a very high vswr and a small phase shift relative to
the short circuit. High vswrs are inherently difficult
to measure and the dynamic range of the equipment
used can be in question. In addition the presence of
the device parasitic elements and the device holder
itself begin to influence the measurement.
For high frequency varactors this method is
abandoned in favour of the more attractive transmission measurement.
Transmission measurement of impedance. The technique was first proposed by B C DeLoach 1 fqr the
evaluation of diodes in waveguides. The basic system
is shown in Fig. 7.
The diode is mounted in a reduced height waveguide
wide fretransformer designed to operate across
isolated
d.c.
A
vswr.
quency band and to have a low
coaxial choke system allows the device to be biased.
The power delivered to the diode should be low and
frequency dependent items, such as oscillator output,
detector sensitivity, attenuators and directional
couplers, should be carefully calibrated.

Using the sweep oscillator the series resonant frequency of the diode in its holder can be found.
Removal of the diode and the insertion of a suitable
amount of attenuation allows the transmission loss of
the diode at resonance to be measured. At series
resonance the diode shunts the transmission line with
its series resistance only.
46

Fig. B. Diode series resistance/voltage relationship.

The transmission loss T is related to Rs by:

Ti!~+1]2
where Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the
reduced height waveguide.
Repeating the experiment at different bias levels
results in a series resistance/voltage relationship as
shown in Fig.S.
At high frequencies the equivalent circuit is reduced
to that shown in Fig.9. The series resonant frequency
is fres
and fres

= 2n .;c~

(1)

where CT = Cj + Cs
Re-arranging equation (1)
CT =

1
2
2
47T Ls fres

Fig.9. High frequency

equivalent circuit (or a
diode.

(2)
Q

Another 'figure of merit' often quoted by manufacturers and used extensively to grade the quality of
varactors used in parametric amplifiers is the term
"'Y fc,

6
5f-

'Y is defined as:

4f-

=
2

10
FORWARD
VOLTAGE

-+-

-20

-10

-30

-40

-50

-60

eT(V.)- eT(V 2 )
2[eT(V I)+ eT(V 2 )]

(6)

Bias voltages V 1 and V 2 should be defined and often

represent the voltage swing experienced by the diode
in the application.

-70

REVERSE
VOLTAGE

Fig.l 0. Variation in capacitance in the forward bias

region of a step recovery diode.

Substituting for eT from Equation (2) in Equation

.
1
(6) and using K =
4rr 2 LS gives:
'Y = f 2 res(V 2 ) - f 2 res(V 1)

Thus the system can be used to obtain microwave

values of effective device capacitance assuming the
series inductance remains constant. Variation in bias
level will result in the corresponding variation in
capacitance.

2[f2 res(V 1) +f2 res(V2 )]

Using the transmission system to find the resonant
frequency at V 1 and V 2 allows a value of 'Y to be
found. Hence 'Y fc may be calculated.

Figure of merit. The 'figure of merit' of a varactor is

meant to be a measure of the device quality and can
take several forms.

Step-recovery diodes
Another group of varactors specifically designed for
harmonic generation are called 'snap-off' or 'steprecovery' diodes. For this group the capacitance
variation is confined almost entirely to the forward
bias region, as shown in Fig.lO.

Cut off frequency fc is usually defined as:

fc =

211' ej

(3)

Rs

and specified at a given voltage bias. Penfield and

Rafuse 2 have used this quantity in the form we,
where we = 211'fc, to predict device performance.
Alternatively a Quality Ifactor Qy at a specified
voltage is quoted and may be defined as:
=fc
1
f
211'f ej Rg

(4)

where fc is the cut off frequency

f is the measurement frequency.
In a transmission system Q may be found by
determining from a display of the resonance curve
frequencies f 1 and f 2 on either side of resonance at
which the transmitted power is doubled.
Hence Q = fres
fl - f2

(5)

with this value of Q a value of fc may be determined

from Equation (4) since in this test the measurement
frequency is fres Therefore fc = Q X fres

When a p-n junction is forward biased carriers are

injected from one region to the other and form
minority carriers in that region. Normally these will
combine with the majority carriers and produce a
current. The interval between injection and recombination is called the minority carrier lifetime. If the
period of the applied signal is less than the 'lifetime',
as is usually the case, the minority carriers can be
returned to the point of origin before recombination.
The time required for this withdrawal is called the
'transition' time. Such a sudde;.l cessation of reverse
current results in a current waveform rich in harmonics which can be used in harmonic generation.
The lifetime is a limitation on input frequency and
the transition time is a limitation on the output
frequency.
Frequency multipliers using these diodes are usually
high order multipliers in which simplicity of design is
an advantage but the efficiency is low.
The method of construction of the step-recovery
diode has resulted not only in the simple design of
high order multipliers but also an improved performance when used in low order multipliers compared
47

The lifetime ( T ) is measured as the width of the

stored charge envelope when the reverse current has
fallen to 37%. A typical stored charge display is
shown in Fig.12.

Fig.ll. Test circuit for measurement of lifetime.

CURRENT

ZfRQ

~R.f!E~T- _l

__ _

TIME

Fig.l2. A typical stored charge display.

with graded junction varactors. This may be attributed to the lower effective series resistance coupled
with the maintenance of a high breakdown voltage.

Transition time (tt). The test circuit for the measurement of the transition time is shown in Fig.13. The
input pulse should have a rise time of less than 1
nanosecond and an amplitude of at least 10 volts. The
forward current is adjusted to about 1 rnA. The
output pulse is attenuated and displayed on the
sampling oscilloscope. (See Fig.14.) The transition
time is defined as the time between 20% and 80%
points of the observed waveform.

GUNN DEVICES
In 1963 Gunn reported that when a d.c. voltage was
applied to n-type gallium arsenide the current increased linearly and then oscillated when the average
electric field increased beyond a few thousand volts
per centimetre. The device is fabricated using
epitaxially grown gallium arsenide in the form of an
n+-n-n+ structure. Metallised contacts are made to the
n+layers allowing the chips to be mounted in standard
microwave encapsulations. The basic structure is
shown in Fig.15.

Lifetime ( T ) The test circuit for measurement of

lifetime is shown in Fig.ll. The input pulse should
have a rise time of less than 1 nanosecond. Forward
current is adjusted to about 5 rnA. The reverse pulse
amplitude is then adjusted to give a ratio of IF fiR =
1.7.

The behaviour of a sample Gunn device is determined

by the material parameters, doping densities, active

Fig.l3. Test circuit for the measurement of transition

time.

Fig.l5. Basic structure ofGunn device.

SAMPLING

OSCILLO-

TRIGGER

SCOPE

SYNC

Fig.16. d. c. bias characteristic of Gunn device.

son

200

Fig.14. Output pub;e showing transition time.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - -100%
<(

.....
z

!
-------20%

o,L-------~5~--------~~o--------_jls
BIAS VOLTS

48

IPEVICE ON
HEATSINK

.I
Olll

X-Y
X RECORDER
OR
y OSCILLOSCOPE

POWER
SUPPLY
OR RAMP
GENERATOR

Fig.J7. Test system {or Gunn device.

layer thicknesses, etc. Thicknesses of 10 Jlm are used

for oscillations at X-band (10 GHz); 7 Jlffi for J-band
(14 GHz) and 3 Jlm for Q-band (35 GHz). At these
frequencies Gunn device oscillators are used as
klystron replacements in radar and telecommunications.
Ratings
The ratings specified in the data are determined by
long term life testing to ensure reliable performance
in practical circuits. The important rating is the
maximum total dissipation PTOT together with the
operating temperature. In some cases the maximum
bias voltage is given but this may be exceeded
provided that the dissipation rating is observed.
The limitations. imposed by the ratings are related to
the physical parameters of the device chip itself and
the method of fabrication. For low power devices the
dissipation is limited to approximately 1 watt with
bias levels between 4 and 8 volts. Devices producing
200 milliwatts of power at X-band usually require up
to 6 watts d.c. dissipation at bias voltages between 10
and 15 volts.
d.c. characteristic. The d.c. bias characteristic is
illustrated in Fig.16.
At low bias levels the current increases linearly but
when the threshold field is reached the current
saturates. At higher bias levels the current level
decreases and the negative resistance characteristic is
displayed. For a low power device the threshold bias
occurs at about 4 volts and the saturated current level
is about 140 rnA. This type of measurement may be
used to determine the active existence of a Gunn
device. A suitable test system is shown in Fig.17. The
power supply should have a low output impedance
and have a smooth variable output from 0 to the
maximum voltage required. A slow ramp voltage
generator may also be used. An oscilloscope or X-Y
recorder is used to display the characteristic.

Flip-chip technology has resulted in the manufacture

of flange positive Gunn devices as well as the usual
flange negative.
Microwave performance
The equivalent impedance of a Gunn device generally
takes the form of a parallel R and C which are
frequency dependent and represent the device
beyond the threshold voltage. In addition a further R
and C in parallel characterises the device under
sub-threshold bias levels. The device package itself
introduces further reactive components.
Measurements on the device beyond threshold are
difficult to carry out for several reasons. The device
itself has a tendency to oscillate at a frequency near
to the measurement frequency causing complications
in a system such as a slotted line. The reactive
components introduced by the package and device
mount inhibits the measurement of the impedance of
the active layer itself.
The difficulties mentioned lead to a different
approach based on the insertion of a device in a
microwave resonant circuit and the characterisation
of the complete assembly. The microwave cavity or
resonant circuit controls the mode of operation of
the device. This approach has a major advantage over
the assessment of the discrete device in that it is in
fact the practical environment. The frequency of
oscillation is determined by the condition that the
reactance presented to the terminals of the device by
the cavity is resonant with the reactance of the
device. Typical coaxial and waveguide cavities are
shown in Fig.18.
Fig. JB. Typical coaxial and waveguide cavities for
measurements on Gunn devices.
GUNN
DEVICE

RF. CHOKE

OUTPUT
COAXIAL CAVITY

WAVEGUIDE CAVITY

Fig.19. Test circuit {or determining Gunn device

reactance.

It is important that good thermal contact between

the device and the heatsink is obtained and that the

correct polarity is observed. Permanent damage can
be caused by reversing the polarity of the supply.

49

Fig.25 and 26. Typical variations of power and frequency caused by mismatch. The shaded regions represent the possible effects caused by variation of the phase
of the mismatch.

designed for as low a conversion loss as possible. The

conversion loss is normally calculated from a knowledge of the overali noise factor and output noise
ratio.
Lc =
Fig.27. Structure of Schottky barrier diode.

Temperature. The range of operating temperatures

allowed is restricted by the material parameters and
the device fabrication. For most applications the
range -ssoc to +15ooc is adequate.
Characteristics
Non-linear junction resistance. The principal characteristic of both detectors and mixers is the non-linear
resistance typified by the current-voltage characteristic as shown in Fig.28.

=
=
=
=
=
=

where Is
e
T
k
n
v

= Is [ e

Overall mixer noise figure (Fo) The noise factor F of

any network is given by:
Nt
F = _ __::___-k T 0 B.G.

To

Mixer diode characteristics

Conversion loss (Lc). In a microwave receiver, the
received signal and the local oscillator signal are
applied to the mixer diode to produce an intermediate frequency IF equal to the difference between
the two signals. The IF is usually chosen to be a value
sufficiently high so that the 1 /f or 'flicker' noise of
the mixer is ignored.
The ratio of the available power at the signal
frequency to the power at the IF frequency is the
conversion loss of the mixer. Practical mixers are
Fig.28. Non-linear detector/mixer characteristic.
6

overall noise factor

noise figure of IF amplifier
mixer noise ratio

For X-band mixer typical conversion loss figure is 4.5

B
G

nkt
ev -1

(1)

dB.

diode saturation current

charge of an electron
absolute temperature
Boltzmann constant
constant - wafer dependent
voltage across the junction

NR =

where N 1

The I-V characteristic equation is given by:

where Fo =
F1F

Fo
(FJF -1) + NR

=
=

output noise power

Boltzmann constant
absolute temperature
effective bandwidth
power gain of network

When a noise source of input power NJN is applied to

the network the output noise becomes N 2
N 2 = F(K T 0 B.G.) + NJN G.

Hence N 2 = 1 + NJN
N1
FK T 0 B
and F

NJN

KT B[~~-1]

(2)

If the input power NIN is applied to the network to

change the output noise power whilst maintaining

constant gain and bandwidth then the values of gain
and bandwidth can be removed from the expression
providing they remain constant for the duration of
the measurement.
If the effective noise temperature of a noise power
source is TOK the available input power NJN is given
by

(3)

_... 2

substituting for NIN from (3) in Equation (2)

-6

-5

-4

-3

VOLTS

-2

-I
<t

:ot..

01

-"' 4
6

52

02

03

VOLTS

04

05

f=~o -~

(4)

A suitable measurement system is shown in Fig.29.

Fig.29. Mixer noise measurement.

The mixer diode holder should be specified and the

amplifiers must have a stable gain and bandwidth. It
is recommended that the rioise source be operative
and a calibrated attenuator used so that negligible
power from the noise source reaches the diode in the
first instance. The gain of the pre-amplifier is adjusted
to provide a suitable level of output power as shown
on the indicator. The calibrated RF attenuator is
adjusted to allow sufficient power from the noise
source so as to double the output power. The IF
attenuator is then adjusted to return the power level
to its original level as shown on the indicator.
HenceN 1 =N2
aif
where aif = IF attenuation
then from Equation ( 4)

If the noise source power is available at both signal

and image frequencies.

F 0 = (1 + r)[T
l!o

_J
J

[_L]
-!]
aif

where r = gain at image frequency

gain at signal frequency
For X-band mixers the noise figure is measured at
9.375 GHz with an optimised rectified current level
of about 1.5 rnA. The overall noise figure quoted
usually includes FIF the IF amplifier noise figure
typically 1.5 dB. The intermediate frequency often
used is 45 MHz and a typical noise figure for X-band
mixer diodes is 7.0 dB.
Mixer noise ratio (Na). The mixer noise ratio Na is
determined by measuring the increase in noise output
from the IF amplifier when the input is switched
from a resistive termination to the mixer circuit.

Fig.30. Mixer diode mismatch measurement.

15.0.

53

FILTER
1---iBANDWIDTH
0-1 MHZ

Fig.31. Deleclor sensitivity measurement.

If Y is the ratio of the noise output power with the

two input terminations, then:

NR

= FJF (Y - 1) +1

This is a difficult measurement to perform since the

resistive termination has to have the same impedance
and be in the same plane as the mixer diode.
Voltage standing wave ratio (vswr). The degree of
mismatch presented by the mixer diode is obviously
important in practical applications. The vswr is a
measure of this mismatch and can be measured using
a standard slotted line technique as shown in Fig.30.
The diode is fitted into a standard mount and
operated at a rectified current level of 1 rnA at a
frequency of 9.375 GHz for X-band mixers.

usually expressed as a tangential sensitivity in dBm.

To measure the sensitivity all the conditions of the
circuit must be included. A system that may be used
is shown in Fig.31. The input level is set so that the
highest noise level in the absence of a signal' is at the
same level as the lowest noise level in the presence of
a signal. The input level is then the tangential
sensitivity. An idealised display is shown in Fig.32.
For X-band detectors the measurement signal frequency is 9.375 GHz. The bandwidth of the amplifier
is 2 MHz and the forward bias is optimised at about
30 JJ.A. Sts of -50 dBm is typical. A relationship
between signal frequency, tangential sensitivity and
amplifier bandwidth is shown in Fig.33.

Fig.32. Idealised display {or sensitivity measurement.

The vswr is obtained from the ratio Vma:x/V min of

the standing wave pattern produced or alternatively it
can be found directly from a vswr meter if this
instrument is used as the indicator. A figure
commonly quoted as a maximum vswr is 1.3.
Detector diode performance
Schottky barrier diodes can be used as detectors. In
this application it is usual to d.c. bias the device to a
point on the characteristic so that a few microamperes of current flow. In this way detection of
small signals can take place effectively increasing the
sensitivity.

PULSED SIGNAL

/111~11//~l !MJII/l~l/t~~(

AT RECEIVER

OUTPUT

~~lllf~W~

Fig.33. Relationship between signal frequency, tangential sensitivity and amplifier bandwidth.
-70
100kHZ
I MHZ

Sensitivity and noise are the two most important

parameters of the detector diode. Noise determines
the minimum signal level that can be detected and
levels of between -60 and - 30 dBm are common. A
dBm is a power level in dB below a one milliwatt
reference level.
Sensitivity (Sts> The sensitivity of a low level
detector is not easily defined and depends not only
on the device parameters but the circuit characteristics of the receiver itself. Detector sensitivity is
54

E
to

"'

10
SIGNAL FREQUENCY GHz

100

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The author would like to acknowledge the help given

by Mi' R Felgate in the preparation of the section on
Mixers and Detectors, and is indebted to Mr J A F
Cornick for his critical review of the complete
manuscript.

