lilTERflRTIO(IflL}OURDflLOF

mlHERHL
PRO[ESSIH6
ELSEVIER

Int. J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

Improved comminution efficiency through

controlled blasting during mining
G. C h i a M . C . F u e r s t e n a u a R . C . B r a d t b A. G h o s h c
a Department of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
b Department of Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA
c Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, USA

Received 23 February 1994; accepted 12 September 1995

Abstract

Improved comminution efficiencies of material that had been blasted utilizing regular burden
and spaci:ag distances and that which had been blasted utilizing a reduction in burden and spacing
distance of 25% are compared. Single particle impact tests showed that fracture stress and fracture
energy are about 15% less for the reduced burden and spacing material. Single particle roll mill
crushing revealed that about 25% less energy is required to crush reduced burden and spacing
material in comparison to the regular burden and spacing material.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n

Comminution is used extensively in the minerals industry to effect the liberation of

valuable components in concentration operations and to increase the surface area in
leaching processes. For these operations, large tonnages of materials requiring comminution at relatively high rates of throughput are generally involved. Energy efficiencies
which ~ e experienced are very low. In fact, the energy introduced into these systems
that actually results in the formation of new fracture surface is usually less than 1%.
Thus, there are substantial energy-saving and economic incentives to improve the
efficiency of crushing and grinding techniques for mineral recovery. In an effort to
improve the operation of existing mills, efforts in mathematical modeling for scale-up
and optimization have been expended (Kelsall, 1965; Herbst and Fuerstenau, 1968;
Austin, 1971; Herbst and Fuerstenau, 1980). The use of grinding aids (Malati et al.,
1968; Somasundaran and Lin, 1972; Narayanan et al., 1983), special liner configurations
(Roger et al., 1982), slurry viscosity control (Agar and Herbst, 1966; Clark, 1967;
Kawatrz et al., 1992), etc., are research topics that endeavor to improve ball mill
0301-751(;/96/$15.00 1996 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved
SSDI 0301-7516(95)00098-4

94

G. Chi et al. l i n t . J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

performance. Computer control of milling circuits, which is necessary to overcome

disturbances due to varying hardness of the feed ore, has increased the effectiveness of
industrial grinding circuits. Using mathematical models of the grinding mill and
classifier, the hardness of the ore can be estimated on-line, and control actions can be
implemented with this information. Finally, novel techniques of comminution, such as
ultrasonic comminution (Parekh et al., 1984), pressure cycle comminution (Rao et al.,
1992) and grinding using high-pressure rolls (Sch~Snert, 1988) are being evaluated. The
latter device is already receiving considerable application in the cement industry,
particularly in Europe.
It is well known that brittle fracture, such as occurs during comminution, takes place
through the propagation of cracks. This crack propagation phenomenon is a dynamic
one, usually resulting in the generation of multiple progeny fragments during the
breakage of a single parent particle. Although the dynamic multiple fragmentation
process is an extremely complex one, it must relate to the strength distributions and
crack (flaw) populations of the initial parent particles, for these determine the strain
energy density of the parent particles at the instant of fracture initiation.
Rock fragmentation by explosives is a dynamic process. Detonation in the borehole
results in a shock pressure transmitted into the adjacent rock at characteristic velocities
(3-6 k m / s ) (Mohanty and Cheng, 1986). The amplitude of this shock is orders of
magnitude higher than the strength of the surrounding rock. This results in intense
fragmentation of the rock in the immediate vicinity of the borehole. Immediately behind
the shock front, the high pressure explosive gases continue to expand into the cracks
created by the shock wave. This results in extension and multiple branching of cracks. In
the final stages of the blasting process, the potential energy in the explosion gases is
largely transformed into the kinetic energy of the fragmented rock mass, resulting in the
formation of the muck pile.
An assumption has been proposed quite naturally that any process which could
introduce cracks into rock mass or the weaken the strength of rock mass could improve
the efficiency of the subsequent comminution operation. This hypothesis was supported
by experimental results that the energy required for crushing and grinding an explosiveproduced rock lump is lower by far than that of the rock prior to blasting (Revnivtsev,
1988). Chertkov (1986)has mathematically modeled the correlation of preliminary and
explosive-induced cracking with the comminution characteristics of brittle rock. He
concluded that the blasting process introduces cracks into the rock mass and that there is
a correlation between the grindability of the rock mass and the density of cracks existing
in the rock mass. Revnivtsev (1988) pointed out that the action of blasting produces not
only large fissures dividing a rock mass but also a system of microcracks. The density of
the microcracks changes exponentially with the stresses resulting from blasting, which is
a function of blasting parameters.
Two factors may contribute significantly to the formation and extension of the cracks
during blasting: (i) burden distance and (ii) the ratio of spacing to burden. Burden is
defined as the distance from a borehole to the nearest free face at the time of detonation.
The distance between adjacent blastholes is defined as the spacing, which is measured
perpendicular to the burden. Dajcor (1991) has reported that a reduction of the burden
distance (at constant value of ratio of spacing to burden) improves the degree of

