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Supervised By:
Prof. Dr. Arshad Chughtai
Submitted By:
Waqas Iqbal
CE09-10M08
Abdul Salam
CE09-10M21
Haroon Saeed
CE09-10M34
PG09-10M05
Approval Certificate
Waqas Iqbal
CE09-10M08
Abdul Salam
CE09-10M21
Haroon Saeed
CE09-10M34
PG09-10M05
SUPERVISOR:
Prof. Dr. Arshad Chughtai
Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology,
University of the Punjab, Lahore.
External Examiner:
.........................................
Signature
..
Signature
II
Supervisor
Prof.Dr. Arshad Chughtai
Innovators:
Waqas Iqbal
waqasiqbal.ce
@gmail.com
Abdul Salam
engr.abdulsalam09
@gmail.com
Haroon Saeed
haroon1988icet
@gmail.com
Message:
Throughout our university life we learned a lot of things not just about study but also
about life from our fellows and our teachers. We have made lifelong friendship,
memories and lived a dream life. Our teachers played hugely important role in
grooming our personality, they not only taught us engineering but more importantly
they tried best to make us a good human being and a responsible citizen. Words are not
enough to thanks them and we promise we will carry on this identity of I.C.E.T to new
level where ever we will go in future INSHAALLAH
III
Acknowledgement
All praises to Almighty ALLAH who gave us light in darkness and gave us ability and
strength to complete our research project and all respects are for His Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH, on whom be ALLAHS blessings and salutations)
We take immense pleasure in thanking our worthy teachers for their valuable help
regarding our research project. We all owe special thanks to our project supervisor
Prof. Dr. Arshad Chughtai, who helped us throughout our research work and during
the compilation of this Design project. His motivation, guidance and kind words
always encouraged us to work with commitment. Whenever we found ourselves in any
sort of trouble, we always found him available to cater the issue. This sort of
generosity and favor is highly commendable.
We are grateful to our parents for their special prayers that helped us achieve this
tedious task in the compilation of this design project.
IV
ABSTRACT
Synthesis gas produced from wood feed stock usually contains gaseous impurities
such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulphide which are acids in aqueous solution
thus highly corrosive to the processing equipment and poisonous to Catalyst,
impurities laden-gas is also highly toxic and malodorous and is referred to as sour
gas.
The purpose of project is to design Amine Treating Unit (ATU). There are many
processes for the recovery of acid gas from Synthesis gas but we selected Absorption
Process by using Amine solvents (MDEA), because the design of the process is
economically most favorable. The economics of the plant also make balance with the
efficiency and is most suitable to the oil and gas reserves of Pakistan.
The process selected for this purpose is the Absorption Process by using Amine
solvents (MDEA) and the unit is designed to treat 208MMSCFD of Synthesis gas. This
Design Project includes introduction and processing of various methods employed for
the Acid gas recovery from Synthesis gas.
ChemCAD, Aspen HYSYS, MS Excel, and MS Visio are the softwares that has been
used for the calculations and designing of the project.
The details of this Project contains material and energy balances across the Amine
treating unit (ATU), individual equipments design, instrumentation and control, cost
estimation, and Operational Problems of Amine treating unit (ATU).
In summary, the focus on the future improvements in the Absorption process by using
Amine Solvents makes this project distinctive and particularly relevant for educating
present or perspective engineers. We worked very hard to complete this project. Our
aim is to stimulate young future engineers. We also strived to develop the design of the
Amine Treating unit (ATU) that will capture engineers attention and is easy for the
engineers to use and adapt.
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Synthesis Gas
10
1.6.1 Absorption
11
1.6.2 Adsorption
21
22
24
1.6.5 Condensation
24
2. PROCESS SELECTION
2.1 Process Selection
25
28
29
33
3. MATERIAL BALANCE
3.1 Introduction
34
35
36
41
44
46
VI
47
47
4. ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Introduction
48
48
49
50
4.5 Absorber
59
69
70
71
4.9 Stripper
74
79
5. EQUIPMENT DESIGN
5.1 Inlet Separator
81
85
96
109
119
120
121
7. COST ESTIMATION
7.1 Plant Cost Estimation
122
122
122
VII
123
123
123
123
126
127
8. HAZOP STTUDY
8.1 HAZOP study
128
129
129
129
129
130
130
131
9. OPERATIONAL PROBELMS
9.1 Problems occurring during operation
134
9.2 Foaming
134
9.3 Corrosion
135
137
137
9.6 Entrainment
137
10. BIBLOGRAPHY
138
VIII
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
2. Gas(CO+H2) produce from steam cracking of methane CH4 is called as Crack gas
Various raw Material which can be use for generation of Synthesis gas are :
Hard Coal
Brown Coal
Natural Gas
Mineral Oil Fractions
Petroleum Gas
Biomass
Heavy Oil
Light oil fractions and Natural gas is most suitable for production of synthesis gas since they
contain high fraction of H2.