1. Burckhardt C B 'Analysis of Varactor Frequency

Multipliers for Arbitrary Capacitance Variation and
Drive Level. BSTJ pp675-692. April1965.
2. Hadderley D L 'An analysis of a circuit for the
Generation of High Order Harmonics using an Ideal
Non-Linear Capacitor'. IRE Trans. on Electron
Devices. pp 484-491.
3. B L Blackwell and K L Kotzebue. 'SemiconductorDiode Parametric Amplifier. Prentice Hall.
4. 'Transferred Electron Amplifiers and Oscillators'S
Y Narayan and F Sterzer. IEEE Trans. MTT Vol.
MTT 18 No.ll November 1970.
5. Hodgson. 'General principles of measuring methods
-- mixer diodes at microwave frequencies.' BSI
document.
6. H A Watson. 'Microwave Semiconductor Devices
and their Circuit Applications'.

REFERENCES
1. B C Deloach. 'A New Microwave Measurement
Technique to Characterise Diodes'. IEEE Trans.
Microwave Theory Tech. MTT-12(1): 15-20 (1964).
2. Penfield P and Rafuse R P 'Varactor Applications'.
M.I. T. Press 1962.
3. Wei-Ching TSAI, F J Rosenbaum, L A Mackenzie.
'Circuit Analysis of Waveguide-Cavity Gunn Effect
Oscillator'. IEEE Trans. MTT Vol. MTT 18 No. 11
November 1970.

55

Chapter 7

Linear
Integrated
Circuits
A R Townsend
GEC Semiconductors Limited
The Linear Integrated Circuit (LIC) is, in widest
terms, a large number of different circuit elements
conveniently encapsulated into a small package to
provide an output which is some linear function of
the input. This does not preclude the possibility of
some circuits realising simple boolean expressions. In
theory a complete complex circuit can be reduced in
size to one multiterminal component; complex but
convenient; simply add a mains supply and switch on.
However, in practice, perfection is seldom achieved.
Input/output interfaces are required, control of circuit parameters may be necessary, interfaces with
other parts of a system, and power output requirements that exceed the potential of the LIC all
demand that it is supplemented by discrete components. Designer'> can seldom afford or achieve
complete integration of their circuits into one
package, notable exceptions being in the radio receiver industry, where all but the aerial, loudspeaker,
tuning and volume controls can be fully integrated.
LICs currently available may be d.c., AF, RF, or
wide band, single or multipurpose 1 Most amplifiers
aimed at the AF market are d.c. coupled, with useful
gain into the RF regions; care must therefore be
taken in the design and layout to prevent high
frequency oscillation. Multipurpose circuits may be
considered as 'gain-blocks' with the ability to realise
many circuit functions with the aid of different
feedback configurations. By far the most widely
known of these "gain-blocks" is the operational
amplifier or op-amp. This chapter will tend to refer in
particular to the ubiquitous '709' as it is the
operational amplifier that most engineers will run
into first, and consequently the one with which they
may have the most problems.

GENERAL ACCEPTANCE TESTING

Long before an LIC chip is mounted in its package it
has been subjected to a number of electrical and
56

visual checks, electrical tests to ensure that only

functional circuits are assembled, and visual checks to
ensure reliability of operation. After being mounted
in its package and wired-up to the external pins a
further visual inspection is carried out, sometimes
accompanied by another. electrical check. All this
assures the user of consistency and reliability from
the start of manufc:cture. Moving on from the QC
methods employed before manufacture the circuit,
when encapsulated and type branded, is subjected to
a full electrical check. This not only covers the
customer's requirements at tighter limits than those
on the data sheet, but also monitors certain features
not obvious to the user, such as leakage currents
within the circuit (isolation leakage and lateral pnp
leakage etc.). When these stages of manufacture have
been completed, the batches of circuits must be
passed by the Quality Assurance, Finished Products
Group, before final dispatch. Here QA acts on behalf
of the customer by performing general acceptance
testing. Based on sampling plans, a part of the batch
is again checked electrical~y against data sheet specification and is also examined visually for items such as
durability of branding, correct pin 1 identification
etc. The sampling programme gives assurance to the
customer that in general any batch will contain less
than 1% rejects. This is known as the Acceptable:
Quality Level (AQL). The theory behind sampling
plans and their working will not be dealt with he~e,
but reference to BS9001 will give the reader readlly
usable information and charts.

Fig.la. Form of 'bathtub'

curve of failure rate versus
time. This curve is generally shown without scales,
and no indication is given
of how the data are derived or selec ted 3 .

CONSTANT
FAILURE
RATE
PERIOD

EARLY
FAILURE
PERIOD

'

'

II
I

Fig. 1b. Realistic form of

curve of failure rate versus
time for many types of
semiconductors
discrete
and integrated circuits,
omitting 'zero-hour' rejects and misuse failures.
failure
wear-out
The
period, if present, is beyond the operational life
requirement.

'

:
I

i~l\:

I
I

Fig.2. Ideal and practical values for an operational

amplifier4 .

The customer may wish to perform his own acceptance testing, be it batch inspection by the firms
Incoming Goods department or, on a smaller scale, on
an individual basis by the engineer. This chapter
should provide the means to that end.
High reliability, higher even than that achieved by the
methods discussed above, coupled with the probability of receiving fewer rejects, may be realised by
extra factory screening. One of the most widely used
screening operations is the 'bum-in' screen 2 During
burn-in each circuit is biased in a 'use' condition at
maximum voltage levels and at the maximum
guaranteed temperature condition, generally 125C.
This condition is maintained usually for one week
(150 hours). This process removes any potential
early life failures and by so doing re<Jults in a more
reliable batch. Data that has been accumulated on
burned-in circuits has shown that elevated temperature provides a means by which failure occurrence
can be accelerated. The same data has revealed that
reliability failure rates for microelectronic circuits
improve with operating time. Thus the failure rate
(see Fig.1) for any given group of circuits can be
improved by the application of a burn-in screen.
The standard Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) for
off-the-shelf parts is 1%. Extensive screening improves
the AQL by approximately one order of magnitude.

II

,_+0-111_ _ _--r'l
I

R,. =250,000.0.
A,.=50,000
Rout= 150.0.

Before examining specific tests to be performed it is

useful to consider the ideals of the operational
amplifier in LIC form. Within these general
boundaries will be found the single-purpose units
exhibiting some, if not all, of the characteristics
shown by Table 1 and Fig.2.

NON-INVERTING
INPUT
R,n =CX)
A,.=oo
RourO

METHODS OF TESTING

WEAR
OUT
FAILURE
PERIOD
I
II

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
(PRACTICAL)

TIME

EFFECTIVE
BURN-IN
PERIOD

TIME

Some parameters that emerge from these considerations are:

(1) Input offset voltage
(2) Input ofiset current
(3) Open loop gain

57

The operational amplifier 4

(ideal case)

Acceptable figures
commonly found

Infinite voltage gain

Zero output resistance

90 dB (x 50,000)
250kf2
150f2

Infinite band-width

1 MHz (closed loop gain)

Zero offset voltage

2.0mV
90dB
50p.V/V

Infinite input resistance

Common mode rejection ratio

Supply voltage rejection ratio

a
GENERAT

. _ , o - - - - - - - - - . - I X OSCILLOSCOPE

Table 1. Operational amplifier characteristics.

2MSl
TO'SCOPE
HORIZONTAL
INPUT (X)

(4) Output voltage swing, resistive loads

( 5) Common mode rejection ratio
(6) Supply voltage rejection ratio
A check performed on item 3 will quickly prove if an
LIC is functional or not. This is called a Transfer
Function test.
Open Loop Transfer Function
This is simply an oscilloscope display of the input/
output characteristics of the circuit over its full
dynamic range. The resultant display can be used to
measure open loop gain, output voltage swing and
linearity. In essence the circuit is as shown in Fig.3a.
However, the multipurpose LIC requires external
input and output frequency compensation and this
results in the more complex functional circuit of
Fig.3b. A suggested circuit for generating the sawtooth waveform would be Fig.3c. 1

R,
:!:5V
1KHz
N
TRIANGULAR

58

500kSl

son.

IOpF

C3 =INPUT FREQUENCY COMPENSATION

C.,= OUTPUT FREQUENCY COMPENSATION

c
-NV--.-ct---,

15Vac
( SIGNAL GENERATOR)
OR MAINS 50Hz

---o

----+--4--~~~~--~

0/P

The resultant display (Fig.3d) on the oscilloscope

allows the gain to be measured as shown by the
figures. Fig.3e and 3f show some waveforms which
may be observed occasionally: in 3e high frequency
oscillation appears as a 'bulge' in the middle of the
transfer display, whilst 3f shows a familiar waveform
in the form of cross-over distortion. Whilst neither of
these deviations implies incorrect working of the
element it is wise to view any suspect circuit which
contains such LICs with a jaundiced eye. Generally
though, the large amount of negative feedback
required around an operational amplifier will nullify
any slight deviations seen under open loop conditions
on the transfer function display.
Input Offset Voltage
The most important parameter to examine after the
functional test is the input offset volt~e check. This
ideally measures the voltage required between the
input terminals to obtain zero output voltage, or a
logic threshhold voltage in the case of interface LICs.
Fig.4a shows the ideal circuit. In }I"actice, accurate
nulling of the output under open loop conditions is
impossible and measurement of the very small (mV's)
voltage at the input would be difficult to achieve even
if nulling were possible. However, by using the very

>-----+---IY

SIJW-TOO

GAIN (A l:~
VJ' BC

- - I N P U T VOLTAGE----+

e
f-

~ ~+--f--#-~+-~
5
INPUT

INPUT

Fig.3a. Basic circuit for open loop transfer function. :Jb.

A functional circuit with frequency compensation. :lc.
Generating a sawtooth waveform. 3d. eJ Oscilloscope
displays from these circuits.

:!:mv

~
b

+15V

E
~
Fig.4. (a) An ideal circuit for measuring input offset
voltages. (b) A practical circuit. 5

Whilst the resistor tolerances should be observed for

accuracy of measurement at incoming goods inspection, the field engineer may still obtain sufficient
information from an improvised bench set-up to decide
whether or not to retain a suspect LIC. The above
tests can be repeated using high value source resistors
if desired, but this does demand better tolerancing.
Input offset current
The input offset current can introduce an error at the
input of the amplifier, particularly when high value
source resistors are used. This error can be of the
same order, or greater, than the offset voltage error
and in worst cases can be additive. Each practical
circuit should be examined to see which offset
(Voltage or current) introduces the largest error. The
input offset current should also be cons~dered when
calculating the effects of temperature drifts. Fig.5
gives the test circuit for this measurement. In Fig.5
the d.c. output voltage is given by:
Vout = !offset Rz + V offset
But source resistance R 2 = R 1 is chosen to ensure that
!offset Rz is greater than voltage offset. Hence:
1offset = Vout

Rz
properties of the LIC accurate measurement can be
obtained. Consider Fig.4b. The amplifier is given a
closed loop gain of 100, and instead of the inputs
being adjusted for zero output they are set to the
same voltage (0.0 volts) via low value source resistors.
Any input offset voltage previously required to null
the output now appears at the output conveniently
multiplied by 100, the overall designed gain of the
circuit.
Measurement is now possible without disturbing any
of the voltages due to the output having low
resistance. In extreme cases where a DVM is not
available, a multimeter would give sufficient indication to determine the state of the input offset
voltage.

Output Voltage Swing

This test has received mention in the transfer function checks. However, d.c. checks may be performed
if required. These demonstrate the ability of the LIC
to operate with the same output swing into different
resistive loads, under varying supply voltage conditions. A suggested circuit appears in Fig.6. and tests
are performed as shown by Table 2.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
Consider an operational amplifier with feedback, the
inputs of which operate in such a manner as to effect
a d.c. null on the output, ie they are resistively

Fig.6. Measuring output voltage swing.

Fig.5. The measurement of input offset cu"ent.

+V

OOIJLF

50.Q.

15k

::!:5V

200pF
-15V
0006JLF

59

Test V+ V- 1/P V Load R Expected values of 0/P V

s
s
a
b

c
d
e
f
g

15
15

15
15

9
9

9
9

15
15

15
15

9
9

9
9

+5
-5
+5
-5
+5
-5
+5
-5

10kU
10k
10k
10k
2k
2k
2k
2k

+ 12v
-12
+ 6.5
-6.5
+10
-10
+6.0
-6.0

Table 2. Tests on output voltage swing.

coupled. From the measurement of input offset

voltage (Fig.4) the exact value of Vio (voltage input
offset) is known, measured with both inputs at OV.
However, both inputs when coupled in this manner
(common mode) will operate over at least half the
supply voltage swing. If the amplifier is less than
perfect then a change of Vio will occur when the
commoned inputs are swung over this range, thereby
destroying the output null.
To effect this measurement refer again to Fig.4 and
measure Vio with inputs first connected to say +5
volts (instead of OV) and then to -5 volts. Note any
changes in vio including polarity, and put this into
the equation below.

SIGNIFICANT PARAMETERS
From the six checks examined above only two are of
immediate interest to the engineer involved in trouble
shooting. These are transfer function, generally a
go/no-go test, and input offset voltage. Having
established that an LIC is operational and complies
with the primary requirements, other parameters may
be neglected unless further evidence suggests otherwise. This is due to the initial design and fabrication
of integrated circuits which provides, as implied, a
full integration of the combined parameters. The same
manufacturing processes which result in low input
offset voltages and high amplification are also responsible for input offset currents, input resistance,
output resistance, and output swing. Thus from a
possible 30 or more tests which may be performed on
an LIC only two need be performed to give a
reasonable assurance of circuit integrity.

SUSCEPTIBILITY TO TEMPERATURE RISE TESTING METHODS

Linear Integrated Circuits and monolithic circuits in
particular provide excellent d.c. amplifier performance due to the close component matching and
thermal coupling of active devices inherent in the
manufacturing method. Offset voltages of <2.0 m V
and thermal drifts of <10 JJ.V /C are easily obtainable
with reasonable manufacturing yields.

CMRR =Input range used x fixed gain= (5 + 5) x 100

6. Vout

6. Vout

or expressed in dB's:
CMRR = 20 log (5 + 5) x 100
6. vout

Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR)

SVRR is the ratio of the change in input offset
voltage to the change in supply voltage producing it.
The advantage of having this feature inherent in an
operational amplifier is to enable unregulated voltage
supplies to be used, yet to be assured of virtually the
same voltage offset. Again the circuit to use for
investigating this characteristic is Fig.4. A realistic
change in power supply voltages would be 10% of
nominal supply. However, to effect the measurement
on a bench test it is suggested that each power supply
is reduced by 5 volts from a nominal15 volts setting.
The resultant change in Vio is noted, and the supply
voltage rejection ratio is calculated as below:
SVRR = 6 Vio (MV)
6. vs (V)
60

The term is generally used

in the form J.l V /V

Consider a rise of 20C in the ambient temperature

of electronic equipment. Rapid calculation clearly
shows that only a small change in the output voltage
will result, ie
20oc rise @ 10 J.1. V fOC = 200 J.l V change in offset
voltage. Therefore with amplifier gain of 100 the
output null will shift by:
200 X 10-6

100 = 20 mV

Temperature coefficients are generally quoted only

for input offset voltage and current, open loop gain is
relatively unaffected; a similar temperature rise
(20C) producing a change in open loop gain of <1.0
dB in===< 90 dB.
Testing for temperature effects on voltage offset is
best accomplished using Fig.4. Comparing the
readings taken at room temperature (~ 25C) with
those taken at 70C will give sufficient evidence of
correct functioning. The temperature change can be
effected with the aid of a hair dryer, directed onto
the LIC. Care should be taken to avoid overheating
any associated components as this could lead to large
errors. A thermometer should be placed with its bulb
in close proximity to the LIC to enable an accurate
temperature change to be established. Alternatively, a

drop in temperature could be implemented with one

of the proprietary cooling sprays in aerosol form. The
resultant information, expressed in JJ.V/OC should be
compared with the example given above, or checked
against the relevant data sheet.