G. Chi et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

95

fragmentation of rocks. The sizes of the largest boulders and the mean diameter of the
boulders are both reduced. The general consideration of the character of blasting, i.e.,
the gas pressure and shock wave effects, and their influence on crack generation and
propogation, has led to the coupled blasting/comminution experiments which are
described in this manuscript.
In this view comminution experiments were conducted with material obtained from
an area blasted with regular burden and spacing and with material obtained from an area
for which the blast burden and spacing were reduced by 25%. Blasting was accomplished at the McCoy Mine of Echo Bay Minerals Company in Battle Mountain, NV.
These areas were surveyed by the Echo Bay Minerals Company personnel. Grids were
laid out on these areas, and samples were collected at regular predetermined intervals
from both of these areas. Material, 6 X 8 mesh in size, was screened from these samples
and subjected to three different comminution processes for which the relative comminution efficiencies were established and compared.

2. Comminution experiments
2.1. Single-particle impact tests

The device which was used for low-impact-energy single-particle fracture tests is
termed an ultrafast load cell (UFLC). It was developed at the Comminution Center of
the University of Utah for the study of the impact fracture of single particles. In these
series of experiments, twenty-five particles (6 8 mesh in size) were crushed using a
5.08 cm ultrafast load cell. During a low-impact-energy single-particle fracture test, a
particle of known mass and size was placed on the top of a steel rod; a steel sphere of
given mass (0.674 kg) was dropped from a known distance (0.03 m). The force-time
history experienced by the particle during the impact was recorded. The precise position
of the ball during impact and, hence, the strain induced in the particle was calculated
using a momentum balance on the mass. The theory of the mechanics involved are well
established (Weichert and Herbst, 1986). The integration of force vs. displacement
provides the energy consumed as a function of time. The initiation of fracture is
identified by the rapid decreasing of the force exerted by the particle on the top surface
of UFLC. The fracture energy is the energy absorbed by the particle up to the point of
fracture initiation. The specific breakage energy is calculated from EM,Br = E / m where
EM,Br is the mass specific breakage energy, E is the fracture energy and m is the mass
of the particle. The fracture stress of breaking the particle is calculated f r o m 6p = EllA
where Fi is the force at which fracture initiates and A is the cross-sectional area of the

Table 1
Results cf low-impact-energysingle-particlefracture tests
Average fracture stress (MPa)
Regular burden/spacing
31.64
Reduced burden/spacing 27.30

Averagespecificbreakageenergy (J/g)
0.176
0.152

96

G. Chi et al. lint. J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

0
e.v-

ii
Z
,.J

-1

zx Regular Burden &

-2

-3

-4

Spacing

ZX
~

zx

Spacing

Reduced Burden &

LN (3f (M Pa)

Fig. 1. Relationship between fracture probability and failure stress.

particle. The average values of these parameters were determined and are listed in Table
1. It can be noted that the average fracture stress and the average fracture energy of the
ore particles obtained from the reduced burden area are about 15% less than those values
of material obtained from the regular burden area. Due to insufficient product material,
screening tests were not conducted to analyze the size distributions of the crushed
products.
The failure of brittle particles can be considered in two steps: first, crack initiation
and, second, crack propagation through the material. The crack usually starts at a flaw
under tensile stress. The size of the flaws and their frequency of occurrence vary from
one particle to another, exhibiting a scatter of breaking strengths, even if the particles
are of the same size and material. Extensive tests of rods and fibers by Weibull (1959)
showed that strength of brittle materials can be well described by a simple function
known as the Weibull distribution. The Weibull distribution is expressed as:
In In

= In C + m In o-f

where o-f is the measured failure stress, m is the Weibull modulus, C is a constant for a
given material of specific size, and Pf is the probability of failure. The Weibull
distribution can also be expressed as (Weichert, 1991):
lnln

= In C + m l n E

where E is the measured mass specific breakage energy, and the other parameters are as
defined above.
The Weibull distributions showing the relationship between the probability of failure
and failure stress or mass specific breakage energy are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2.
With the same stress or mass specific breakage, the probability of failure of the
reduced burden and spacing material is higher than that of regular burden and spacing

97

G. Chi et al. lint. J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

0
zx Regular Burden &
Spacing

Z"
-2
z
-3

-4
-4

Reduced Burden &

Spacing

A
i

-3

-2

-1

LN E (J/g)

Fig. 2. Relationship between fracture probabilityand breakageenergy.

material. This indicates that under the blasting conditions of reduced burden and
spacing, more damage or cracks are introduced into the blasted materials.
2.2. Single-particle roll crushing

