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Underground Opening
Lufi Rachmad
1
k = 0.25 + 7 Eh (0.001 + )
z
Case Study A
An orebody XYZ has been defined as a block
caving deposit. What we should design first?
Surface
A
7 km
Plan View
1.4 km
Orebody
XYZ
Orebody
XYZ
Section A-A
Case Study A
ACCESS
Surface
decline
shaft
Orebody
XYZ
adit
Case Study A
The access for the orebody are decided to be
twin adits, 6.8 m wide and 6.0 m high.
The opening size considers the following
factors:
Biggest dimension
Effective size after
ground support
Drainage pipe &
trench
Intake airways
Case Study A
For the design purpose, how far apart should
these two adits be?
Orebody
XYZ
Surface
The farther
the more
ineffective
A
Access
Adits
(A-A)
Access Adits
Plan View
8
Case Study A
Assuming the simplest condition, the
axisymmetric stress distribution could be used.
r = 5R, the pre-mining
stress would not be
significantly different
from the virgin stress
field.
2.00
Tegangan radial
Tegangan tangensial
1.50
1.00
r = 17 meter as an
early indication.
0.50
0.00
0
10
Might be further
analyzed using pillar
stability calc and
numerical modeling
9
Insitu Stress
During preliminary design, the empirical
stress equation can be used to obtain a first
rough estimate of the vertical and average
horizontal stress in the vicinity of the tunnel
For a depth of 1,400 m, the equation
gives the vertical stress v = 38 MPa , the
ratio k = 0.5 (for Eh = 25 GPa) and hence
the average horizontal stress h= 19 MPa
10
h = v
A
B
h = 0.5 v
A = 2.2 v
B = 1.3 v
A = 0.6 v
B = 1.8 v
h = 0.33 v
A = 0.1 v
B = 1.9 v
11
Insitu Stress
Given the rock mass strength is around 7080 MPa, a preliminary analysis of the
stresses induced around the proposed
tunnel shows that these induced stresses
are likely to exceed the strength of the rock
and that the question of stress
measurement must be considered in more
detail
12
13
Strain
Gages
14
16
Hydraulic Fracturing
18
Hydraulic Fracturing
The pressure is raised until
the rock surrounding the
hole fails in tension at a
critical pressure.
Following breakdown, the
shut-in pressure, the
lowest test-interval
pressure at which the
hydrofrac closes
completely under the
action of the stress acting
normal to the
hydrofracture
19
Hydraulic Fracturing
Borehole Breakout
21
Borehole Breakout
22
Borehole Breakout
Case Study A
From insitu stress measurement, the bearing
of the major principal stress is around 38-40
degree. What is the preferable panel/undercut
drift orientation?
Panel/Drill Drift
Orebody
XYZ
Orebody
XYZ
Plan View
Plan View
24
Case Study A
Ideally, the panel/undercut drift and the
direction of cave advance are aligned with the
principal horizontal in situ stresses.
If the direction of advance
is perpendicular, the levels
of stress in the abutment
ahead of the undercut will
be high and will increase
as the undercut advances
1
Orebody
XYZ
Undercut
Advance
Direction
Plan View
25
Cave Advance
Abutment
stress
26
29
1.5 m
CONCRETE
DAMAGE
CONCRETE
DAMAGE
30
Case Study A
The timing of undercut relative to the
extraction level development relates to the
selected undercutting method.
In general, there are three main undercutting
strategies:
1.Post Undercutting
2.Pre Undercutting
3.Advanced Undercutting
For XYZ BC Mine, an undercutting method
should be selected.
33
Terminology
Drill Drift - Undercut
Fan Drilling
Draw Bell
Minor Apex
Major Apex
Panel Drift Extraction
Orepass
Draw Point
34
35
36
37
39
3-Point Convergence
40
Case Study A
Near XYZ BC Mine, there is an active BC mine,
called KLM Mine, where the trial between Post
Undercut and Advanced Undercut will take
place.
Orebody
XYZ
Plan View
4 km
KLM
Mine
41
Panel 15
Panel 16
Post
Undercut
Advanced
Undercut
42
UC
Lvl
Cave
Cave Advance
Abutment
Extr
Lvl
Convergence
Station
18 m
Last
Blasting
Row
43
Cave Advance
Post Undercut
Anomaly
44
Cave Advance
Anomaly
45
Anomaly
The anomaly from KLM Mine Trial could be
explained as the result of remnant undercut
pillar or stump.