1 Correct orientation
2 Soldering irons
3 Power supplies

Resistors used by the manufacturer in the measurement of input offset voltage will be selected to 0.02%
accuracy but the engineer will have available standard
2% .components. In the circuits given these may be
used with confidence and still only result in 10%
errors. For the situations described this will prove
completely adequate. Measuring instruments, their
calibration and general accuracy, coupled with any
loading effect that they may have, give rise to more
errors. For example; a multimeter (Zin = 20 OOOQ
per volt) used to measure output voltage will have
considerably more loading effect than a digital volt
meter (Zin = 5 000 MQ). However, inexpensive
portable digital multimeters are currently available
and exhibit much higher input impedances, generally
>10MQ.

The figures in Table 3 give an indication of those

expected for an operational amplifier, and may be
compared with the specification for the '709'given in
Table 5.

Rely on identification mark, not the branding.

Use earthed irons only. Switch off circuit supply.
Observe correct polarity
a)
Use well within specified ratings for
b)
particular circuits
c)

ANTICIPATED TEST FIGURES AND ACCEPTABLE TOLERANCES

When considering the tolerances allowable on a
specific parameter, it is wise to keep in mind the
tolerances of the components used to implement that
test. Whilst the manufacturer usually aims for perfection in measurements to achieve repeatability in
testing, the engineer is generally satisfied with a go/no
go test, using his knowledge and judgment to decide
when to discard an unserviceable component. This
situation is accepted with passive and simple active
circuit elements, and may also be used with LICs.

Main attention points

General

Examine 0/P's for excessive Ieven

though short duration) transients
during switch-on/switch-off.

limit available current

Ensure smoothing capacitors
discharge on switch-off
Use fast junctions (emitter-base) for
spike clipping.
Maintain short leads
a)
Avoid earth loops
b)
Decouple supplies
cl
dl
el

4 Spikes
5 Oscillation

Table 4. Precautions during LIC testing.

PROTECTING THE LINEAR

CIRCUIT DURING TEST

INTEGRATED

LICs and indeed integrated circuits iri general, are

mechanically robust but electrically frail. Before
handling the soldering iron the engineer should be
fully conversant with the data sheet. This point will
be examined elsewhere in the chapter. Simple precautions should be taken during shelf storage; avoid
extremes of temperature, humidity (if the package
type is non-hermetically sealed) and simple chemical
corrosion.
Precautions During Test
Unearthed soldering irons can present fatally high
voltage spikes to a LIC. The small physcial size of the
active components involved denies them any chance
of dissipating the excessive power that can be
produced under these circumstances. The list given in
Table 4 may serve as a reminder of the general safety
points.

INTERPRETATION OF SPECIFICATIONS
Table 3. Expected values for an operational amplifier
under bench tests.

Parameter

Expected values

1 Open loop gain

2 Input offset voltage
3 Input offset current
4 0/P voltage swing
5 CMRR
6 SVRR

50,000
5mV
50nA
10V
100dB
50JJ,V/V

Tolerances for bench

measurement
f 20%

10% Dependent on
measuring
20% instrument
5%
20%
20%

Table 5 shows extracts from a GEC Semiconductors

data sheet for the 7709 High Performance Operational Amplifier. The parameters not previously
discussed, ie items 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 14, 17
require some elaboration.
Items 1-8 are absolute maximum ratings above which
the reliability of the circuit may be impaired.
1. Total supply voltage; since 15 volt rails are the
nominal supply voltages brief excursions to 18 volts
can be tolerated.
61

2. Internal power dissipation; this value is general for

the multi-lead T05 can without heat sinking. The
derating curve demands that, if operated in the high
temperature region, the dissipation must be reduced.
This may be effected by reducing the supply voltage,
or by increasing the value of the load resistor.
3. Differential input voltage; maximum allowable
voltage between inputs.
4. Input voltage range; using common mode, or
within the limits of 3 above, the maximum voltage
swing allowable at either input.
5. Output short circuit duration; the small physical
size of the output transistors results in effective
current limiting at high levels. However, this can only
be tolerated for short periods.
Table 5. Extracts from a typical data sheet.
Item
2
3
4
5

6
7

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Total supply voltage
Internal power dissipation (Note 1)
Differential input voltage
Input voltage
Output short circuit duration
(TA = +25C)
Storage temperature range
Operating temperature range
Lead temperature (soldering 60 sec)

36V
300mW
5.0V
10.0 v
5sec
-65C - + 150C
-55C-+ 125C
300c

Note 1 Rating applies for case temperatures to +125C, derate

linearly at 5.6 mW/C for ambient temperatures above
+95C
Electrical Characteristics
(TA = 25C, 9V~ Vs ~ 15V unless otherwise specified)
Itern Parameter
(see definitions)
Input offset voltage
9
10 Input offset current
11 Input bias current
12 Input resistance
13 Output resistance
14 Supply current

Conditions

Min. Typ. Max. Units

Rs~10kf2

350

0.6
10
100
700
150
2.5

2.0
50
200

mV
nA
nA
k!"l

3.6

mA

The following specifications apply for -55C ~T A ~+125oc

15

16

Average temperature
co-efficient of input
offset voltage

Rs; 5of2,
T A ; +25C
toTA ;+125C

Average temperature
co-efficient of input
offset current

TA; +25C to
TA; +125C

1.8

10 IJ.V/C

0.08

0.5 nA/C

Input voltage range Vs; 15V

18

CMRR

19

SVRR

Rs~ 10kf2

40

20

Large signal voltage

gain

15V, Rs 25,000
2 2kf2, Vout
15V

21

Output voltage swing Vs; 15V,

RSL 10k!"l

62

V5

7. Operating Temperature Range; As LICs become

more complex, and the applications more obscure, it
is found that customers tend to use the circuits nearer
the maximum temperatures. Sample testing by the
manufacturer ensures correct operation over this
range.
8. Lead temperature; again, in common with other
silicon circuits, prolonged soldering or desoldering
will not destroy the product.
11. Input bias current; the average of the two input
currents.
14. Supply current; implying power consumption (W
= VI). The current required to operate the amplifier
with the output zero and with no load current.
17. As 4 above.
With the aid of these notes the user, by applying
general electrical knowledge to the specific characteristics on the data sheet, will be able to experiment,
whilst keeping within safe electrical boundaries.
Graphs of other characteristics and performance
curves incorporated on the data sheet are generally
axiomatic; test circuits for specific parameters are
included to enable the user to examine the finer
points of the circuit if the situation demands it.
However, checking the two significant parameters
listed above will obviate the need for many of the
more abstruse checks which are possible.
Types of Test Instruments
Digital Volt Meter- should be capable of measuring
millivolts on a 2 volt scale. Input impedance as high
as possible.
Oscilloscope - must have access to the X amplifier,
though high gain is unnecessary as the high voltage
side of the potential divider may be used as a drive,
see Fig.3b.
Saw Tooth Generator - 5-10V pp output required.
Suggested circuit as Fig.3c.

REFERENCES
-

17

Rs~ 10kf2

6. Storage Temperature Range; In common with most

other silicon fabricated circuits, storage conditions
can be maintained over this temperature range without ill effects.

8.0
80

110

12 14

dB
100 IJ.VIV
70,000

(1) Elements of Linear Microcircuits, T.D. Towers,

Wireless World, October, 1970.
(2) Reliability Handbook for Silicon Monolithic
Microcircuits, Volume 2, Failure Mechanisms of
Monolithic
Microcircuits.
NASA
publication
03-67-04.
(3) Component Reliability, R. Brewer, Mullard. Electronic Data Library, Volume 5.
( 4) Linear Integrated Circuits Applications Handbook. Marconi-Elliott Microelectronics Limited.
( 5) The application of Linear Micro-circuits. SGS/
Fairchild.

Chapter 8

Digital
Integrated
Circuits
R 5 Whiskin BSc(Eng)
GEC Semiconductors Limited
Digital circuits form the great majority of integrated
circuits manufactured today. There are many ranges
available from various manufacturers and these tend
to be classified by family type. They include Resistor
Transistor Logic (RTL) of Fig.l, Transistor Transistor
Logic (TTL) and Diode Transistor Logic (DTL)
examples of which are shown in Figs.2 and 3, and
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL) shown in Fig.4. RTL
was one of the earliest types to be introduced, but is
now obsolete and rarely used in new designs. Both
DTL and TTL are forms of Saturating Logic, so called
because a transistor in the output stage saturates
when the device operates. ECL is a form of Current
Mode Logic which is nonsaturating and so achieves a
faster switching speed. MOS transistors can be used
with certain advantages in integrated circuits and
these form a separate category.
Over the years certain types of logic have emerged as
being more popular than others and because of this
have become "second sourced" by several manufacturers. The prime example of this is the 7400
series of TTL which is now made by at least a dozen
manufacturers throughout the world. This chapter
will detail only the types which are popular and
therefore most likely to be wcountered by the
reader, however, the various test methods and procedures discussed can be applied to all logic families.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT SPECIFICATIONS

In testing a digital circuit the object is to check that
the device will fulfil the function for which it was
designed. To do this one must start with a specification setting out acceptable performance limits, and it
must be remembered that such a specification will
include not only electrical tests but also mechanical
and environmental tests. A manufacturer's data sheet
is an example of a test specification and, in addition
63

Vcc+5V

Vee+ 36V

175K

650
OUTPUT

OUTPUT
~

A
II

Fig.2. 930 DTL gate.

Fig. 1. RTL gate.

.-------......---~~-------.......... 11

Vcc+5V
----~~--~-----0

NOR
OUTPUT

INPUTS

-5V

Fig.4. ECL gate.

Fig.'3. 7400 TTL gate.

to the electrical parameters there are also details of

the package used, its dimensions, lead length, etc.,

which form a mechanical specification. Not usually
quoted on data sheets, but invariably applied by the
manufacturer, are other mechanical and environmental tests such as solderability of the leads,
hermeticity of the package, its resistance to shock,
vibration, temperature and humidity. Discussion of
mechanical and environmental testing is outside the
scope of this chapter and the average integrated circuit
user does not usually have the facilities to carry out
these tests. If the user requires some assurance that
the devices will meet the mechanical and environmental limits, the procedure is to agree a specification
with a supplier and have the devices released to this
specification after testing by the Quality Assurance
Department.

Because of the variation of test methods and procedures that can occur between different manufacturers, national standards have been established to
ensure conformity in the quality level of integrated
circuits irrespective of manufa<;turer. The BS9400
specification for integrated circuil:sapplies in the UK
and MIL-STD-883 is the American standard. This
chapter makes reference to the BS9400 specification
for the basic parameters to be tested and the methods
of test.

64

THE DIGITAL GATE CIRCUIT

Before discussing actual circuit testing it is useful to
look at the basic logic gate circuit to establish which
parameters require to be specified and how these
parameters relate to the satisfactory operation of the
device in a digital system. An understanding of the
operation of the device will be of great assistance
during fault finding when a system failure occurs.
The digital circuit handles binary signals which have
only two states. These are termed High (H) and Low
(L) where the H state is the more positive voltage
level. The function of, for example, a 2 input NAND
gate can be specified by developing a truth table,
which shows the output state for every combination
of input signal (Fig.5 ).
Fig.5. Two input NAND gate truth table.
INPUTS

2 INPUT NAND GATE

OUTPUT

H
L
H
L

H
H
L
L

L
H
H
H

TRUTH TABLE

r-----------.---~

Vcc!+5V)

OUTPUT
INPUT
CURRENT
(INPUT IN
LOW STATE)

Fig.6. 930 DTL circuit.

current for Q 2 is drawn through R 1 and flows

through Q 1 The small base current required by Q 1 is
drawn through R 2 . If an input is taken Low, current
is diverted from the base of Q 1 and flows out of the
input diode. Q 2 turns off and the output goes High.
The TTL gate circuit of Fig. 7 operates in a similar
manner with the multiemitter input transistor replacing the input diodes of the DTL gate. The main
advantage of TTL is that the active pull-up transistor
Q3 gives the circuit a better capacitative drive
capability than the pull-up resistor (R 4 ) of DTL.
The input emitters of the TTL gate draw heavier
input leakage currents than the diodes of DTL when
the inputs are taken High. This is because the input
transistor becomes 'inverted' with the emitter acting
as a collector.

D.C. OR STATIC PARAMETER TESTS

INPUT
CURRENT
(LOW STATE)
o-----------~----_.----oGND

Fig. 7. 74 series 'ITL gate.

The truth table can be used to check how the circuit

performs as a 2 input NAND gate by applying the
combinations of input signals and checking that the
correct result is obtained at the output. Such a test is
known as a functional test and establishes that the
device is a NAND gate, but does not measure how
well or how badly the circuit operates. To do this
certain parameters need t.o be measured as outlined in
the following paragraphs.
First consider the DTL circuit of Fig.6. This uses an
array of common anode input diodes to provide an
input AND Function. The output stage Q2 and
collector load R 4 invert the AND function to give a
NAND gate. The circuit is designed to have an input
threshold at approximately 1.4 V. This is the input
voltage at which the output changes state from Low
to High or vice versa. If an input is below 1.4 V the
output is High. If both inputs are greater than 1.4 V
the output is Low. This is achieved in the following
manner. The base emitter voltage drop of Q1 and the
diode drop of D 1 , together with the base emitter
voltage of Q2 , necessitate that the voltage at the
common anode of the input diodes has to rise to 2.1
V before sufficient current flows into the base of Q 2
to cause it to saturate and give a Low output state.

As already explained, the circuits have an input

threshold which is typically 1.4 V at 25oc. For
testing purposes, however, an upper and a lower value
of input threshold voltage are fixed which will take
account of any spreads in device characteristic. The
upper value is termed VJH and the lower value VIL
For TTL V1H is 2.0 V and VJL is 0.8 V. Thus,
provided all inputs are greater than VJH the output of
the gate is low, and if an input is less than V1L the
gate output will be High. The region between 0.8 V
and 2.0 V may be considered a transition region
within which the device switches from one state to
the other and any logic signal level must not fall
within this region. If limits are set on the gate output
voltage such that the output Low level is less than 0.8
V and the High level greater than 2.0 V this condition
on the logic signal level will be satisfied. However, if
this is taken a step further and a limit is set on the
output Low voltage VoL well below 0.8 V and
similarly it is ensured that the output high voltage
VoH is much greater than 2.0 V, a guard band is
provided (see Fig.8) which permits a certain amount

Fig. B. High and Low state noise margins.

HIGH STATE

~=2AVMINKNOISE

V (0 8V) ------l[ )
lEI--~:......,..;,...-.,......
IL .
~
V1H=20V

MARGIN

~8------

The 0.7 V forward drop of the input diode subtracts

from this voltage to give a 1.4 V input threshold. Base

65

(16 rnA) flowing into the output terminal. Similarly

in the High state, the input leakage currents liH
flowing into the gate inputs are drawn from the
driving gate output. Again for a fan-out of 10, IoH
must equal10 times liH The limit for liH is set at 40
JJA for TTL and this means that IoH is 400 p.A. VoH
is therefore tested with 40 p.A being drawn out of the
output terminal as a test condition. The input
currents IIH and IlL are tested separately with
specified input voltages corresponding to VoL max
and VoH min.

r,

-1 )-)--...