Materials for both of the blasting conditions were also subjected to single-particle roll
mill crushing. In the case of single-particle roll mill crushing, 70 g of the 6 8 mesh
particles were crushed. The material was screened from all of the samples from the
regular burden area, combined, mixed and subjected to crushing for these series of
experinaents. Similar procedures were followed for the reduced burden samples.
The utilization of energy for single-particle breakage in a single-particle roll mill can
be varied by choosing different ratios of feed size/gap. In the current investigation,
particles of 6 8 mesh were used as feed material, and four gap widths were used,
namely, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 mm. The time required for the 70 g charge of particles to
pass th-ough the roll crusher was about two minutes. As shown in Fig. 3, in which
specific energy is plotted as a function of the ratio of feed size/gap width, the specific
energy required to crush the regular burden is about 15% more than that which is

3
-,j

>=2
QP
C
gJ
(3

z~ Regular Burden &

Spacing
A

a Reduced Burden &

Spacing

.=E_ 1
m
Q.
/)

0
2

Feed Size/Gap

Fig, 3. Specificenergy as a function of feed size/gap width.

98

G. Chiet al. lint. J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

0
1,0

Regular Burden &

Spacing

g~

Reduced Burden &

Spacing

C
0~

Specific Energy, Jig

Fig. 4. Reduction ratio as a function of specific energy.

required to crush material produced with the 25% reduced burden spacing at the same
feed size/gap ratio.
Reduction ratio (at 50 cumulative weight percent finer) is plotted as a function of
specific energy for both the reduced and regular burden materials crushed with the
single particle roll crusher (see Fig. 4). At a reduction ratio of 3, about 25% more energy
is required to crush the regular burden material in comparison to that needed for the
reduced burden material.

3. Discussion
As the burden and spacing distances are reduced with the ratio of spacing to burden
distance being the same, more energy/unit volume of rock is introduced into this
material during blasting as compared to that introduced into the material with regular
burden and spacing area. Under these conditions, more damage will be introduced into
the material contained in the reduced burden and spacing area. As a result, that material
will exhibit lower fracture strength, and less energy is needed to comminute this material
as compared to that material contained in the regular burden and spacing area.
Comminution efficiency is defined as the ratio of the amount of energy for creating
new surface to the total energy input. Fuerstenau et al. (1990) reported that the
relationship between reduction ratio and mass specific energy gives a quantitative
estimate of grinding efficiency. Comparison of comminution efficiency is illustrated in
Fig. 4. The percentage of energy saved in the comminution of material obtained from
the reduced burden and spacing area in comparison to the comminution of regular
burden/spacing material at different reduction ratios is calculated from Fig. 4 and is
illustrated in Fig. 5.
As illustrated in Fig. 5, energy savings increase with decrease of reduction ratio. It
was always found that the energy utilization of a mill increases as the applied energy

G. Chiet al. lint, J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

99

3O
.E 0~

25

~'===20
=8

ul

10
2

Reduction Ratio, Xf/X50

Fig. 5. Energy savings of comminution as a function of reduction ratio for reduced burden and spacing
distance material.

decreases. SchiSnert (1986) also concluded that a low-loading mill performs with better
efficiency and should have some advantages in respect to energy saving. This phenomenon can be attributed to the following: with decrease in product size, the energy
wasted by inelastic deformation and by the friction between product fragments increases.
Fuerstenau et al. (1990) have devised a method for defining the grindability of
minerals.. Their procedure is based on an energy--size reduction ratio relationship. Fitting
the data in Fig. 4 over the full range by a straight line, the energy-reduction ratio
relationship is expressed as:
Xf

----=jE+C
X5o
The slope j is a measure of the size reduction achieved per unit energy invested and is
defined as the grindability of the mineral. Fitting the data in Fig. 4 over the full range by
straight lines results in correlation of 0.995 or higher. The energy-reduction ratio
relation,ships obtained from regression analysis for the materials of both blasting
conditions are:
Regular burden and spacing

Reduced burden and spacing

Xf

--

Xso

= 1.58 E + 1.4

Xf
- - + 1.72 E + 1.6

xs0

It is evident that the grindability of the mineral has been increased by about 9% by
reducing the burden and spacing distance during blasting. The grindabilities of the
consolidated limestone obtained with the rigidly-mounted single-particle roll mill are
1.58 and 1.72 g / J for the materials of regular and reduced burden and spacing,
respectiLvely, which is supported by Fuerstenau and co-workers' research (Gutsche et ai.,
1992). In their work, a grindability of 1.72 g / J was achieved for limestone.