Revival of coal gasification is in progress by now in some part of world due to increasing oil
crisis and shortage
Synthesis gas can also be made from plastics using chemical recycling process which are use
to convert plastics to gaseous raw material (synthesis gas ) and liquid
Chapter 1
Introduction
for lightening street lights and for industrial heating. With time the increasing demand for
chemicals and energy developed interest in field of synthesis gas technology. The main reason
for this was:
1. Due to high flexibility, synthesis gas can be used in variety of process like fuel
production, power generation, chemical manufacturing.
2. Synthesis gas provide better opening to use renewable fuels and low cost fuel as it
can be produce from multiple kind of solid fuel.
Below we will look into some historical development in the field of Synthesis gas:
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction
gas will be oxidized in the furnace or combustor(for calculation and estimation is considered
appropriate to assume impurities like NH3 and H2S are all converted into NOx and SO2 stack
emission ). The process where flue gases are scrubbed with the help of selective catalytic
reduction the sulfur removal from synthesis gas is also required to keep NOx under control.
In case of particulate the level of tolerance is negligible because downstream applications
cannot let particulate or fine ash to accumulate over extended operations thats why the gas
purification methods currently use reduce particulate level to below all environmental
standard.
In the chemical or fuel production process the purity of synthesis gas is determined by catalyst
requirements. In some cases even small amount of impurities can damage or poison whole
catalyst so purification requirements in case of catalyst are quite strict and stringent. For
example Van Der Burgt and Higman (2003 ) showed that catalyst which is used in FischerTropsch(FT) for production of liquid fuel requires that the syn gas use as raw material should
contained combined HF+HCl+HBr less than 10 ppb. Now a day such techniques are use which
purify gas to such level that it can be used in FT process. So before using syngas as raw material
it is necessary to purify it to meet downstream applications. Below we will see in table the
purification level of synthesis gas required for different downstream applications
Chapter 1
Introduction
Turbines
Chemical
Fuel Cell
Environmental
Production
Particulate
Total Sulphur
Total Nitrogen
Compound
Environmental
Traces Impurities
Halides
Alkali (Na,K)
Catalyst
and
process
specic
See
notes
See
notes
for
molten
for molten
carbonate and
carbonate
solid oxide fuel
and solid
oxide fuel
cell below
Produce in-situ;
controlled to avoid turbine
material deposits
Carbonyl
Carbon dioxide
Environmental
No standard to date
Fuel Cells: For molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs), earlier studies and requirements are
summarized by Thambimuthu (1993). For solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs), recent studies have
established the required purity for multiple trace species; see papers by Gemmen and Trembly
(2006) and Trembly et al. (2007a, 2007b, 2007c).2
PM10: The particulate material lesser than 10 microns
Chapter 1
Introduction
1. Automobile Fuels:
It is widely expected that in future syngas will be used to produce large amount of Ultra clean
Transportation duel from process like GTL. Methanol/ DME and Fischer-Tropsch Diesel are the
prominent example of this idea.
Methanol:
Methanol can be produce by using syngas. It can be produce by catalytic reaction of hydrogen
and carbon monoxide and some amount of carbon Dioxide. These reactions proceed with the
contraction of volume and both are exothermic in nature. This presence of small amount of
Carbon Dioxide keep the reaction in optimum zone in other words it enhance the reaction, As
these reaction are exothermic and proceed with reduction in volume so higher pressure and
lower temperature are favorable condition for reaction to occur.
It Important to keep an eye on side reaction of this process as those side reaction are also
highly exothermic and lead to the formation of many by product like that of methane DME
(Dimenthyl ether ) and higher alcohols. Now a days all over the world Methanol on Industrial
Chapter 1
Introduction
scale is produce by conversion of Syn Gas in the presence of desire catalyst. The process of
production of methanol is divided into three types on the basis of pressure used:
1. Lower pressure process using conditions of 50-100 bar
2. Medium pressure process employing 100-250 bar
3. Higher pressure process using 250-300 bar
Synthesis of Methanol from synthesis Gas involve following main reactions:
CO + 2H2
CH3OH
CO2 + 3H2
CH3OH + H2O
Both high and low pressure processes mainly differ on the basis of reactor design, operating
conditions and catalyst employed. Low pressure process are largely used in world now a
days due to their several advantages which includes better flexibility in the selection of
plant size, lower investment, better operational reliability , production cost.