HIGH STATE
CURRENTS

LOW STATE
CURRENTS

Fig.9. High and Low state currents {or DTL and 1TL.

of spurious noise to be tolerated without the signal

level being driven into the transition region. This
guard band is called the noise margin and for a High
Level signal is equal to (VoH - VIH) and for a Low
level signal (VIL- VoL).
For TTL, VoL is set at 0.4 V maximum and VoH is
2.4 V minimum. Note that when testing for the VOL
of the gate, VIH is applied to the input to present the
gate with the worst case input conditions. Typically
the input voltage will be well above VIH Also when
testing for VoH we apply VIL which is the worst case
input voltage. Typically the Low state input will be
below VIL
Thus far the voltage measurements which guarantee
the noise margins have been discussed. However, the
input and output currents must also be considered, as
it is these which guarantee the load factors. Referring
to Fig.9, the number of inputs that a gate output is
capable of driving depends upon the input currents
and the output current capacity of the driving gate.
In the Low state the gate output transistor (Q 4 in the
case of TTL) saturates and sinks current into its
collector. This current is drawn out of the input of
the driven gates. If the gate is to have a fan-out of 10
loads, it means that the output current, lOL must
equal at least 10 times the input current, IlL and the
output transistor still remain in saturation. A limit for
the maximum value of IlL is set at 1.6 rnA in the case
of TTL so that loL must equal 16 rnA to guarantee a
fan-out of 10 loads. When testing for VoL as
discussed above, the measurement is made with IoL
Table 1. High and Low state voltages and currents.
VOLTAGES
INPUT

High State
Low State

66

OUTPUT

CURRENTS
INPUT

OUTPUT
loH
loL

A summary of the voltages and current is given in

Table 1 and the basic fact to remember is that Output
Voltages and Input Currents are measured with Input
Voltages and Output Currents used as test conditions.
The other important d.c. parameters of a digital
circuit are power dissipation, which takes the form of
a measurement of supply current, and output short
circuit current. The latter is an indication of the
current transients likely to appear on the supply rail
when the circuit switches from one state to the other.
A.C. OR DYNAMIC PARAMETERS

The principal dynamic parameter of a logic circuit is

the switching propagation time. This is the time taken
for the logic signal to pass through the gate and is
generally referred to as the propagation delay.
Typical values of propagation delay are 30 ns for
DTL and 6 to 10 ns for TTL; certain ECL circuits
achieve a figure of less than 1 ns.
Some types of logic circuits, notably DTL, have
different values of propagation delay depending upon
whether the output voltage is going High or Low.
Considering the DTL circuit of Fig.10a it can be seen
that when the output transistor turns off, the stray
capacitance Cs at the output will be charged via the 6
k.Q pull-up resistor. This gives a rather slow rise time,
but the following gate will switch at its input
threshold of about 1.4 V and only the delay time for
the output voltage to reach this level need be
considered. In addition, the input resistors of all the
gates connected to the output of the driving gate
appear in parallel with the 6 k.Q output resistor
(Fig.10b) and this improves the rise time. The output
fall time, on the other hand is much faster because
the output transistor saturates and quickly discharges
Cs
Because of the different output rise and fall times the
two propagation delay times are measured separately
and the average value taken to obtain a figure for the
typical propagation delay.
TTL gates have the active emitter follower type
pull-up circuit in the output stage, which rapidly

0 Vee

r - - - Vee

GATE I

,;R4
Vour

GATE2

Cs

GATE 3
DTL GATE
OUTPUT

DTL GATE
OUTPUT
(a)

(b)

Fig.JO. (a) Capacitative load on DTL gate. (b) Fanout improves rise times.

charges the output capacitance and gives a much

faster rise time than DTL. However, there is still the
switching delay associated with the storage time of
the saturated transistor in the lower half of the
output stage. Different rise and fall times still occur
as a result of this. ECL circuits do not suffer from
storage time effects, but the output emitter follower
stage is only capable of sourcing current to charge
stray capacitance. There is, therefore, a larger delay
time associated with falling output signals.

COMPLEX DEVICES
The basic parameters of current, voltage and delay
times can also be applied to devices more complex
than individual gate circuits. The simplest of these
include such functions as JK Clocked Flip-Flops,
which are classified as Sequential Bistable Circuits in
BS9400. The operation of these devices is controlled
by a clock signal sometimes called a trigger input, but
apart from the fact that there are more input and
outputs to be considered, which makes the functional
testing more difficult, the measurements of the
parameters can still be made in the same way.
This also applies to Medium Scale Integration or MSI
as it is commonly referred to. The more complex
devices such as binary counters, shift registers,
decoders etc. are usually fabricated using TTL technology and as a resuit have inputs and outputs which
may be regarded as being identical with the inputs
and outputs .of simple TTL gates. The same test
methods and limits can therefore be applied. The
major problem with MSI devices is the functional
testing, which is clearly related to the complexity of
the device. For very complex functions this can
present a major problem.

MOS CIRCUITS
MOS integrated circuits may be tested using basically
similar test methods to those used for bipolar circuits.
The main difference is that the devices require much
higher supply voltages (20 to 30 V) which are
negative, as against the 5 volts positive VCC generally
used for bipolar circuits. The signal input voltages are
related to the MOS gate threshold voltage which can
vary depending upon the actual manufacturing process used. These processes include thick oxide, nitride
and silicon gate technologies. Typically the input
threshold voltages range from 1.5 V to 5.0 V. Output
voltage swings are generally greater being related to
the higher supply voltages. Control or clock inputs
also require large voltage swings.
Unlike bipolar circuits there is a large variation in the
basic parameters of MOS circuits, due to the variety
of types available and as a result it is difficult to be
specific. However, the test methods described are
generally applicable to MOS circuits, once the
magnitude and limits of the various parameters have
been established.

TEST METHODS
( 1) Low state output voltage VoL (BS9400 Method
2001). In this test (Fig.ll) the gate output is Low
and the voltage is measured while an output current
IoL flows into the output terminal to guarantee the
fan-out capability. RL is varied to set IoL VIH is
applied to the inputs of a NAND gate to guarantee
noise immunity. This also applies to a positive NOR
gate, except that each input in turn has VIH applied,
the others being held low.
67

74TTL

930DTL

VOL

04V(022V)

045V (02V)

IoL

16mA

VrH
VrL

ECL
(-1 6V) TYPICAL
VALUES IN
BRACKETS

133mA

20V

19V

oav

II V

74TTL

930DTL

16mA

15mA

0-4V

045V

ECL
-16V

Fig. 11. Test circuit for Low state output voltage (VOL)
and device limits.

Fig.13. Test circuit for Low state input current and

device limits.

Digital gates are often specified to operate over a

range of supply voltage eg Vcc = 5V 5%. For this
test the minimum value of VCC is used because this
represents the worst case situation. With a low value
of Vcc the current into the base of the saturated
ouput transistor will be a minimum. If this transistor
has a low gain it will tend to come out of saturation
and VoL will rise out of limit. This does not apply to
ECL which is a non-saturated Logic. ECL circuits also
operate with a negative VEE and therefore voltages
are quoted as negative values.

of the output terminal to simulate the leakage current

drawn by inputs of the gates being driven. IoH is
adjusted by varying R L The supply voltage is set to
Vcc MIN as this is the worst case condition giving
the lowest value of VOH.

( 2) High state output voltages (BS9400 Method

2002). In this test the correct input conditions are
applied using VIH or VIL as appropriate to ensure
that the output is High. A current IoH is drawn out
Fig. 12. Test circuit for High state output voltage (VOH)
and device limits.

.--------------<J Vee MIN

o---+---+-----.L---<J
74 TTL
V0 H

24V(33V)

930 DTL
26V(40V)

ECL
(-0 8V)

180fLA
V1H OR V1L ARE AS FOR V0 L TEST

68

REFERENCE

TYPICAL VALUES
IN BRACKETS

(3) Low state input current (BS9400 Method 2003)

This test measures the gate input current at an input
voltage VoL MAX which is the maximum value of a
gate output voltage in the Low state. For DTL and
TTL the current flows out of the input terminal.
Each input in turn is tested, and remaining inputs are
held at a specified High input voltage.
For this test VCC is at its maximum value as this will
result in the input current being a maximum. The
measurement of input current, in conjunction with
the output current IoL guarantees the fan out of the
circuit.
'
(4) High state input current (BS9400 method 2004)
This test measures the High level input current. For
some circuits two currents are measured. The first is
the current at an input voltage equal to VoHMIN.
This is the voltage normally encountered by the gate
input. In the case of TTL the input current rises
rapidly at input voltages greater than VCC and a
maximum input voltage of 5.5 volts is usually
specified. This is due to input transistor breakdown.
A second current measurement is therefore made at
the maximum input voltage to check that this current
is not excessive. For this test the worst case Vcc is
Vee MAX.
Sequential bistable circuits
The measurement of output voltages and Input
currents are made using similar methods to those for

Vee MAX

9)

OPEN CIRCUIT

v,N

REFERENCE

74TTL

r,H

IOmA AT V1N=55V
40p.A AT V1N=2-4V

930 DTL
5p.A AT 26V

ECL
15Cf'A AT -08V

Fig.14. Test circuit {or High state input current (IJH)

and device limits.

gates. The appropriate BS9400 test methods are 2005

and 2006. These type of bistable circuits usually have
two complementary outputs so that when measuring
the High and Low state output voltages appropriate
input conditions are applied to enable the measurements to be made on first one output and then the
other.

tion applies to the total package and not to each gate

individually.
(7) Switching propagation times (BS9400 Method
2008). This test measures two propagation delay
times shown in Fig.l5. The first delay time is tPHL
where the output is falling from a High to a Low state.
The second delay is tPLH where the output is rising
from a Low to a High state. Whether the input signal
is rising or falling depends upon whether the circuit is
inverting or non-inverting. An oscilloscope is used to
monitor the input and output waveforms and the
delay times are measured at a reference voltage equal
to 1h (VIH - VJL) For TTL this is 1h (2.0 + 0.8) or
1.4

v.

For DTL and TTL the Digital loading circuit used is

shown in Fig.16. This simulates an input circuit of a
DTL or TTL gate and R L may be varied to simulate a
large fan-out. CL and R L are usually specified on
manufacturers data sheets.
For bistable circuits propagation times are measured
from the clock input to the output terminal and also
Fig.15. Propagation time test circuit and waveforms.

There are also several types of control terminal such

as the preset and clear inputs in addition to the
normal J and K steering inputs. The measurement of
input current at these inputs should be made using
the appropriate values of input voltage. VoL MAX is
used for Low state input currents and VoH MIN for
High state input currents.
(5) Output short circuit current (BS9400 Method
2009). This test simply measures the output current
which flows when the output has been forced into
the High state by the application of appropriate input
conditions and the output is then shorted to the
ground.
(6) Power supply current (BS9400 Method 2011).
This test measures the current in the power supplies
under specified conditions. For certain devices there
may be more than one supply terminal as well as the
ground terminal.
For digital circuits the supply current may vary
depending upon whether the output is in the High or
Low state. The average of the two currents is usually
taken in calculating the average power dissipation for
the device. This assumes that the circuit will operate
in the system with a 50% duty cycle.
When measuring the power supply current drawn by
the device it should be remembered that a package
may contain several gates so that the power dissipa-

Fig.16. Propagation time loading circuit.

,------Vee
CIRCUIT UNDER
TEST

PROPAGATION TIME

RL

~g~Db~t ~~gu~TTL
I

69

from the
terminals.
functions
tween the

preset and clear inputs to the output

This procedure can also be applied to MSI
to measure propagation delay times bevarious inputs and outputs.

Temperature testing
Digital integrated circuits are designed to operate over
a certain temperature range. Data sheets give the d.c.
parameter limits for the extremes of the operating
temperature range (eg 0C and 75C). The test
methods described can be applied to measurements at
the temperature extremes but it is usually only
necessary to do this on a sample basis to assess the
quality of the whole batch. This is the procedure
employed by manufacturers.

PRECAUTIONS
A large proportion of digital integrated circuits
returned to suppliers as having failed, , prove on
examination to have been subjected to an excessive
electrical overload. This accidental damage by the
customer can occur as a result of carelessness during
his test procedures or due to his lack of understanding of the limitations of the circuit.
Electrical overloads at the output of a DTL or TTL
circuit usually occur if the output is accidentally
shorted to V CC If the output is in the Low state
excessive current will flow damaging the output
transistor. This may occur when probing on a board
full of circuits during commissioning or fault finding
procedures. There is also a maximum limit on supply

70

voltage for most TTL and DTL circuits of 7 to 8 V.

Damage can result if the supply voltage rises above
this limit, even momentarily. Power supplies should
be designed with this in mind or else adequate
precautions taken.
Another point to note is that the inputs of DTL and
TTL gates have a relatively low breakdown voltage of
around 6 volts. If this voltage is exceeded, from a low
impedance source, the current flowing can damage
the input diode or emitter. This can occur from a
capacitative discharge from an unearthed oscilloscope. MOS circuits were particularly susceptible to
voltage transients of this nature although MOS
circuits now employ protective devices to prevent
damage.
Provided these precautions are observed, digital
circuits may be regarded as being rugged devices
requiring no special handling and having a high
reliability.

CONCLUSION
The test procedures outlined in this chapter can be
used to ensure that devices meet their electrical
specification with the aid of very simple test equipment. Several manufacturers market integrated circuit
testers which range from simple manually operated
equipment up to fully automatic computer controlled
testers, similar to those used by integrated circuit
suppliers. The user can, therefore, easily build or
select the equipment which exactly suits his requirements.

Chapter 9

Electronic
Tubes

D l Jones Grad/ERE and B G Ken net A/ERE

ITT Components Group Europe
In recent years solid state devices have replaced
gridded valves in the lower ends of the power and
frequency spectra, and it is to be expected these will
extend their boundaries in upward directions with
time. Almost all current domestic radio and television
receivers are designed around solid state devices,
leaving the higher power stages of amplification in
transmitters and similar equipment as the only places
where vacuum tubes are used in the electronics
industry excluding electro-optical devices in both TV
cameras and receivers.
The main use for gridded valves is now in transmitters, vibrator drive amplifiers and industrial
heaters, both induction and dielectric. Velocity
modulated tubes are used in UHF television transmitters, microwave ovens, radar and microwave links.
In view of the current trends this chapter will deal
mainly with devices of high anode or collector
dissipation, requiring some form of forced cooling.

GRIDDED VALVES
A gridded valve can be defined by either its characteristics or its parameters, which are the slopes of these
characteristics. The most important characteristics of
the tube show the behaviour of the output electrode,
the anode, with respect to the input electrode, the
control grid. In a triode these are the only input/
output characteristics, but the same information can
be presented in three different ways. Figs.l, 2 and 3
show this for the ITT triode type 5924.
When the tube includes an extra grid, as in a tetrode,
it is necessary to show the effect of this grid upon the
anode current as it modifies the effect of the control
grid. This is achieved by showing several sets of
characteristics at differing screen grid voltages. It is
71

15

also necessary to consider the effect of the anode

potential on the screen grid current, as steps must be
taken to ensure that the dissipation on the screen grid
does not exceed a safe level. This curve is displayed as
anode voltage against screen grid current, for various
screen grid voltages. See Figs.4 and 5.

450
400

I Va=Vg
I
I

300

<(

~10

a:
a:
:::>
u

The foregoing also applies to the supressor grid of a

pentode, but to a much lesser degree since it is usual
to keep the suppressor grid at or near cathode
potential so that it does not collect electrons and thus
the current flow is minimal or zero.

200

0
0

z<(

100
0
-100
7

Fig. I. Anode characteristics of triode type 5924.

The control grid in these tubes is normally biased to a

negative potential, but in order to achieve the high
peak anode currents necessary for some classes of
operation it is often required to drive the grid
positive, whereupon it will draw current. The value of
this current will depend upon the potential to which
the grid is driven and the instantaneous potential of
the anode. Plots of these characteristics show that the
anode voltage of a tetrode (or pentode) has less effect
on the grid current than in a triode.
All the foregoing characteristics may be plotted under
static or dynamic conditions, and the choice of
method depends upon the point on the characteristics
at which the test is to be made. The static method is
simpler and more accurate, but if any electrode
dissipation is in danger of becoming excessive, or if
power demands are to be kept low, it becomes
necessary to use a pulse method.

-250

-150

-100

GRID VOLTAGE (Vl

Fig.2. Mutual characteristics of triode type 5924.

>
~
~
~

~
0
!

2
I

-100

05
-200

-300
-400

---ANODE CURRENT (A)

----GRID CURRENT (A)

-500~0-~-*-~~~--~--~--~~
2

3
4
56
ANODE VOLTAGE (kV)

Fig.3. Constant current characteristics of triode type

5924.

72

Static measurement of valve characteristics

Fig.6 shows the circuit for the measurement of a
characteristic of a triode by the application of direct
voltages. With the voltage Va set to a particular value,
the anode current can be read for each value of
applied grid voltage Vg This can be repeated for
other values of anode voltage and the results plotted
in any of the forms showl) in Figs.l, 2 or 3. It is usual
to use this method for plotting characteristics where
the control grid is always negative, due to the ease
with which the grid can be damaged by the application of direct positive voltages. Care must be taken to
ensure that the applied voltages and the resultant
dissipations do not exceed the manufacturer's ratings
given in data. When carrying out a test of this nature
the voltage Vg should always be applied before Va
otherwise excessive anode current can occur,
damaging the cathode or causing excessive anode
dissipation. The reverse order should be employed
when switching off.
Fig.6b shows the circuit for the measurement of the
characteristics of a tetrode by the application of
direct voltages. The method is similar to that employed for a triode, but the whole procedure is
repeated for several values of screen grid voltage Vg 2
The order in which the voltages should be applied is

family of anode characteristics can be displayed. With

a tetrode or pentode, fixed voltages are applied to the
other electrodes. Cut. off pulses are superimposed on
the staircase while the anode voltage waveform
returns to its initial state at the end of each trace. As
the equipment is usually designed to accommodate a
large range of types, these pulses are often large and
care must be taken if valves of the frame grid type are
tested. This type of display enables a tube to be
compared directly with its published data and any
discrepancy is immediately apparent.

