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Meeting learning and development goals

To help prove the effectiveness of learning and development, the evaluation phase must
address the validity of the associated program. Goldstein describes four approaches to
program evaluation:
learning program validity whether employees have learnt something from the program

transfer validity whether knowledge or skills transfer has occurred back in the workplace

intra-organisational validity whether new and more experienced employees share similar
performance

inter-organisational validity whether a program validated in one organisation has similar

results in another organisation.31

It may be argued that the second approach is the most relevant for most organisations, as
discussed earlier in this chapter.

Costbenefit considerations
The ability to measure the benefits derived from HRD varies according to the type of job. Where
employees are performing relatively simple tasks, the effects of learning and development may show
up quite dramatically. For more complex jobs, such as those at the managerial and professional
levels, the benefits are more difficult to measure. It is generally found, however, that the benefits will
far exceed the costs when the objectives to be met by an HRD program are clearly defined, when the
most suitable instructional techniques are used and when employee motivation is high.
The benefits that are experienced by an organisation are similar to those found through
a carefully developed selection program. Increased productivity and the ability of the
competent employees to assume more responsible roles in the organisation are the major
benefits. Reduction of waste, accidents and similar problems may also result from HRD
programs.
The argument which the HRD manager must sustain is that the employee development
program led to such improvements. In many areas of training, learning and development, many
intangibles will arise that make measurement of results very difficult, although a number of
researchers have addressed this key area.32

Principles of learning
The success of an HRD program depends upon more than the identification of employee needs
and the preparation of the program. In order to maximise learning, careful consideration needs
to be given to the relevant principles of learning. Two of the most accepted theories of the
principles involved in adult learning are Knowles (1984) theory of andragogy, and Kolbs (1984)
Learning Style Inventory (see Exhibit 8.8). Knowles researched the ways in which adults (and
therefore employees) learn most effectively, concluding that, unlike children, adults are generally
self-directed and expect to take responsibility for their own learning. As a consequence, adult
learning and development programs should factor in explanations of the need to learn; provide
frequent opportunities for learning by doing; and frame learning as a problem-solving activity.
Therefore exercises such as role plays, case studies and group projects are useful in employee
learning and development, and instructors act as facilitators rather than lecturers.33
Kolbs model illustrates similar features, with its four-stage cycle of adult learning namely,
concrete experience, reflection, abstract conceptualisation (the derivation of general rules)
and active experimentation (developing future ways of building on learning).34 More recent
notions of single loop versus double loop learning, and deep learning are applications of

these theories to organisational learning, conceptualised best in Senges (1990) concept of

the learning organisation, or an organisation which systematically incorporates these adult
learning principles into its routine problem-solving and decision-making techniques in an
ongoing manner.35 These principles are illustrated in the following discussion.

Exhibit 8.8 Kolbs Learning Style Inventory

Concrete
experience

Reflective
observation

Active
experimentation

Abstract
conceptualisation

Preconditions for learning

Two preconditions for learning will increase the success of those who are to participate in such
programs: employee readiness and motivation. The condition known as employee readiness
refers to both maturational and experiential factors in the employees background. Prospective
employees should be screened to determine that they have the background knowledge or
the skills necessary for learning what will be presented to them. Recognition of individual
differences in readiness is as important in HRD as it is in any other learning situation. It is often
desirable to group individuals according to their capacity to learn, as determined by scores from
tests, or to provide a different or extended type of instruction for those who need it.
The other precondition for learning is that the employee be properly motivated. That is, for
optimum learning the employee must recognise the need for acquiring new information or for
having new skills; and a desire to learn as learning progresses must be maintained. While people
at work are motivated by certain common needs, they differ from one another in the relative
importance of these needs at any given time. For example, new recruits often have an intense
desire for advancement, and have established specific goals for career progression. Objectives
that are clearly defined will produce increased motivation in the learning process when
instructional objectives are related to individual needs.

Some prerequisites for learning

After employees have been placed in the learning situation, their readiness and motivation
should be assessed further. In addition, facilitators should understand the basic learning issues
discussed below.