Stump is created when the undercut
blasting fails to break the rock completely.
Cave
Advance
Remnant
Pillar
Abutment Stress
Cave
Last Blasting Row
46
47
Case Study A
The KLM Mine trial shows that the
advanced undercut has the advantage to
reduce the stress induced impact to
undercut and extraction level.
Considering the KLM Mine trial result, XYZ
BC Mine will implement the advanced
undercutting method.
A note has been made that XYZ BC should
establish undercut blasting control such
that a remnant pillar will be avoided.
48
Case Study A
The undercut face shape is controlled by the
undercut opening sequence and the lead and
lag among drill drift cave front
50
Undercutting Sequence
51
Lead
and
Lag
52
Undercutting Sequence
Since trial with different undercut sequence is
quite impossible, a numerical modeling will be
used to evaluate the most preferable sequence
for XYZ BC Mine.
53
Undercutting Sequence
When comparing the results of the undercut
sequence models, the main useful criteria to
examine have proven to be:
1.Peak stress levels (in the stronger ground)
induced on the production level elevation.
2. Average and maximum values of strain
(as a measure of the severity of damage
and deformation) induced on the production
level elevation.
54
Undercutting Sequence
3. Areas of damage on the production level
elevation, measured in terms of areas where
shear strains exceed a set limit of 2 x 10-3 (2
millistrains). This value was chosen because it
includes damage in the stronger ground and
not just the weaker ground areas, which are
known to become extensively damaged,
whatever undercut sequence is chosen.
55
56
57
Displacement
(mm/day)
140501
0.0
mm/day
horizontal
070501
-1.3
mm/day
140501
-0.2
mm/day
vertical
-1.12
mm/day
140501
-1.3
mm/day
horizontal
-0.74
mm/day
290501
-1.12
mm/day
vertical
-0.1
mm/day
120601
-0.74
mm/day
horizontal
290501
-0.5
mm/day
120601
-0.1
mm/day
vertical
0.3
mm/day
260601
-0.5
mm/day
horizontal
120601
-0.65
mm/day
260601
0.3
mm/day
vertical
-0.2
mm/day
260601
-0.65
mm/day
horizontal
-0.4
mm/day
130701
-0.2
mm/day
vertical
0.0
mm/day
130701
-0.4
mm/day
horizontal
-0.8
mm/day
070801
0.0
mm/day
vertical
-0.1
mm/day
070801
-0.8
mm/day
horizontal
-0.1
mm/day
230801
-0.1
mm/day
vertical
0.0
mm/day
230801
-0.1
mm/day
horizontal
-0.75
mm/day
150901
0.0
mm/day
vertical
-0.4
mm/day
150901
-0.75
mm/day
horizontal
-0.4
mm/day
260901
-0.4
mm/day
vertical
0.1
mm/day
260901
-0.4
mm/day
horizontal
-0.1
mm/day
091001
0.1
mm/day
vertical
0.0
mm/day
091001
-0.1
mm/day
horizontal
0.0
mm/day
261001
0.0
mm/day
vertical
0.0
mm/day
261001
0.0
mm/day
horizontal
0.0
mm/day
071101
0.0
mm/day
vertical
0.0
mm/day
Lead
and Lag
Distance (m)
Cave
Advanced (m)
Horizontal
Displacement
Velocity (mm/day)
Vertical
Displacement
Velocity (mm/day)
07-May-01
0.0
0.2
14-May-01
Cave not
started
60
1.3 ()
1.12 ()
29-May-01
54
0.74 ()
0.1 ()
12-Jun-01
45
0.5 ()
-0.3 ()
26-Jun-01
45
0.65 ()
0.2 ()
13-Jul-01
30
15
0.4 ()
0.0 ()
07-Aug-01
30
0.8 ()
0.1 ()
23-Aug-01
25
0.1 ()
0.0 ()
15-Sept-01
25
0.75 ()
0.4 ()
26-Sept-01
17
0.4 ()
-0.1 ()
09-Oct-01
0.1 ()
0.0 ()
29-Oct-01
0.0 ()
0.0
71
72
Case Study A
XYZ Mine
Undercut
Sequence and
Direction
Extraction Drift
Orientation
Access
Adits
Plan View
73