1-

z
.....

lE:::>
u

Vg,= 400V

300V

.....

ll!u
<J)

~ov
0

200V

14

10
8
6
ANODE VOLTAGE (kV)

Fig.6. Measurement of characteristics and parameters

under static conditions.

Fig.4. Screen grid characteristics of tetrode type

4JC/301J. Screen grid voltage 1500V.
Vg 2 =2000V

Vg 1=400
300

200
100

10
8
6
ANODE VOLTAGE (kV)

12

14
(b)

Fig.5. Screen grid characteristics of tetrode type

4JC/301J. Screen grid voltage 2000.

Vgt , Va, Vg 2 , otherwise excessive screen grid dissipation (Vg 2 X lg 2 ) can occur. The reverse order should
be empfoyed when switching off.

Fig. 7. Waveforms and circuit of anode characteristic

display equipment.
ANODE
VOLTAGE

Care should be taken with certain types of tetrode as

it is possible to have a negative screen grid current
under particular conditions. This is not necessarily a
sign of a fault condition, but is a clue to secondary
emjssion from the screen grid. If there are a greater
number of electrons leaving the grid than arriving,
then the net current will be negative. This does not
mean that there is a negative dissipation (cooling) at
the electrode, but it does mean that the actual
dissipation cannot be calct;.lated.
Valve testers
There are several commercially available valve testers
for small valves, some of which display the valve
characteristics on a cathode ray tube. These work by
applying a saw tooth voltage to the anode of the valve
under test and a staircase voltage to the control grid
as shown by Fig.7. This results in the anode voltage
being varied whilst the grid voltage is kept constant,
so that by monitoring the anode current the complete

GRID
VOLTAGE

ANODE
WAVEFORM
GENERATOR
GRID
WAVEFORM
GENERATOR

73

Another form of tester requires a programme card for

each valve type to be tested and this card determines
the d.c. voltages that are applied to the valve under
test. The display is either a meter or a spot on a
cathode ray tube and for a good tube the indicator
will be seen in a green or pass region. A faulty tube
will move the indicator to a red or fail region. Such
devices work by monitoring the total cathode current
and are only really a test of the state of the cathode,
and have been known to show a faulty valve as good.
Because of the need for portability these types of
valve testers are of little use for the class of tubes
discussed in this chapter.
Measurement of valve characteristics by pulse method
The section on plotting valve characteristics by static
methods showed methods which could be used if
there was no danger of over-dissipation of the various
electrodes. However, with this class of tube it is
frequently necessary to investigate points on the
characteristics where the application of direct
voltages would cause over-dissipation. To make such
tests pulse techniques are employed. Fig.8 shows a
typical circuit for this test. The anode and screen
grids are connected to direct supplies with a large
capacitor connected across each. The control grid is
biased negatively such that no currents flow. The
control grid is then driven in the positive direction by
means of a pulse and this turns the valve on for the
duration of the pulse. The peak value of the pulse is
monitored, together with the peak value of the
selected electrode current, and these values displayed
on an oscilloscope. The resultant position of the CRT
spot gives a point on the characteristic.
If a square pulse shape is employed the display will
appear as two dots, one corresponding to the cut off,
and the other to the on, condition. However, if a half
sine wave drive pulse is used the display becomes a
line joining the two points and is easier to read.
Additionally there are fewer frequency components
in the signals to excite stray inductances and thus a
Fig.B. Circuit for measurement of valve characteristics
under pulse conditions.

clearer display is obtained. Peculiar deviations from

the normal trace usually indicate the presence of
parasitic oscillations in the valve and circuit. The
pulse length is unimportant provided the display can
be made bright enough at the given repetition rate the shorter the pulse the less the demand on the
power supplies and the valve under test. Typical
figures are 5 JJS pulse length and 50 pps repetition
rate. Thus the mean current to the electrodes is kept
to a few milliamps, even though the peak currents
may run to many amps. The capacitors across the
electrode supplies should be low inductance types
capable of passing high peak currents, and should
have sufficient capacitance to maintain the voltage
sensibly constant during the pulse.
Measurement of valve parameters by static methods
It has been stated that the parameters of a valve are
the slopes of the various presentations of input/
output characteristics as in Figs.l, 2 and 3.
The anode slope resistance, ra, shows the effect of
anode voltage on anode current with a constant grid
voltage.
Thus from Fig.l: ra = 6Va/6Ia
The mutual conductance, gm, shows the effect of
control grid voltage on anode current at a constant
anode voltage
Thus from Fig.2: gm = 6Ia/6Vg
The amplification factor, JJ, shows the effect of
controi grid voltage ori the anode voltage required to
give a constant given anode current
Thus from Fig.3: JJ = 6Va/f1Vg
It can be seen that these parameters are interrelated

by the formula J.1.

gm ra

The method of measurement is to use the circuit

shown in Fig.6. Here the static conditions at which
the parameter is to be measured are set and the
appropriate voltage is varied by a small amount either
side of the test point. For ra and gm the resulting
change in anode current us change in anode or grid
voltage is noted and for JJ the change in the anode
voltage necessary to restore the anode current to the
original value is noted. The values of the parameters
may then be calculated from the formulae given
above.
This method is most usually used on large valves
where easily measurable changes in voltage can be
made and where the valve currents make bridge
construction difficult.
Measurement of parameters by bridge method
A convenient way of introducing incremental changes
in electrode potentials is to superimpose small a.c.
voltages onto the various steady electrode voltages.

74

oj~E,f] ~E,
pE

GRID
BIAS

HT

SUPPLY
(A)

(B)

Fig.9. Signal source {or bridge measurement of parameters.

Fig.l 0. Measurement of amplification factor by bridge

method and the equivalent circuit.

When a.c. methods are employed, however, it becomes necessary to ensure that the various test
voltages are accurately in phase and that stray
reactances, such as those of the interelectrode
capacitances of the tube, do not introduce serious
errors. To obtain the best null it is desirable to make
the detector immune to noise generated within the
tube under test. As reasonable sensitivity is desirable
a detector offering gain to a narrow band of
frequencies is required, tuned to the test oscillator
frequency.

when voltage E 2 is equal and antiphase to this

equivalent voltage. Then: Jl = E 2 /E 1

With the circuits shown in Figs.9 and 10 the three

main parameters are obtained in terms of the ratio of
two alternating test voltages. A third voltage is
employed in the capacitance balancing circuit, but its
value does not enter into the results. Fig.9 shows the
circuit for the production of the test voltages. It will
be seen that the three transformer windings are
independent of each other so that they may be
introduced into the appropriate electrode circuit
without interfering with the d.c. aspects of that
circuit. It is possible to make use of 'floating' d.c.
supplies and to common the a.c. circuits, but this is
liable to seriously affect the stray capacitances and
reduce bridge accuracy. The transformer designs
should be identical (except for the capacitance
balancing winding E3 which draws negligible current)
with identical d.c. resistances in the windings.
Fig.lOa shows the circuit for the measurement of
amplification factor. Fig.lOb shows the simplified
equivalent circuit; the alternating voltage E 1 in the
grid circuit results in an equivalent voltage J,tE 1 in
series with the anode resistance. Balance is obtained
Fig.ll. Measurement of mutual conductance by bridge
method and the equivalent circuit.

(A)

(B)

In measuring mutual conductance, it is necessary to

determine the alternating anode current flowing as a
result of a small voltage introduced into the grid
circuit, without variation of the anode voltage. Fig.ll
shows that this condition is satisfied since the
detector is connected between anode and cathode
and at balance there is, of course, no signal across the
detector. Fig.llb shows that the null is essentially a
balance in current rather than voltage. The anode
current is balanced against the current flowing in the
standard resistance Rs. When the currents I 1 and 12
are equal there is no voltage across the detector.
Thus:
11 =JLE 1 /ra
12 = E 2 /Rs
at null
JLE 1 /ra = E 2 /Rs
or
J.t/ra = gm = E 2 /E 1 .Rs
Note there is no correction term to be applied
regardless of anode resistance.
Fig.12 shows the circuit for the measurement of
anode resistance. The operation is exactly the same as
that for mutual conductance except that the test
voltage is introduced into the anode circuit instead of
the grid, and since a resistance is being measured
instead of a conductance the voltages E 1 and E 2 are
interchanged. As before at balance:
or

E 2 /ra = E 1 /Rs
ra = E 2 .Rs/E 1

Fig.12 Measurement of anode impedance by bridge

method and the equivalent circuit.

(A)

(8)

75

Precautions
1. In circuits for the measurement of both amplification factor and mutual conductance it is necessary to
ensure that the resistance of the voltage source is low
enough so that voltage E 1 is actually applied to the
grid without change of magnitude or phase.

2. The resistance of the voltage sources E 1 and E 2

must be small compared with Rs.

3. The resistance of voltage source E 2 must be small

compared with the lowest electrode resistance being
measured.
Although the foregoing has assumed a triode configuration for the tube under test, the coefficients for
any pair of electrodes in more complex tubes may be
measured. For example the inner p. of a tetrode or
pentode may be measured by substituting the screen
grid for anode in the appropriate circuit.
Check tests on gridded valves
Cold idament resistance. This type of test is
applicable to all types of valves. For indirectly heated
valves and those with single filaments a continuity
test is adquate, but for valves with multistrand
filaments it is necessary to make an accurate measurement using a milliohmmeter. The manufacturer will,
if requested, supply the initial CFR value on a ticket
with each valve so that a comparison measurement
may be made on receipt to check for transit damage.
Measuring equipment should be of first grade
accuracy as the increase in overall filament resistance
due to a broken stand may be only a few per cent.
The current passed during the test should be kept
very low, as heating the filament will cause it to
increase its resistance, and show the same effect as a
broken strand.
Pirani Test. This is a better test than the CFR test,
but is more complex to make. The advantages are
that it will indicate the presence of gas as well as a
broken filament, and is therefore an ideal test to
perform on a valve immediately it is received. Many
large valves are packed in crates in such a manner that
the test may be carried out without removal from the
crate. Again, a manufacturer will supply test figures
for each valve if requested.
When tungsten is heated its resistance increases with
temperature. In this test a specified d.c. current is
passed through the filament arid the voltage developed across it is measured when thermal equilibrium has been achieved. If a strand of the filament
has been broken then the resistance and hence the
voltage will be higher than the original figuresf but if
a leak in the valve is present the resulting gas will cool
the filament and the voltage will be lower. A variation
of greater than 20% should be regarded as significant.
76

The equipment consists of a d.c. supply connected

across suitable accumulators to ensure a smooth
output, in series with a variable resistor to regulate
the current through the filament. All meters should be
of first grade accuracy.
Reverse grid current. Grid current in a valve is
caused by a combination of one or more of the
following: a) Primary emission, b) Secondary
emission, c) Ion bombardment due to gas and d)
leakage.
Secondary em1ss1on only occurs when the grid
collects electrons and thus is not present when the
grid is biased negatively.
Primary emission is caused by contamination on the
electrode surface and is enhanced by the temperature
to which the electrode is heated (by radiation from
the hot cathode, for example). The current due to
primary emission is virtually independent of grid
voltage.
Gas current is due to bombardment of the electrode
by ionised gas molecules. The value of current
depends upon the gas pressure and the current which
ionises the gas initially.
Finally, leakage current is caused by electron flow in
the resistive path which occurs when contamination
collects on electrode insulators.
To sepa1ate the various components is a simple
matter if the following procedure is adopted:
(1) Conduct tests with the grid always negative to
eliminate secondary emission.
(2) Operate valve at full dissipation on the anode.

Resultant total grid current, It 1 = Ie + Ii + Ilk +

Ila ........ (1)
Where: Ie =the current due to primary emission
Ii = the current due to ionization
Ilk = the current due to leakage to the
cathode
Ila = the current due to leakage to positive
electrodes, viz anode and/or screen grid.
(3) Increase the grid bias to completely suppress the

cathode current and then increase further to a simple

multiple of the bias found in (2) above. Let this bias
value be n V g Since the flow of cathode current has
ceased, so too has the ion current. Thus the total
current now measured, It 2 is given by: lt 2 = nllk + Ila
+ Ie ........ (2)
(4) Under the same conditions as (3) above suddenly
disconnect all positive potentials. This will have the
effect of removing from the total the current due to
leakage to the positive electrodes.
Thus: lt 3 = nllk + Ie ........ (3)

( 5) Leaving the positive electrodes disconnected

double the value of bias and note the new current, It~,
Then: It., = 2nllk + Ie ........ (4)
From the measurements of these four currents the
various components of the grid current may be
found.
The leakage between grid and cathode, Ilk from
equations (3) and (4). Subtracting (3) from (4)

(A)

(8)

Fig.13. Measurement of grid emission.

lt4 - ltJ .= 2nllk- n Ilk+ Ie -Ie

Ilk= lt4 - ltJ

resistor and view the voltage developed across this on

an oscilloscope, where the peak value of current may
be noted.

The leakage between grid and positive electrodes

from equations (2) and (3). Subtracting (3) from (2).
ltJ - lt2 = nllk- nllk + le - le + Ita
Ita = ltJ -- lt2
Thus the total leakage current is the sum of these two
quantities. The component due to emission can be
found by doubling equation (3) and subtracting
equation ( 4)
21t 3

lt 4 = 2nllk- 2nllk + 2le - Ie

le = 2lt 3 - lt 4

Substituting these values into the equation (1)

enables the value of gas or ionization current to be
found and this expression simplifies to:
ltl = ltJ + lt2 - lt4 + li + ltJ - lt2
n

Thus:
and, since n is usually large, 10 or more, it is possible
to neglect the last term. Thus:

Grid emission at full grid dissipation The grid

emission referred to previously was caused by the grid
being heated by radiation from other electrodes.
When power is actually dissipated on the grid the
level of emission is liable to increase very sharply.
This can cause loss of grid control in use and it is
therefore necessary to know the level of emission
which can occur when the maximum permitted
power is being dissipated. Fig.13a shows a circuit
which bombards the grid for one half cycle of applied
voltage and then draws the emitted current to
the cathode on the reverse half cyle. The actual
power dissipated on the grid is read off the watt
meter, and the emitted current on the meter Ie. An
alternative is to replace the meter le with a small

Fig.13b shows a circuit which may be used when a

wattmeter is not available. Meter V reads the applied
r.m.s. voltage and the meters lh and Ie read the mean
values of heating and emission currents respectively.
The power dissipated on the grid Pg is then given by:
Pg = 1.11 V lh.
Interpretation of tests
Unless there are special circumstances it is not usually
considered necessary to carry out characteristic or
parameter checks on new valves. These tests are
usually resorted to when a valve is suspect or
behaving in an unusual manner in a circuit. Some
manufacturers publish tolerances on their data and
hence guarantee that any new valve will be within
these. Where only nominal figures are given it is
reasonable to expect a new valve to be within 10% of
these values. Valves do change their characteristics
with life; in particular the gas current will rise and the
peak emission will fall. This will have the effect of
generally lowering all the anode characteristics so that
the valve will pass less current for a given control grid
voltage, thus there will be a reduction of gm with life.
If a valve is internally damaged by a flashover it is

possible that a small part of the grid could be burnt

out, and it then becomes difficult to cut off the
anode current. This is shown as an increase in the
slope of the constant current characteristics (particularly in the low current region) which means a
reduction in J.J. This condition is most easily detected
as a change of required bias in the reverse grid current
test.
In a valve with an oxide coated cathode the effects of
a flashover can be very serious, in that it can remove
part of the emissive layer of the cathode. This gives
reductions in cathode area and total available
emission, which shows as a reduction in gm.
The filament current of indirectly heated valves will
not change appreciably with life, but the effect of life
on directly heated valves depends upon the filament
77

material. A pure tungsten filament operates at such a

high temperature that material is continually being
evaporated from it so that the cross sectional area,
and hence current, decrease. End of life occurs when
the filament burns out. The other common material,
thoriated tungsten, operates at a lower temperature
so the evaporation is much less. However, a metallurgical change takes place which reduces the resistance so that the current may rise by as much as 10%
with life. End of life occurs when this change is
nearly complete and the surface no longer emits at
the normal running temperature.
As stated earlier both grid emission and gas are
factors which can increase with life, but in theory the
increase should not be sufficient to cause complete
failure of the valve. It is not usual for limits to be
published for these, but figures of 50 JJ.A of emission/
watt of grid dissipation and 150 JJ.A of gas current per
amp of anode current may be taken as typical
maxima.