Meaningful materials
In accordance with adult learning theories, the material to be learned should be organised in
as meaningful a manner as possible. It should be arranged so that each successive experience
builds upon preceding ones so that the employee is able to integrate the experiences into a
useable pattern of knowledge and skills. The material should have face validity.
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Reinforcement
Anything which strengthens the employees response is called reinforcement. It may be in
the form of approval from the instructor or facilitator or the feeling of accomplishment that
follows the performance; or it may simply be confirmation by a software program that the
employees response was correct. It is generally most effective if it occurs immediately after
atask has been performed.
Behaviour modification, or a technique that operates on the principle that behaviour that
is rewarded positively (reinforced) will be exhibited more frequently in the future, whereas
behaviour that is penalised or unrewarded will decrease in frequency, is often used for such
purposes.36

Transfer of knowledge
Unless what is learned in the development activity is applicable to what is required on the job,
the effort will have been of little value. The ultimate effectiveness of learning, therefore, is to be
found in the answer to the question: To what extent does what is learned transfer to the job?
Helpful approaches include ensuring that conditions in the development program conform as
closely as possible to those on the job, and coaching employees on the principles for applying
to the job the behaviours which they have learned. Furthermore, once formal instruction has
been completed, the supervisor must ensure that the work environment supports, reinforces and
rewards the employee for applying the new skills or knowledge.37

Knowledge of progress
As an employees development progresses, motivation may be maintained and even increased
by providing knowledge of progress. Progress, as determined by tests and other records, may
be plotted on a chart, commonly referred to as a learning curve. Exhibit 8.9 is an example of a
learning curve that is common in the acquisition of many job skills.

Exhibit 8.9 A typical learning curve

Extent of learning

High

Plateau

Low
Time (weeks)

In many learning situations, there are times when progress does not occur. Such periods
of no return show up on the curve as a fairly straight horizontal line, which is called a
plateau. A plateau may be the result of ineffective methods of work or of reduced motivation.

Properanalysis by instructors and employees may reveal the cause of a plateau and may be
overcome by such means as suggestions for new work procedures, or aid in establishing new
incentives. Plateaux are to be expected and do not necessarily indicate failure of the program.

Distributed learning
Another factor that determines the effectiveness of learning is the amount of time given to
practice in one session. Should training or development be undertaken in five two-hour periods
or in 10 one-hour periods? It has been found in most cases that spacing out the activities will
result in more rapid learning and more permanent retention. This is the principle of distributed
learning. Since the most efficient distribution will vary according to the type and complexity of
the task to be learned, it is desirable to make reference to the rapidly growing body of research
in this area when an answer is required for a specific learning situation.

Whole vs part learning

Most jobs and tasks can be broken down into parts that lend themselves to further analysis.
The analysis of the most effective manner for completing each part then provides a basis for
giving specific instruction. Airline flight attendant jobs, for example, involve a combination of
mechanistic (specific tasks that follow a prescribed routine), and organic (tasks that involve
decision-making and individualised responses) duties, which are best learnt separately, and
then combined to form the whole job responsibility. Thus, the prescribed takeoff and landing
announcements, and formal safety procedures, are supplemented with separate learning
activities about how to deal with difficult passengers or how to cope with food supply problems.
In evaluating whole versus part learning, it is necessary to consider the nature of the task to
be learned. If the task can be broken down successfully for part learning, it should probably be
taught as a unit.

Practice and repetition

It is those things we do daily that become a part of our repertoire of skills. Employees need
frequent opportunities to practise their job tasks in the manner in which they will ultimately
be expected to perform them. The individual who is being taught to operate a machine should
have an opportunity to practise on it. Similarly, the supervisor who is being taught how to train
should have supervised practice in training.

Multiple sense learning

It has long been acknowledged that the use of multiple senses increases learning. Smith
and Delahaye state that about 80 per cent of what a person perceives is obtained visually,
11per cent by hearing and 9 per cent by the other senses combined. It follows that in order
tomaximise learning, multiple senses of the employees, particularly sight and hearing, should
be engaged. Visual aids are therefore emphasised as being important to the learning and
development activities.38

Developing non-managerial employees

Once the learning need is clear, the instructional objectives have been determined, and the
principles of learning relevant to the situation have been identified, the most appropriate
development method may be chosen.
A wide variety of such methods is available, some of which have a long history of usage.
Newer methods have developed over the years out of a greater understanding of human
behaviour, particularly in the areas of learning, motivation and interpersonal relationships.
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Sofo F. 1999. op.cit., p. 122.

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