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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

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1.1

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Background of study and problem statement

Passion fruit has high nutritive value but not so prominent in Malaysia
compared to other tropical fruits. It might due to the variety of fruit which
easily can be found in Malaysia. The most popular fruit include durian,
mangoesteen, rambutan, papaya, banana, cempedak and guava. There are a
few plantations of passion fruit in Malaysia that can be found in Kedah,
Selangor and Negeri Sembilan. Passion fruits are famous in Brazil and widely
enjoyed where the fruit is commonly processed into juice and other products.
It may be eaten fresh but mostly the pulp is extracted and preserved by
heating or cooling. Passion fruit has a sharp taste and makes it regularly used

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with additional types of fruits in recipes to enlighten its tangy or pungent

taste. One of the benefits contained in passion fruit is rich in carbohydrate
and minerals (Gerbaud, 2008).

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1.2

Significance of study
In order to reduce environmental problems due to the industrial waste
which to be exact juice industry, new type of flour are introduced from the
waste. Most of the researchers are focused on the nutrient content in pulp
and also the seeds of passion fruit. ... Thus, by doing a
further research in this field, it would provide more information about
danger that anti-nutrient possess, the microstructure of passion fruit peel
flour and also the antioxidant that may contained in the passion fruit peel
flour.

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1.3

Objectives of study
The objectives of this study are:
1. To measure the total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant
activities in passion fruit peel flour from ripe and unripe passion fruit
peel.
2. To determine the phytic acid, oxalic acid, tannin and saponin content
in passion fruit peel flour from ripe and unripe passion fruit peel.
3. To observe the microstructure properties of passion fruit peel flour.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
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2.1

Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis)

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Passion fruit which has a scientific name is Passiflora edulis are fruit
belonging to the family of Passifloraceae. Passion fruit is native from
Southern Brazil through Paraguay to Northern Argentina. Brazil is the
greatest producer and exporting the fruit mainly to United Kingdom,
France and also Belgium. Other countries undertaking to grow the yellow
passion fruit are Indonesia, Malaysia, Phillipines and Taiwan (Knight and
Sauls,1994).

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2.1.1

Types of passion fruit

About 530 species have been identified in the Passifloraceae family
(Chassagne et al., 1999). The genus Passiflora, which constitute the

Passiflora group is the most important with 450 to 500 species and
Passiflora edulis are the most widely grown (Mcgure, 1999). Reported by
Lpez-Vargas et al., (2013), there are several types of this fruit includes
purple passion fruit (Passiflora edulis sims), granadilla (Passiflora ligularis),
gulupa (Passiflora edulis sims. fo edulis) and also yellow passion fruit
(Passiflora edulis var. flavicarpa degoneres). The most cultivated and
consumed are yellow passion fruit and purple passion fruit. The purple
passion fruit is preferentially consumed fresh and the yellow fruit is used as
raw material for juice processing (Mercandate et al., 1998). Purple passion
fruit are typically consumed fresh due to its sweeter taste and yellow passion
fruit or known as Maracuja commonly used for commercial pure or
sweetened juice production due to its slight acidic taste (Yapo and Koffi,
2006).

2.1.2

Nutritive value of passion fruit

Passion fruit has been reported to contained flavonoids, alkaloids, cyanogenic
compounds, glycosides, vitamins and minerals (Zibadi et al., 2007). In
addition, passion fruit also contained antioxidants such as cyaniding,
quercetin and edulilic acid. Each of the part of passion fruit contained its
nutritional values which have its own benefits. It includes the peel, pulp, seed
and leaves.

2.3.1

Passion fruit-based products

Many fruits are processed to make dried products, juices and soft drinks
(Nascimento et al., 2012). However, due to the processing, the remainder

classified as waste has been not used and caused environmental problem. In
Ivory Coast, the juice industry generates hundreds of thousand tones of
yellow passion fruit rinds, pulps and seeds as agricultural by-products (Yapo
and Koffi, 2006). The waste from juice industry contains high amounts of
nutrients and can be used for the development of new functional products
(Santo et al., 2012).

5 cm

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
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3.1

Materials

3.1.1

Raw materials

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The unripe passion fruit was supplied peel were supplied from juice
manufacturer, Capville Food (M) Sdn Bhd located in Kajang Utama,
Selangor.
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3.1.2

Chemicals
Methanol, Follin-Ciocalteu reagent, 7% sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), gallic
acid, deionised water, distilled water, acetate buffer, Follin-Dennis reagent,
saturated sodium carbonate solution, tannic acid solution, anisaldehyde
reagent, methanolic solution and DPPH solution was used in this project.

3.1.3

Apparatus
Analytical balance, hot plate, centrifuge, cabinet drier, hammer mill, water
bath, sives, filter paper, UV-VIS Spectrophotometer, Scanning Electron
Microscopy (SEM) were used in this project.