TESTS APPLICABLE TO VELOCITY

MODULATED DEVICES
Gas tests
Probably the easiest assessment of the condition of a
tube is the gas content. As tubes age gas is released
within the envelope; under normal conditions this gas
is absorbed by the action of the cathode or special
getters within the tube. However, at the end of life or
if the tube seals are damaged, gas may accumulate
faster than it can be absorbed. Alternatively, a tube
which has been stored for a long while may evolve a
small amount of gas although this condition is often
temporary. The first line of test is simply to measure
the heater current with the specified heater voltage
applied. This may be done without "dressing" the
tube or, indeed, removing it from its packing. If the
tube is seriously gassy the heater current will be high
since the gas within the tube conducts heat away
from the cathode and prevents it from reaching its
operating temperature. A tube showing high heater
current should never be powered to full HT. The
second line of test is to measure the ion current
created by bombardment of the gas molecules within
the tube by electrons. A voltage of about 200 V is
applied between the cathode and the first accelerating
Fig.14. Measurement of input/output characteristic.
LOAD
-20dB

78

-20d8

Pour

dBm

Fig.15 Input/output characteristic.

electrode. The heater power may be varied slightly to

give a standard bombardment current of about 2 rnA
to that electrode. The next furthest electrode away
from the cathode (helix for TWT or body for
klystron) is made negative by about 49 V wtt
cathode. Current to this electrode is then a measure
of gas pressure. Typically a good tube will show less
than 0.02 JJ.A although up to 1.0 JJ.A would still be
useable. Naturally the above method cannot be used
on a magnetron, which is only a 2 electrode device.
With these devices testing is limited to the Pirani test
for directly heated, or heater current at specified
voltage for indirectly heated types.
Operational tests
The operation testing of VM devices when divorced
from user apparatus usually involves test gear of a
specialised nature, and, since full power and cooling
are also demanded the advantage of such tests over
normal performance tests in the complete apparatus
are questionable. However, by way of illustration of
the possibilities, the methods used to assess the
performance of UHF television travelling wave tubes
and klystrons are described below.
d.c. measurements The measurement of d.c. currents
and voltages supplied to the various electrodes yields
a deal of useful information. For example, measurement of helix and grid 2 currents give a fair indication
of the state of life of a TWT.
Input-Output characteristic. The test set up is as
shown in Fig.14. The source should be capable of
delivering sufficient power to fully drive the tube and
should have good stability. The method is simply to
apply the input to the tube in increments and to plot
the resulting input/output curve. The curve will be of
the form shown in Fig. 15. The highest point of rise on
the curve 1s the saturated ouput for that d.c. supply
condition. Similarly, if the powers are expressed in
dBm the gain and gain compression at any point may
be assessed. In order to estimate the peak working

DuAL
DIRECTIONAL
COUPLER

Fig.16. Measurement of output match.

Fig.17. Measurement of cross talk.

level it is necessary to know the nature of the signal to

be handled. A single frequency will, of course, traverse
the characteristic up to its peak power level, but two
equal signals will traverse the characteristic up to four
times the power of either one, and a 5:1 ratio signal will
require a peak envelope power of 2.1 times the peak
power of the larger signal.

tuned to f2 and the depth of modulation detected is a

measure of cross talk. The receiver requires good
adjacent channel rejection and high local oscillator
drive to minimise cross talk therein.

Output match. A common way in which a travelling

wave tube may be damaged is if excessive power has
been reflected or otherwise fed into the output
socket. The effect of this form of misuse will be to
damage the slow wave structure within the tube. The
effect of this damage may well show in the release of
gas, but a better check for this form of damage is to
conduct an output match test with the tube properly
powered and cooled. The test set up is shown in
Fig.16. The system may be calibrated by means of an
attenuator the remote end of which is left open
circuit. Thus a 6dB attenuator will present a return
loss of 12dB since the test signal traverses it twice,
being reflected by the open end. Having calibrated
the system the output match of the tube over the
working frequency band may be measured, a severe
mismatch indicating a damaged slow wave structure,
or output connection. It is most important to
terminate the input of the tube when this test is being
conducted as damage could be caused in the event of
the tube oscillating.

Intermodulation This effect is caused by the vector

addition of products of phase and amplitude nonlinearity.
Although three signal sources are shown in Fig.18 this
test can be performed more simply with two.
However, three signal sources produce a waveform
not unlike a television waveform and can be considered to represent sound, vision, and colour subcarrier signals. If two sources are employed the signals
are commonly the same amplitude and the products
of intermodulation, viewed on the spectrum analyser,
are measured relative to either tone. In the case of
three tones the amplitudes are -7, -8 and -17 dB
for sound, vision and colour subcarrier respectively
and the intermodulation product amplitude is
measured relative to OdB. In view of the complex
nature of the waveforms used it is normal to set the
power before testing, using a single signal at OdB, for
the three tone test, and at +6dB relative to either
tone for the tw<_> tone test.
Fig. lB. Three tone test for intermodulation.

Cross talk. This, and the following test, are only of

significance to tubes handling multiple signals. The
measurement of cross talk is a good indication of
amplitude non-linearity in the device under test,
affected to a second order only by phase nonlinearity. The test set up is as shown in Fig.17. It may
be necessary to pad off the generators from one
another in order to keep the inherent cross talk to a
negligible amount. This is checked by performing the
test without using the tube, as indicated by the
dotted line. The test is done with one generator, fl,
amplitude modulated to a high index by means of an
audio frequency of the order of 1 kHz. The second
generator, f2, is unmodulated. The receiver is now

79

INSPECTION OF NEW VALVES

When a valve is received from a manufacturer it
should immediately be inspected for physical damage
and as much electrical testing as possible carried out.
With small valves it is probably easiest to try them in
an operational circuit for satisfactory operation, but
this is not always so simple. with large valves.
Wherever possible a Cold Filament Resistance, Pirani
or gas test should be carried out before the valve is
unpacked. If this cannot be done the valve should be
carefully removed from the packing and subjected to
a careful mechanical examination for signs of damage.
Inspection of the packing can also be worthwhile.
The next move is to invert the valve several times
listening for loose pieces of material within the tube.
If there is no sign of mechanical damage the valve
may be put into its socket and run up. This should be

done by running the filament only for a few minutes

before applying the anode voltage, at reduced level if
possible. This will allow any residual gas to be
absorbed before the application of full h.t. voltage,
which should be delayed by at least 15 minutes, and
then only if operation at reduced voltage is satisfactory. At this point it is possible to decide if the
valve has been damaged in transit. If it has, both the
supplier and carrier should be notified immediately.

VALVES IN INDUSTRIAL HEATING

EQUIPMENTS
One of the main uses of valves in industry is in radio
frequency heating equipments. There are two types:
a) Induction or eddy current heaters where the load is
placed in the magnetic field of a coil.
b) Capacitive or dielectric heaters where the load is
placed in the electric field of a capacitor.
In each case the valve is run as a self excited
oscillator, the frequency depending upon the type of
equipment and the application. In general induction
heaters operate below 10 MHz and dielectric heaters
above 10 MHz, but there are exceptions foi: special
applications.

As these equipments have the absolute minimum of

metering it is not always possible to tell if the valve is
working correctly and within its ratings. However, a
few simple measurements during operation can give a
very good guide. When the equipment is run completely unloaded all the input power appears as losses
in the anode and in the tank circuit. Thus for safety,
the power input on 'no load' (anode voltage X anode
current) should not exceed the permitted anode
dissipation. When the oscillator is loaded, virtually all
the increase in input power should appear as useful
80

power in the load. Hence the output power Po may

be calculated from:
P0 =laVa (full load)- laVa (no load).
The grid dissipation is generally in the order 0.5 to 1
times the dissipation in the grid bias resistance. This
can be determined by measuring the mean grid
current Ig at an earthy point in the circuit. (The
meter should always be bypassed with at least 1 000
pF capacitor to prevent RF affecting the movement).
The power Pg(b) in the bias resistor Rg is given by:
Pg (b)= Ig 2 Rg.
A more accurate estimate of grid dissipation can be
made if it is possible to measure the amount by which
the grid swings positive with respect to the cathode
(Vg max.) Fig.19 shows a peak reading voltmeter
which will do this without affecting the operation of
the circuit. The anode of the diode is connected
directly to the grid of the oscillator and the common
terminal to the cathode. When the anode of the diode
goes positive with respect to its cathode the diode
conducts and charges capacitor C 1 When the anode
swings down the charge remains on C 1 so the diode
cuts off. C 1 discharges through the meter until the
next cycle, when it is recharged as the anode again
goes positive. If the time constant C 1 R is sufficiently
long, the change of voltage across C 1 will be small
and it will remain charged to the peak value of the
grid of the oscillator. C2 is a capacitor on the meter
terminals to bypass any residual RF current.
Provided all the leads carrying RF currents are kept
short a meter such as that described can be used at
frequencies up to several Megahertz. At higher frequencies internal resonances can cause false readings
and/or damage the diode.
In a Class C oscillator, as is used for industrial
heating, the grid current pulse lasts for a very small
part of the cycle, and can be considered as being
approximately square. It can then be seen that the
power dissipated on the grid (Pg) is given by:
Pg = Vg max. ig. tg
tc
but ig tg = lg
tc
Thus Pg = Vg max. Ig.

where ig is the peak value

of grid current
tg is the duration of grid
current flow
tc is the period of 1 cycle
ofrf

As the grid current is not quite square this method

tends to give a calculated dissipation which is higher
than the actual dissipation, and an arbitrary factor of
0.8 is often included to allow for this.

c,

Fig.19. Peak reading voltmeter.

Measurement of output power of an induction heater

is easily obtained by heating a steel calorimeter in the
work coil and measuring the rise in temperature of a
known flow of water. For an accurate measurement it
is important to ensure that the water is thoroughly
mixed at the point where the temperature is
measured. A second thermometer further away from
the load will provide such a check. The output power
may be calculated from:

Where P0 is in kW; t 1 is the inlet water temp C; t 2 is

the outlet water temp C; F is the flow litres/min.

TRANSMITTING APPARATUS
In many ways the checking of transmitting apparatus is
similar to the checking of IH apparatus. It can be shown
that the 'knee region' of a valve's characteristic has a
considerable effect on its performance in transmitting
apparatus and in order to make measurements to
explore the characteristic in this region it is necessary
to know the grid drive accurately. In transmitters the
drive depends on the condition of the penultimate
stage and not the feedback as in IH apparatus. A very
rough approximation to the conditions at the grid can
be obtained from the grid current (if grid current is
drawn) but to make measurements with any accuracy it
is necessary to measure grid drive by means of a peak
reading voltmeter as previously described.

The measurement of anode swing cannot be done in

the same way as the grid if any appreciable voltages
are involved, since the currents that flow in even
small capacitances can be relatively large owing to the
large voltage swings that can occur in the anode
circuits. A superior arrangement is shown in Fig.20. A
very small capacitor formed by a flap or disc
mounted in the proximity of the anode surface forms
the upper capacitor in a capacitive voltage divider.
The lower arm is formed by a capacitor of much
larger value, which doubles as the reservoir capacitor
in the shunt diode, peak reading, voltmeter circuit.
The time constants should be chosen to follow or
ignore the modulation cycle, whichever is desired.
The circuit is simple but it is important to ensure that
the capacitances involved are known accurately and
any stray or variable components are carefully
screened off.
Knowledge of grid swing, anode swing, and all d.c.
quantities should enable predictions of output power
and efficiency to be made, using standard operating
point calculations. The measurement of output power
may be performed by measurement of line current or
voltage to the antenna, or by means of an artificial
load. The artificial load may be a purchased device
used for tests on the apparatus if radio silence is
required. If high frequencies are involved a purchased
load is essential, but for lower frequencies a load may
be constructed. The principle of construction of such
a load is to make a carbon film resistor such as the
Welwyn type C749 the centre conductor of a coaxial
line, the space between this and the outer conductor
should be filled with polythene leaving a hollow
cylinder around the resistor to enable cooling water
Fig.20. The mechanical and electrical arrangements for
an RF swing meter. This will record the swing in the
negative direction.
Time constant = R(C I + C2) Since c I ~ c2 TC = RC2
Where C2 includes the capacitance of the meter and
diode and R is the meter resistance.
Peak Voltage at B
1

The second important parameter that needs investigation is the anode loading. Here the transmitter differs
from the IH apparatus. The IH output will receive a
varying loading in most cases, but the transmitteris
designed to work into a constant load presented by
an antenna system.
A tetrode or pentode will give a good indication that
the anode is swinging correctly by the sharp rise in
screen grid current that occurs when the anode swings
below the screen grid voltage. In some ways this is a
better indication than any other, but it only operates
when the valve is fully driven and reveals nothing in,
say, a half drive condition that may be met in an SSB
equipment.

c2 ;c 1 + 1

Since C 1

X peak voltage at A

~ C2

= C 1/C 2 X peak

voltage at A

BOX CONTAINING
REMAINDER OF
CIRCUIT
(A)

(B)

81

Fig.21 Dummy load for

transmitter. R = Zo = I381y'E
logD/d. Where E is the relatiue
permilli:.Jity of polythene = 2.26.

WATER
OUT

to flow (Fig.21). The ratio of the diameters of the

outside of the water space and the inside of the outer
cylinder should be such that the Z 0 of the cylinders is
equal to the resistance value, that is the required
transmitter load. The dielectric constant for water is
so high compared with polythene that the diameter
of the resistor will be effectively increased to that of
the water as far as the electrical properties of the load
are concerned. Made carefully, the load can have
good VSWR up to about 30MHz. To measure the
power dissipated in the load it is only necessary to
pass a measured water flow through the water
channel and measure the temperature rise that occurs
as described under COOLING. The temperature rise
should be kept low, to about 5 - 1 0C in order to
minimise errors.

The following information shows how the anode, or

collector dissipation of a tube may be estimated in
terms of temperature rise, flow etc. of the cooling
medium. The same information applies to measurement of power output of an apparatus, provided all
of the output can be coupled to the coolant, whether
by indirect means, as in the case of the transmitter
load described earlier, or directly as for example, in
measuring the power output of a microwave oven.
From basic physics: Dissipation watts = 4.18 X Flow
X Density X Specific heat X Temp rise.
For air cooling:
the density of air at 20C is 1.06 kg/m 3 ;
the specific heat at 20C is 240 cal/g C.
Therefore:

= 4.18

F
X 60 X 1.06 X 240 X T

= 17.7 X F X T watts
Where Fin m 3 /min
Tin C

82

Panode = 0.502 X F X T watts

Where Fin ft 3 /min
For water cooling: Over the relevant temperature rise
the density of water is virtually constant at 103
kg/m 3
_

Panode- 4.18

X F X 10--"3

60

X 10 X 10 T

= 70 X F X T watts
Where F in litre/min.
and Panode = 314 X F X T watts
Where F in gal/min.

Cooling

Panode

or

For ebullient cooling: If all the water supplied is

converted to steam then:
Panode

4.18 X flow X s.heat X temp.rise

+ 4.18 X latent heat of vaporisation
= 4.18 X F X 106 T + 4.18 X F X 540 X 106

= 4.18

X 106 I<' (T + 540) watts where F is in

m 3 /sec.

= 0.07F (T + 540) kW where F is in litre/min.

or 0.314F (T + 540) kW where F is in gpm.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Class C Amplifier and Oscillator design - a simplified
version. L.T. Apps. Electronic Engineering Jan. 1955.
Calculation and Design of Class C Amplifiers. F .E.
Terman and W.C. Roake. Proc IRE 1936.
Linearity Testing Techniques for Sideband Equipment. P.J. Icenbice and H.E. Fellhaver. Proc IRE Dec.
1956.
Linear Power Amplifier Design. Warren B. Bruene.
Proc IRE Dec. 1956.

Chapter 10

Relays

and

Switches

J J Langridge

Keyswitch Relays Limited

Within the broad type classification of relays many

variations exist, each having its own specific application and hence its own particular parameters to be
checked. Obviously in order to determine the
important aspects of any test procedure, the use to
which the device is to be put needs to be known, and
the function of it must be understood. The following
list is representative of the types of relay which occur
in normal use.

1.
2.
4.
3.
5.

Telephone type relays.