1O0

G. Chi et al. / Int. J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their appreciation to the McCoy Division, Echo Bay
Minerals Company, Battle Mountain, NV, for their assistance in the blasting portion of
this study.
The authors wish to thank Dr. R.P. King, Comminution Center, University of Utah,
for conducting the single particle impact tests. The authors also wish to thank Dr. D.W.
Fuerstenau, Department of Materials Science and Mineral Engineering, University of
California, Berkeley, for the use of the single particle roll crusher.
The financial support provided by the Generic Mineral Technology Center for
Comminution, U.S. Bureau of Mines, is gratefully acknowledged.

References
Agar, G.E. and Herbst, J.A,, 1966. The effect of fluid viscosity on cyclone classification. Trans. AIME, 235:
145-149,
Austin, L.G., 1971. A review introduction to the mathematical description of grinding as a rate process.
Powder TechnoL 5: 1-17.
Chertkov, V.Ya., 1986. Correlation of preliminary and explosion-induced cracking with the comminution
characteristics of brittle rock. Sov. Min. Sci., 22: 362-369.
Clark, B., 1967. Rheology of coarse settling suspensions. Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng., 45: 251-256.
Dajcor, O., 1991. Investigation of blasting parameters to optimize fragmentation. Trans. lnst. Min. Metall.,
100: A31-41.
Fuerstenau, D.W., Kaput, P.C., Sch~inert, K. and Marktsheffel, M., 1990. Comparison of energy consumption
in the breakage of single particles in rigidly mounted roll mill with ball mill grinding. Int. J. Miner.
Process., 28: 109-125.
Gutsche, O., Ravikumar, R. and Fuerstenau, D.W., 1992. Grindability of minerals from single-particle
comminution in a rigidly mounted roll mill. In: Comminution - - Theory and Practice. SME, Ch. 10, pp.
125-135.
Herbst, J.A. and Fuerstenau, D.W., 1968. The zero order production of fine sizes in comminution and its
implications in simulation. Trans. AIME Pet. Eng., 241: 538-549.
Herbst, J.A. and Fuerstenau, D.W., 1980. Scale-up procedures for continuous grinding mill design using
population balance models. Int. J. Miner. Process., 7: 1-31.
Kawatra, S.K., Eisele, T.C. and Rusesky, M.T., 1992. Development of an on-line slurry viscosity monitoring
system. In: S.K. Kawatra (Editor), Comminution - - Theory and Practice. SME, pp. 429-445.
Kelsall, A., 1965. A study of breakage in a small continuous wet ball mill. In: N. Arbiter, ed., Proc. Vll Int.
Miner. Proc. Congress, New York, NY, pp. 33-42.
Malati, M.A., Yousef, A.A. and Arafa, M.A., 1968. The effect of flotation reagents on grinding. Powder
Technol., 2: 21-26.
Mohanty, B.B. and Cheng, S.H., 1986. Development in blasting physics - - the current research focus. J. Min.
Met. Fuels, 34: 477-486.
Narayanan, S., Raghunathan, N., Nuyak, U.B. and Lahiri, A.K., 1983. Environmental effects on grinding. Int.
J. Miner. Process,, 10: 309-317.
Parekh, B.K., Epstein, H.E. and Goldberger, W.M., 1984. Novel comminution process uses electric and
ultrasonic energy. Min. Eng., (September): 1305-1309.
Rao, M., Misra, M. and Paoli, M.A., 1992. Computer-based controller for pressure cycle comminution. LEEE
Trans. Ind. Appl., 28: 1439-1445.
Revnivtsev, V.I., 1988. We really need revolution in comminntion. In: XVI International Mineral Processing
Congress. SME, pp. 93-114.

G. Chi et aL / I n t . J. Miner. Process. 47 (1996) 93-101

101

Roger, R.S.C., Shoji, K., Hukki, A.M. and Linn, R.J., 1982. The effect of liner design on the performance of a
continuous wet ball mill. In: XIV Int. Miner. Process Congress, Toronto, Que. CIMM, pp. 5.1-5.20.
Scht~nert, K., 1986. Limits of energy saving in milling. In: 6th European Comminution Symposium,
Nuremberg, pp. 1-20.
Sch~inert, K., 1988. A first survey of grinding with high-compressive roll mills. Int. J. Miner. Process., 22:
401-412.
Somasundaran, Z. and Lin, Y., 1972. Effect of the nature of environment on comminution processes. Des.
Dev., 11: 321-331.
Weibull, W., 1959. A statistic distribution function of wide applicability. J. Appl. Mech., 18: 293-297.
Weichert, R., 1991. Theoretical prediction of energy consumption and particle size distribution in grinding and
drilling of brittle materials. Part. Syst. Charact., 8: 55-62.
Weichert, R. and Herbst, J.A., 1986. An untrafast load cell device for measuring particle breakage. In:
Proceedings, 1st World Congress on Particle Technology, NUremberg, Part 2, pp. 3-14.