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3.2

Methods

3.2.1

Production of passion fruit peel flour

Passion fruit peel was selected ripe and unripe. The outer coloured skins of
passion fruit peel were not removed where it includes the inner layer which
known as mesocarp or albedo and outer layer known as exocarp. The peels
were sliced and washed under running water. After that, the sliced peel were
dehydrated on trays in a forced air circulation drying oven at 60C for 24
hours to obtain a constant dry weight without the addition of chemical
preservative. The dried peel then were introduced to the hammer mill in order
to reduce the size to less than 42 mm, sieves through less than 1.212 mm
sieve shaker and the passion fruit peel powder were stored in air tight
container at room temperature to prevent from rehydration. The production of
passion fruit peel flour is shown in the flow chart in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Flow chart of passion fruit peel flour production

3.2.2

Extraction of the samples

About 1 gram of sample was extracted with 30 ml of 80% ethanol and
shaken at room temperature. Then, the sample was centrifuged at 8000 g
for 10 minutes and the supernatant was filtered with filter paper. The
supernatant was re-extracted twice with ethanol, collected and placed in a
test tube (Girish et al., 2012).

3.3

Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis were conducted with the Statistical Analysis System
(SAS) 9.1.3 software package. All experiments were run in triplicates.

5 cm

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

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4.1

Physical analysis

4.1.1

Colour measurement

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The results for colour measurement of the flour samples obtained are presented
in Table 4.1. The coordinate L* refers to lightness, the a* coordinate refers to
green ()/red (+) chromaticity and the coordinate b* to blue ()/yellow (+)
chromaticity. L* values closer to 100 represent greater brightness and closer to 0
represent less brightness.

Passion fruit peel flour shows the lowest in lightness (L*) with 76.380.15,
highest in red-green coordinate, (a*) 5.080.05 and yellowblue coordinate, (b*)
with 19.170.07 compared to other types of flours. This is due to the darker
colour of passion fruit peel flour as it does not go through any bleaching process
which most of commercial flour does. Wheat flour, rice flour and corn flour has
nearly same value of lightness (L*) with 92.740.14, 95.130.09 and 97.000.13
respectively. The values are higher than passion fruit peel flour which the nearer
value to 100 shows that the flour has higher in whiteness in colour. Flour colour
often affects the colour of the finished product and is therefore the specification
is required by end-users. Bright white colour flour is more desirable for many
products

Table 4.1 Colour values of flour samples obtain by using chromameter.

Flour Sample

Colour
L

Passion fruit peel

Wheat
Rice
Corn

76.380.15d
92.740.14c
95.130.09b
97.000.13a

5.080.05a
0.280.02b
-0.060.03c
-0.930.02d

19.170.07a
7.970.07b
2.930.09d
4.210.06c

The passion fruit peel flour also in yellowish colour give it high value in a* and b* when
analysed with chromameter compared to other flours shows that the flour are more
towards reddish colour with value of 5.080.05 and yellowish colour with value of
19.170.07. Wheat flour has slightly red colour with value 7.970.07 compared to rice
flour and corn flour that have green colour value of -0.060.03 and -0.930.02
respectively. Meanwhile, wheat flour, rice flour and corn flour have less value towards
yellow colour compared to passion fruit peel flour.

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5 cm

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

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This passion fruit peel flour produced in this study is not only a new type of flour
produced from waste product, it also gives variety to the existence flour. Based on
the finding of this study, the production of passion fruit peel flour is believed can be
beneficial to human, reused in further research and reduce waste product. The result
information related to the flour content has been analyzed based on proximate tests,
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physical test and functional properties test.

In comparison to the commercial flour, passion fruit peel flour in this study has
higher in ash content and fibre content. High ash content is related to good source of
minerals. These fibre-rich passion fruit peel flour have potential applications as
ingredients in products requiring hydration, viscosity development and freshness
preservation, such as baked foods or cooked meat products, due to their high total
dietary fibre content and good technological properties, especially their water
holding and swelling capacities (Vargas et al., 2013). The passion fruit peel flour also
has moisture content less than 14% which is as good as other commercial flour to be
kept in room temperature for long period of time (Atwell 2001).

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CITED REFERENCES
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Abdul Hamid, A. and Luan, Y.S., (2000). Functional properties of dietary fibre
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Akhtar, S., Anjum, F.M. and Anjum, M.A., (2011). Micronutrient fortification of
wheat flour: recent development and strategies. Food Research International
Food Res Int , 44, 652-659.
Akubor. P.I., Isolokwu, P.C. and Onimawo, I.A., (2000). Proximate composition and
functional properties of African breadfruit kernel and flour blends. Food Res
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Arshad, M.U., Anjum, F.M. and Zahoor , T., (2007). Nutritional assessment of
cookies supplemented with defatted wheat germ. Food Chem,102(1),1238.
Atwell, W.A., (2001). Wheat flour-practical guides for the food industry. Minn.:
Eagen Press.

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Baah, F.D., Oduro, I. and Ellis, W.O., (2005). Evaluation of the suitability of cassava
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T., and Farinazzi-Machado F.M.V., (2012). Yellow passion fruit rind
(Passiflora edulis): an industrial waste or an adjuvant in the maintenance of
glycemia and prevention of dyslipidemia?. Journal of Diabetes Research &
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Bezerraa, C.V., Amanteb, E.R., Oliveirab, D.C., Rodrigues, A.M.C., and Silva,
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Canteri, M.H.G., Scheer, A.P., Ginies, C., Reich, M., Renard, C.M.C.G. and
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APPENDICES
Colour of flour samples. Up right is wheat flour, up left is corn flour, bottom left is
passion fruit peel flour and bottom right is rice flour Passion fruit.

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