General purpose industrial relays.
Reed relays.
Microswitch relays.
Delay /timing relays.

Taking each of these categories separately, the first

type refers to relays such as the well known 3 000
and 600 relays as used in Strowger system telephone
exchanges. Here the manufacturing and test specifications are laid down in detail on the relevant Post
Office relay specification sheet, while in the case of
relays of this type but which have a non-PO build-up,
the general PO limits still apply. Because of the ease
with which the above types can be modified, delay
and timing relays are often built from 3 000 type
assemblies with either a copper coil slug incorporated
or a transistorised circuit to delay either the make or
break of the relay as specified. The second type
covers the more general field where a simple electromagnetic switch is required simultaneously to switch
medium level currents (0.1 - 15A) in a number of
different circuits. Here obvious applications occur in
the entertainment and catering markets. Reed
switches form a relatively new category in the above
table and have considerable use in high speed situations, such as computers and counting equipment.
The main use of microswitch relays is to switch
relatively high currents in reactive circuits where a

X3

Fig.l. Types of relays. From left to right: telephone type relay; general purpose industrial relay; microswitch relay; reed
relay; delay/timing relay.

fast break is required whatever the form of drive

current.
As these categories of relay also include in their
build-up the main basic types of switch - reed,
micro, lever - the test procedures for the relays are
universal in application.

TESTING
The first aspect of testing must be the level of
inspection and the user must determine this level
based on his knowledge of the product, the standing
of the manufacturer and the in-house facilities which
are available. He will have to decide whether the units
need 100% viewing, a sample inspection, or even no
incoming operation, ihe company relying solely on
the final test of the equipment manufacturer to find
any defects. To decide on this, the probable defect
rate has to be known. In general a figure of not more
than 1% is accepted for the relays within the cate-

Fig.2. Test jig circuit.

gories already listed, except for item 5, where the

reject rate is normally negligible, since each relay is
individually tested and adjusted at the manufacturers'
works.
Hence the decision will be based on the economics of
repair within the manufacturing unit, and the number
of relays in any one unit.
In a Goods Inwards Inspection situation, certain
parameters need to be checked to ensure acceptance
and these can be listed as:
1. Electrical operation

2.
3.
4.
5.

Contact current rating

Breakdown voltage
Make/Break time
Contact resistance

Relay types 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
1 (Visual), 2
1, 2, 3, 5
3, 5
3

The above list tries to indicate the normal tests

referred to the types of relay listed previously, but
special requirements may mean that additional tests
have to be made.
Electrical testing
The requirements of electrical tests are to check that
the relay operates at its stated voltage and that the
contacts make and break. To do this, a stabilised
supply is required, d.c. or a.c. as wanted, together
with a jig which can pick up the relay contacts. The
circuit for a two pole changeover relay with a single
wound coil is shown in Fig. 2. In this, the diodes
incorporated in the contact circuits are to check that
the relay wiring is correct and lever wires have not
been incorrectly connected. This is especially

84

important in the case of plug-in relays where the plug

wiring cannot be checked visually. Also two separate
switches are incorporated in the coil drive circuit so
that there is no chance of the inspector receiving an
electric shock when working with high voltage coils in
an open type relay. The voltage used to drive the
contact/ lamp circuits should never be less than 24 V
to cater for relay contact materials, usually in the
higher current ranges, such as silver cadmium oxide
which may require this amount to break through the
normal surface 'film', formed partically because contacts are not always mechanically self cleaning. On
plain silver contacts for up to about 7 A operation,
the fixed contacts are often cross-hatched to provide
this cleaning action, and hence lower test voltages can
be employed.
Before any tests are carried out, however, the relay
should be 'run in' by repeated operation of the relay
for a few seconds. At this stage the test set should
show a change on the lamps from the normally closed
to the normally open circuits. The relay should then
be operated slowly by hand and there should be a
point where no lamp is alight, [except in the cases of
'K' action, (make before break), and X action, (early
make), contacts]. If a feeler gauge is inserted between
the pole face of the relay and the residual stud on the
armature, in the case of a general purpose relay or
microswitch, the normally open contacts should complete the circuit, showing that sufficient contact
pressure is available in the closed position. On the
telephone type relays, when the armature is closed,
preferably electrically, there should be a visible gap
between each buffer (fixed contact spring) and the
buffer block step on which it was resting. On the
general purpose relays, however, the normal manufacturing limits will give a relay sufficient overtravel
to allow the use of an 0.2 mm gauge to be used for
thiJ test, although clearance down to 0.19 mm will
still make the relay perfectly acceptable for normal
use. For microswitches and M/S relays, an overtravel
of 0.1 mm is usual at the operating button on the
switch.
With respect to the coil operating voltage, most GP
relays are rated to operate at 80% of their nominal
voltage, and this becomes important in the case of
a.c. relays especially where the problem of 'buzzing'
or supply frequency drop-out can occur. It is advisable to test the relay at 80% of the rated voltage and
at 110% if possible, to eliminate the chance of a fault
of this kind escaping. If the equipment is to be used
in a country with a 60 Hz supply, the ~evice should
be tested at this frequency, since changes in operating
voltages with frequency vary with the design of the
relay.
The most economical method is to use the output of
a suitable audio amplifier driven by a sine wave signal
generator set to 60 Hz. It is not sufficient to check on

r------,

COIL
' - - - - - - - . , - - - - - - SUPPLY
MICROSWITCH

Fig.3. Circuit to measure operate delay.

50 Hz alone. These comments do not, of course,

apply if the relay has a d.c. coil driven by its own
rectifier and smoothing circuit, where results on the
two frequencies will be similar.
In the case of reed relays, most of the above ideas can

be utilised, but care must be exercised in the checking

of the contact operation, since many reed switches
have a very low current rating, and the current drawn
by a miniature bulb is relatively high, especially at
make. Here it is usual to switch a low current of
around 10 rnA and then increase this to 100 rnA in
order to measure the contact resistance. The indication of the circuit having closed (or opened) is then
given by a meter, or electronic amplifier.
In considering the contact current rating, one must
also look at the required life of the relay or switch ie
number of operations needed. Most manufacturers
quote a mechanical life of several million operations
for the device, but this will only occur in practice if
the current rating is about 2-5% of the maximum
rating. If the relay is to be operated at its maximum
capacity, a life of around 500 000 operations should
be expected. Also, these ratings refer only to nonreactive loads, so that relays to switch motors and the
like must be carefully specified to achieve a reasonable number of reliable operations. A visual inspection of the mating surfaces of the fixed and moving
contacts will usually show whether the relay will last
Fig.4. Waveforms of delay. relay.
--.!........'.-BOUNCE
I I
TIME

OPERATE
DELAY

CONTACT
CURRENT

COIL
VOLTAGE

_4,_:
11

I I
I I

1 1

RELEASE

~DELAY

------~j~r'----~~----

t
-TIME

85

well or not. The common specification for all contacts is that they should not be more than 1 /3 of
their diameter out of alignment, and if this is adhered
to, the capacity of the device will not be impaired.
High voltage insulation testing is best carried out after
the relay has been assembled into the equipment,
since socket or tag wiring is most prone to leave sharp
solder points which can provide unforseen flash-over
points. The easiest type of equipment with which to
carry out such a test is the non-destructive flash tester
which has a mains driven transformer giving a variable
high voltage output, the current from which is limited
by a capacitor, and indicated by a meter. This will
provide several different levels of test to cover the
various figures quoted by relay and switch suppliers.
Breakdown testing is most important when either
inductive circuits are to be switched and hence high
back EMFs are probable, and also where contact sets
on the same relay are to switch separate circuits at
widely differing levels.
Many types of modern equipment need delays built
into their operation so that mechanical. movements
are not 'beaten' by the electrical control circuits.
Hence relays which have to delay an output signal
need to be checked out with care before they are
mounted. The normal way to effect this check is by
means of an electronic timer, the digital type being
the easiest to use. In general terms the principle is to
start the timer with a pulse from the relay coil start
current, and to stop it with the opening or closure of
a set of contacts on the relay.
It is most important to realise that most timers will

ignore the 'bounce' time whereas some manufacturers

will quote total delay. For relays having relatively
long delay time (larger than 10 ms ) this discrepancy
is negligible, but in the case of reed relays for
example, the timer measurement may not be sufficient, and the waveform is best displayed on an
oscilloscope. A suitable circuit is given in Fig. 5. The
instrument must, of course, have a time base which
can be triggered externally, and which can be, or is

Fig.5. Circuit using a single beam oscilloscope to measure operate delay.

r------,

OS

l ITrf

-------,

~
~
'---i--:--ll_j
, ~~,~rr----+~
I RELAY UNDER I ",!L___- 7 - - - - - - - e COIL

LTS,.SI_ - - - - J

Y,

SUPPLY

MICROSWITCH

Fig.6. Measuring operate delay using a double beam

oscilloscope.

calibrated. For very high speed relays, a double beam

oscilloscope would be an advantage, as in Fig. 6,
where the relay coil is activated by a microswitch, so
that both the coil start pulse and the contact pulse
are displaced to the right on the screen to make
accurate measurement easier. With the single beam
circuit, the delay built into the trigger circuit needs to
be known before really accurate figures can be taken.
It must be remembered that make and break time
vary considerably with the drive voltage and most
suppliers quote times at the nominal voltage. If the
supply is going to vary at all, measurements need to
be taken at the limits of the drive voltage to establish
that the time' delay remains within the necessary
tolerance. The most common method of overcoming
such a difficulty is to use a standard relay with an
electronic timing circuit which then can be stabilized
to ignore any normal variations in voltage.
A measure of the contact resistance of a switch or
relay is not often required since the normal operating
voltages and currents are such that it is not noticeable. In the case of reed relays, however, many
applications call for reliable operation at extremely
low levels, and hence this type of measurement
becomes important. The bulk of reed capsules are

Fig. 7. The measurement of contact resistance on a reed

relay.

COPE

PLATE
y

IOOmA
FS.D.

IRELAY UNDER

.Jf2T_--IOOmA SUPPLY
d. c.

86

PLATE

supplied with a figure quoted of less than 100

milliohms. To measure such a quantity, a four point
connection must be made. As mentioned previously,
this measurement is usually made with 100 rnA
flowing through the reed switch, the connections
being at the extreme end of the wires or pins. The
voltage drop is then picked off from points inside the
current connections and this then gives a direct
reading of resistance in ohms 10- 1. Fig. 7 refers. At
these levels of resistance, calibration is very important
and the relays should be replaced by a known
standard resistor to check that the current and meter
calibration is correct. For the quantity checking of
reed switches Fig. 8 shows a diagrammatic form of
automatic test fixture where the four point contact is
made with gold plated wires actuated by a solenoid
driving an insulated rod. The switches are dropped
into the test coil and checking of both operation and
contact resistance can be made simultaneously.
All the preceding tests, of course, are done in order to
establish a high confidence lev~l for the devices being
used. Obviously if records are kept of the results
obtained with previous batches from a particular
supplier, a pattern is usually established which can be
used to reduce the amount of incoming inspection
that needs to be carried out. In this way the necessary
tests may be transferred to the final inspection point
in the assembly line and hence considerable savings in
duplicating expensive equipment can be effected.

RELAY SELECTION
The selection of the correct relay for a particular
application can provide a difficult problem to an
engineer if the performance needed is a complicated
one. The following factors should be considered.
1. Size.
2. Operating voltage.
3. Maximum coil dissipation.
4. Number of circuits to be switched.
5. Contact current handling capacity.
6. Insulation breakdown voltage.
7. Type of contact load (resistive, inductive, etc.)
8. Coil voltage range.
9. Environmental immunity.
10. Operate/release times.
11. Method of mounting.
12. Method of connection.

One of the first considerations is whether the relay is

going to need regular replacement, due either to
environmental conditions or high cycle rate and/or
load. Obviously a relay used to switch a high current
electric motor in industrial conditions would need to
be replaceable, whereas one used at low level in a
calculator would probably outlast the life of the
equipment. Two solutions to the problem of a

GOLD PLATED

SPRING WIRES

MEASURING
CIRCUIT

1
IOOmA
SUPPLY

TEST
COIL

COIL
SUPPLY
d.c.

INSULATING WIRE
OPENING CAM

Fig. B. Arrangement of semiaulomalic reed switch lester.

replaceable relay are available; one is to use a plug-in

type, and the other is to use a relay having spade or
screw terminals which can be changed without having
to use a soldering iron. If a plug-in relay is used, it
must be remembered that most plug pin ratings
restrict the maximum current which can be carried,
and this sometimes can waste available capacity in the
relay contacts. On the other hand, most plug-in types
have a plastic or metal cover and hence have greater
resistance to the ingress of dirt, dust or, much more
dangerous, ferrous particles. This last is far more
important than is generally thought, because it only
needs one iron filing in a relay to give a high chance
of immediate failure. Hence in the selection of
devices for fail/safe or alarm circuits, plug-in relays
become mandatory, unless gas-tight casings are being
used.
In less demanding conditions, however, an open
frame type can be used to give the advantages of low
cost, high current ratings, and a higher usable coil
dissipation.
It is not always the high current applications which

may require regular replacement. In counting equipment, reed switches are often used because of their
high speed, and because they can be tripped by a
magnet on the unit to be counted, eg a coil winding
machine. Here the limitation may come solely by
virtue of the large number of operations involved, and
the mechanical life of the device must be considered
when specifying for such an application.
In choosing the operating voltage for the relay coil, it
is better to err on the low side for the supply so that
the relay is not too heavily energised. A high operate

87

voltage will put considerable strain on the mechanics

of the relay and will reduce the life considerably. It is
also rarely realised that in the case where there is to
be a residual voltage on the coil in the released
condition, this should be below 10% of the rated
voltage, since a relay stays latched down to a very low
percentage of its operate value. This applies especially
to reed relays and microswitch relays where the
force/movement curve is not continuous.
The current handling capacity of contact sets has to
be considered in conjunction with the type of load to
be switched. A pure resistive load, (cos = 1) can be
switched up to the rating quoted by the manufacturer, but if an inductive load is involved, such as a
motor, or heavy contactor, the current must be
derated to a figure dependent on the value of cos for
that load. In the case of cos = 0.4, a derating of 40%
on a.c. and 70% on d.c. current ratings will normally
be safe.
If contacts are at widely differing voltages, the breakdown voltage becomes important, and it must be
remembered that with a.c. voltages, this refers to the
peak value and not the RMS. Usually the reason for
voltage breakdown is to be found in the equipment,
due to wiring which has nullified the features built
into the relay, and hence it is important to consider
the methods of wiring, the wire insulation, and the
proximity of any metalwork to the relay.

The operate time of a relay is obviously important in

such equipment as computers and delay circuits, but
it can be of equal importance in less demanding
equipment such as amusement machines. Here a relay
has often to release within a certain time for the
circuit to continue its programme. In the normal
general purpose relay, no times are quoted by the
manufacturer, and wide variations can occur. In such
cases, a relay which has a quoted specification should
be used although this will usually add cost to the
equipment.

88

MANUFACTURERS' SPECIFICATIONS
Although each manufacturer will specify his relays in
a different way, the main points are common and can
be correlated easily. Firstly, the coil voltage is given
either as a continous rating or for intermittent operation. A continuous rating only means that the coil
can remain energised at its rated voltage indefinitely
if the surrounding air is sensibly at room temperature.
This could restrict the use of the relay if it is to be
used in high temperature conditions such as furnace
control or oil burners. In such cases, it is best to
reduce the drive voltage after the relay has operated
so that the dissipation is reduced.
For intermittent operation, the manufacturer usually
states a duty cycle which again must be reduced if the
temperature is excessive.
In the specification of contact sets, some light duty
contacts have twin contacts. This indicates th~;~.t each
circuit is connected by two contacts on the same
spring but separated by a slot in the spring so that
both contacts can be adjusted by the manufacturer to
make contact at the same moment. This provides a
higher degree of reliability in operation, and also a
lower contact resistance in general. This type of
contact is often used for low level audio switching
and especially in the telephone industry.
The life of the relay is often quoted as a mechanical
life, and this must not be taken as the life to be
expected if the current switched by the relay is near
the stated maximum. Here a manufacturer can
usually indicate a probable life, but a life test will
provide a result with a higher confidence level.
Approval by such bodies as BSI or the Post Office
will always indicate that the specification meets the
basic requirements for the type of relay involved, and
can be used as a guarantee of the design approval of
the relay.

Glossary of Terms
(electronics,
voltage:
Accelerating
oscilloscopes) the cathode-to-viewingscreen voltage applied to a cathoderay tube for the purpose of accelerating
the electron beam.
Air cored cons: (electronics) coils with
no magnetic material used in their
construction; include coils wound on
non-magnetic formers as well as
airspaced coils.
Alpba cut-oft': (electronics, semiconductors) that frequency at the
point at which the current gain of a
transistor has fallen to 07 of its low
frequency value.
Alternate mode: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a means of displaying output
signals of two or more channels by
switching the channels, in sequence,
after each sweep.
Anderson bridge: (electronics) a modified
form of Maxwell bridge used for
measuring inductance in terms of
capacitance and resistance.
A.Q.L.: (electronics) a point on the
operating characteristic of a sampling
scheme which defines the quality level
at which there is a reasonable
probability (usually 095) that the lot
will be passed as acceptable by the
sampling scheme.
Audio frequency choke: (electronics) an
iron-cored inductor designed to offer
high resistance to audio frequency
signals.
triggering: (electronics,
Automatic
oscilloscopes) a mode of triggering in
which one or more of the triggering
circuit controls are preset to conditions suitable for automatically
displaying repetitive wave-forms. The
automatic mode may also provide a
recurrent sweep in the absence of
triggering signals.
Auto transformer: (electronics) a wound
transformer in which part of the
winding is common to both the
primary and secondary windings.
Bandwidth: (electronics) a statement of
the frequencies defining the upper and
lower limits of a frequency spectrum
where the amplitude response of an
amplifier to a sinusoidal waveform

becomes 0707 (-3dB) of the amplitude of a reference frequency. When

only one number appears, it is taken
as the upper limit.
Capacitor coupling impedance: a
characteristic of capacitors having
more than one capacitance element
in a single container; a measure of
the transfer of signal from one
element to another.
Capacitor power factor: defined as the
proportion of the applied a.c. signal
which is dissipated as heat in the
component.
Carbon composition resistors: the basic
element of resistors manufactured
from a mixture of carbon and resinous
material. The form of the element
may be either a block of the material
usually moulded, or in the case of
potentiometers it may be deposited in
film form on a substrate.
Cavity Q: (electronic microwave devices)
cavity Q is defined as 2x times the
ratio of energy stored to the energy
dissipated per cycle.
CFR: (electronic tubes) cold filament
resistance; an important measurement
on valves with multistrand filaments.
Chopped mode: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a time sharing method of
displaying output signals of two or
more channels with a single cathode
ray tube gun, in sequence, at a rate
not referenced to the sweep.
Common mode rejection ratio (CMRR):
(electronics, oscilloscopes) ratio of the
deflection factor for a common-mode
signal to the deflection factor for a
differential signal.
Common-mode signal: (electronics) the
instantaneous algebraic average of
two signals applied to a balanced
circuit, all signals referred to a
common reference.
Common-mode signal maximum: (electronics) the largest common-mode
signal at which the specific commonmode rejection ratio is valid.
Current comparator bridge: a conjugate
Kelvin bridge employing the detection
of zero flux for the comparison of two
resistors.

d.c. balance: (electronics, oscilloscopes)

an adjustment of circuitry to avoid a
change in d.c. level when changing
gain.
d.c. drift (stability): (electronics, oscilloscopes) property of retaining defined
electrical characteristics for a prescribed period.
d.c. shift: (electronics, oscilloscopes) an
error in transient response with a
time constant approaching several
seconds.
Deflection axis: (electronics, oscilloscopes) the major co-ordinates passing
through the centre of viewing area.
Deflection factor: (electronics, oscilloscopes) the ratio of the input signal
amplitude to the resultant displacement of the indicating spot (eg
volts/division).
Delayed sweep: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a sweep that has been delayed
either by a predetermined period or
by a period determined by an
additional independent variable.
Differential amplifier: an amplifier whose
output signal is proportional to the
algebraic difference between two input
signals.
Dual-beam oscilloscope: an oscilloscope
in which the cathode ray tube
produces two separate electron beams
that may be individually or jointly
controlled.
Dual trace: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a
mode of operation in which a single
beam in a cathode ray tube is shared
by two signal channels; see alternate
mode and chopped mode.
Dust cored coils: (electronics) coils
wound onto composite material made
of ferromagnetic particles coated with
an insulated binder and compressed.
capacitors
capacitors:
Electrolytic
comprising an oxide film on the
surface of the positive electrode with
a layer of conducting electrolyte
filling the space between the oxide
surface and negative electrode.
Ferrite cored coils: (electronics) coils
wound on cores of sintered ferrite in
which some of the iron is replaced by
nickel or manganese.

89

Free-running sweep: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a sweep that runs without

being triggered and is not synchronised
by an applied signal.
Function generators: a multipurpose
electronics signal source usually
delivering square wave, triangular
wave and sine wave outputs; can also
be made to deliver rectangular and
sawtooth waveforms.
gm: (electronics, semiconductors) low
frequency mutual conductance.
Guarded input: (electronics, instrumentation) means of connecting an input
signal to prevent any common mode
signal from causing current to flow in
the input, thus differences of source
impedance do not cause conversion
of the common mode signal into a
differential signal.
Harmonic distortion: (electronic signal
generators) a measure of the impurity
of the sine wave output from the
generator.
Harmonic generators/frequency multipliers: (electronics) microwave circuits
in which power at one frequency is
converted to power at an harmonic
frequency.
hFE: (electronics, semiconductors)
common emitter de forward current
gain.
hre: (electronics, semiconductors) small
signal common emitter current gain.
hie: (electronics, semiconductors) small
signal common emitter input impedance.
hoc: (electronics, semiconductors) small
signal common emitter output impedance
hre: (electronics, semiconductors) small
signal common emitter reverse voltage
ratio.
Ia: (electronic tubes) direct anode
current.
la(cw): (electronic tubes) direct anode
current applicable under cw conditions.
lamax: (electronic tubes) maximum
direct current (full signal).
lao: (electronic tubes) standing direct
anode current (zero signal).
ia<pk): (electronic tubes) instantaneous
peak anode current.
ia(pk)mod: (electronic tubes) instantaneous peak anode current at modulation crest.
lcso: (electronics, semiconductors)
collector base leakage current.
semiconductors)
lcEo: (electronics,
collector emitter leakage current.
1oM: (electronics, power semiconductors) peak off state current.
le: (electronic tubes) component of
direct current due to emission.
semiconductors)
lEBO: (electronics,
base emitter leakage current.
power semiconIF: (electronics,
ductors) direct (continuous) forward
current (limiting value).
IF<AV): (electronics, power semiconductors) mean forward current

90

(limiting value) sinusoidal waveform,

180 conduction, resistive load.
IFRM: (electronics, power semiconductors) repetitive peak forward
current, sinusoidal waveform.
IFsM: (electronics, power semiconductors) surge (non-repetitive) forward current, sinusoidal waveform
180 conduction.
let: (electronics, power semiconductors) gate trigger current.
power semiconelectronics,
IH:
dictors) holding current.
1;: (electronic tubes) component of
direct current due to ionised gas.
power semiconIL: (electronics,
ductors) latching current.
Ita: (electronic tubes) component of
direct current due to ionised gas.
ltk: (electronic tubes) component of
direct current due to leakage to
cathode.
Input bias current: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the average of the
two input currents.
Input offset current: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the difference in
the currents into the two input
terminals with output at zero volts.
Input offset voltage: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) that voltage which
must be applied between the input
terminals to obtain zero output
voltage; may also be defined for the
case where two equal resistances are
inserted in series with the input leads.
Input RC characteristics: the d.c.
resistance and capacitance to ground
present at the input of an oscilloscope.
Input resistance: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the resistance
looking into either input terminal with
the other grounded.
Input voltage range: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the range of
voltage which, if exceeded on either
input terminal, could cause the amplifier to cease functioning properly.
Internal graticule: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a scale for measurement of
quantities displayed on the crt
whose rulings are a permanent part
of the inner surface of the cathode
ray tube faceplate.
IRM: (electronics, power semiconductors) peak reverse current.
IT: (electronics, power semiconductors)
direct (continuous) on state current
(limiting value).
semipower
IT<AV): (electronics,
conductors) mean on state current
(limiting value), sinusoidal waveform
180 conduction, resistive load.
semipower
ITRM: (electronics,
conductors) repetitive peak on state
current, sinusoidal wave form.
semi(electronics, power
ITsM:
conductors) surge (non-repetitive) on
state current, sinusoidal waveform,
180 conduction.
Jitter: (electronics, oscilloscopes) an
a~rration of a repetitive display

indicating instability of the signal or

of the oscilloscope; may be random
or periodic, and is usually associated
with the time axis.
Kelvin double bridge: a variant of the
Wheatstone bridge
conventional
which eliminates errors due to contact
and lead resistance and is suited to the
measurement of low value resistors.
Laminated iron cored coils: (electronics)
coils wound around laminated ferromagnetic material, insulated between
layers to reduce eddy current losses.
. Large signal voltage gain: (electronics,
linear integrated circuits) the ratio of
the maximum output voltage swing
with load to the change in input
voltage required to drive the output
from zero to this voltage.
Loaded output voltage: (electronics,
transformers) the value of output
voltage across each secondary, with
the primary connected to an a.c.
supply and the secondary loaded to a
rated current; ratio of loaded and
unloaded output voltages gives transformer regulation.
Magnified sweep: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a sweep whose time per
division has been decreased by amplification of the sweep waveform rather
than by changing the time constants
used to generate it.
Metal film resistor: a resistor whose basic
element is a metal film, usually a
nickel alloy, which is deposited by
wet chemical deposition or by vacuum
processes.
(electronics) a
Microwave band:
commonly-used term for those
frequencies falling within the range
I GHz to 40 GHz.
Mixed sweep: (electronics, oscilloscopes)
in a system having both a delaying
sweep and a delayed sweep, a means
of displaying the delaying sweep to
the delaying pickoff and the delayed
sweep beyond that point.
No-load power loss: (electronics,
transformers) the power loss (primary
copper losses and iron losses) when
all secondaries are not loaded.
Output resistance: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the resistance seen
looking into the output terminal with
the output at null; this parameter is
defined only under small signal
conditions at frequencies above a few
hundred cycles to eliminate the
influence of drift and thermal feedback.
Output voltage swing: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the peak output
swing, referred to zero, that can be
obtained without clipping.
Owen bridge: (electronics) a bridge
widely used for the LF measurement
of inductance on laminated iron core
inductors.
Oxide film resistor: a resistor whose
basic element is tin-oxide deposited at
high temperature and containing

'doping' elements of boron or antimony, to control the properties of the

film.
Parametric amplifier: (electronics) a low
noise amplifier used at microwave
frequencies.
Pirani test: a test undertaken on the
heater element of electronic valves;
indicates the presence of gas as well
as any broken filaments.
Power consumption: (electronics, linear
integrated circuits) the d.c. power
required to operate the amplifier with
the output at zero and with no load
current.
Preferred values: (electronics, resistors)
to minimise the number of different
resistance values used, and hence the
manufacturing costs, certain values
are used wherever possible.
Pseudo-random noise generator: an
electronics test instrument generating
a noise signal whose pattern is
repeated continuously, each cycle of
the noise having carefully controlled
characteristics.
Pulse droop: (electronics) the percentage
of the amplitude by which the high or
low voltage level sags during the
period of the pulse.
Pulse jitter: (electronics) random
variations of pulse width or delay
usually expressed as a percentage of
the pulse width or delay.
Pulse width: (electronics) the duration of
a pulse, timed between 50% levels on
the leading and trailing edges.
Pulse width and delay generator: (electronics) a monostable or single pulse
generating circuit which is triggered
from the trailing edge of the clock
pulse, or the pulse from another pulse
width generator.
Pyrolytic carbon film resistor: a resistor
whose basic element is pure carbon
formed by a 'cracking' process during
which the carbon is deposited at high
temperature on the substrate.
rbb': (electronics, semiconductors) extrinsic base resistance.
rcc': (electronics, semiconductors) extrinsic collector resistance.
re: (electronics, semiconductors) small
signal resistance of emitter base
junction.
ree': (electronics, semiconductors) extrinsic emitter resistance.
Risetime: (electronics, oscilloscopes) the
interval between the instants at which
the pulse amplitude first reaches
specified lower and upper limits.
Unless otherwise stated, these limits
shall be 10% and 90% of the pulse's
amplitude.
rz: (electronics, semiconductors) dynamic slope resistance of a zener diode.
Self-resonant frequency: (electronics,
inductors) the natural frequency at
which an inductor resonates resulting

from the effects of self-inductance and

self-capacitance.
Sine wave sources: a general electronics
term covering instruments such as test
oscillators and signal generators from
which a sine save signal is available.
Single sweep: (electronics, oscilloscopes)
operating mode for a triggered-sweep
oscilloscope in which the sweep must be
reset for each operation thus preventing unwanted multiple displays.
Smith's chart: (electronics) a transmission line impedance chart.
Supply voltage rejection ratio: (electronics. linear integrated circuits) the
ratio of the change in input offset
voltage to the change in supply voltage producing it.
Sweep: (electronics, oscilloscopes) an
independent variable of a display;
unless otherwise specified, this variable
is a linear function of time, but may
be any quantity that varies in a
definable manner.
Sweep hold otT: (electronics, oscilloscopes) the interval between sweeps
during which the sweep and/or
trigger circuits are inhibited.
td: (electronics, semiconductors) transient delay time.
ts: (electronics, semiconductors) transient storage time.
Test oscillator: an instrument generating
test signals over a fairly narrow frequency band with very good frequency
and amplitude stability and very little
distortion.
tr: (electronics, semiconductors) transient fall time.
Ora: (electronics, semiconductors):
thermal resistance from junction to
air.
semiconductors)
(electronics,
9ic:
thermal resistance from junction to
case.
Time base: (electronics, oscilloscopes)
the sweep generator in an oscilloscope
that generates the time function,
which is usually linear and expressed
in sec/em.
Time base accuracy: (electronics, oscilloscopes) accuracy of the time base
usually expressed in terms of average
rate error as a percent of full scale.
toll: (electronics, semiconductors) transient 'OFF' time.
ton: (electronics, semiconductors) transient 'ON' time.
tpd: (electronics, semiconductors) transient propagation delay.
tq: (electronics, power semiconductors)
circuit commutated turn off time.
Truth table: a table drawn-up for an
electronic logic circuit which shows
the output state of that circuit for
every combination of input signal.
Transformer input current: the current
drawn from an a.c. supply when the
transformer secondary windings are

either loaded or not loaded with their

rated currents.
T-R cells: (electronics) transmit-receive
devices, are used for receiver protection and switching.
Trigger: (electronics, oscilloscopes) a
pulse used to initiate some function.
Triggering level: (electronics, oscilloscopes) the instantaneous level of a
triggering signal at which a trigger is
to be generated.
Triggering slope: (electronics, oscilloscopes) the positive going ( + slope)
or negative slope (- slope) portion of
a triggering signal from which a
trigger is to be derived.
Varactor diodes: (electronics) a broad
class of semiconductor diodes used
for electronic tuning, harmonic
generation and parametric amplification.
VsE:(electronics, semiconductors) common emitter unsaturated base emitter
voltage.
VBE(sat): (electronics, semiconductors)
common emitter base saturation
voltage.
Vcso: (electronics, semiconductors)
collector base breakdown voltage.
VcE<satl: (electronics, semiconductors)
common emitter collector saturation
voltage.
VcEo: (electronics, semiconductors)
collector emitter breakdown voltage.
Vo: (electronics, power semiconductors)
continuous (direct) off state voltage.
VDRM: (electronics, power semiconductors) repetitive peak off state
voltage.
VosM: (electronics, power semiconductors) non-repetitive peak off state
voltage.
VowM: (electronics, power semiconductors) crest working off state
voltage.
VEBO: (electronics, semiconductors)
base emitter breakdown voltage.
VF: (electronics, power semiconductors)
peak forward voltage.
v.t: (electronics, power semiconductors)
gate trigger voltage.
Va: (electronics, power semiconductors)
continuous (direct) reverse voltage.
VRRM: (electronics, power semiconductors) repetitive peak reverse
voltage.
VRsM: (electronics, power semiconductors) non-repetitive peak reverse
voltage.
VawM: (electronics, power semiconductors) crest working reverse voltage.
vswr: (electronics) the symbol for voltage standing wave ratio, the ratio of
incident to reflected voltage.
Yre: (electronics, semiconductors) common emitter forward transfer ratio
mutual conductance.
Yie: (electronics, semiconductors) common emitter input admittance.

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