CO + 2H2
H2O + -(CH2)-
Various types of synthetic fuel can be produce from synthesis gas by using Fischer-Tropsch
process. These product include light olefins, synthetic crude (light synthetic crude oil ), heavy
waxy hydrocarbons. Then further treatment of synthetic crude can produce high quality lube
oils, diesel fuel, naptha, aromatic liquid product. Fischer-Tropsch process can be operated on
various operating conditions to produce various types of product for example Fischer-Tropsch
synthesis process is carried out at high temperature of 330-350oC for direct production of light
olefins and gasoline similarly FT process is carried out at low temperature of 220-250oC for
production of diesel fuel and waxes.
Chapter 1
Introduction
2. Chemical Synthesis:
Ammonia :
Large amount of ammonia (85% ) produce world wide is used in the synthesis of fertilizers
while the remaining amount of ammonia is use in other useful application. Every nitrogen
atom which is used in industry in various application is obtained somehow (indirectly or
directly) from ammonia or nitric acid (derivative of ammonia). NH3 is used in the synthesis of
plastics, explosives, fibers for used in polyamides, polyurethane, polyacronitril, fertilizers,
animal feed. Ammonia production process required two main thing firstly nitrogen
concentration should be high and secondly the amount of CO and CO 2 should be limited to less
than 20 ppmV.3 So before using synthesis gas amount of CO and CO2 should be controlled by
using various CO and CO2 removal process. Ammonia production is carried out at temperature
of 350-550oC and at a pressure of 100-250 bar in the presence of suitable catalyst. :
N2 + 3H2
2NH3
Hydroformylation of olefins :
This process is also called as Roelen reaction or oxo-synthesis process for the manufacturing
of aldehydes on commercial scale. It is a catalytic reaction in which reaction take place
between synthesis gas (containing hydrogen and carbon monoxide) and olefins to form
aldehydes. These aldehydes contains additional carbon atom. The reactions occur as shown
below. In this reaction CO and H2 is added catalytically into olefins which result in aldehydes.
H2 + CO + R-CH=CH2
R-CH(CH3)-CHO + R-CH2-CH2-CHO
Alcohols and aldehydes are produce on industrial scale through Hydroformylation reaction.
The most significant products of oxo synthesis are C3-C19. Out of these butanal is one of the
most important product. Most used olefin is propene. The Products of oxo-synthesis is further
converted into aldol-condensation products, carboxylic acid, alcohols, primary amine.
Hydrogen in refineries:
In refineries main source of hydrogen is synthesis gas. Synthesis gas is obtained from heavy oil
through gasification and mainly from natural gas through steam reforming. This hydrogen is
used in refinery for purpose of hydro-treating and in other hydro-processing process.
Hydrogenation of olefins and removal of impurities (nitrogen and desulphurization) is
accomplished by using hydro treating. There are many hydro-treating units in refinery for
hydro treatment of several product fractions which includes heating oil, gasoline, kerosene,
Chapter 1
Introduction
diesel etc and also for pretreatment of feedstock which is used in catalytic cracking process.
On the other hand transportation fuels can by produce from the products obtained as a result
of hydro processing operation. Hydro processing operation basically involves the production of
lighter products from heavy oil fractions. The feed stock requirement for hydro cracking is 4 :
sum of CO2 And CO should be less than or equal to 10-15ppmV, H2 should be more than or
equal to 98% by volume, O2 should be less than or equal to 100 ppmV, inert gas should be less
than 2% by volume.
Acid Gas:
It is a gas containing acidic components such as CO2, H2S,COS (carbonyl sulphide), CS2(carbon
sulphide) RSH that can form acidic solutions when mixed with water.
Composition:
Mainly contains of CO2 and H2S gases. Both gases can cause corrosion. These gases are obtained
after a sweetening process applied to a sour gas.
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chemical
Absorption in to a
liquid
Physical
Adsorption on a
solid
Gas Purification
Permeation through
a membrane
Chemical conversion
to another
compound
Condensation
10
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.6.1 Absorption:
It refers to the transfer of a component of a gas phase to a liquid phase in which it is soluble.
Stripping is exactly the reverse-the transfer of a component from a liquid phase in which it is
dissolved to a gas phase. Absorption is undoubtedly the single most important operation of
gas purification processes.
Chemical Absorption
It is a type of separation process in which absorbent solution (solvent) reacts chemically with
acid gases presence in natural gas to produce compounds. E.g. Gas Sweetening process
The compounds can be dissociated by heating or operating at low pressure of stripping.
Used solvent is regenerated and re-use again
I.
Amine solutions
Primary Amines:
Amines which have two hydrogen atoms directly attached to a nitrogen atom, such as
monoethanolamine(MEA) and 2-(2-aminoethoxy) ethanol (DGA), are called primary
amines and are generally the most alkaline.
Secondary Amines:
Diethanolamine(DEA) and Diisopropanolamine(DPA) have one hydrogen atom directly
attached to the nitrogen atom andarecalled secondary amines.
Primary and secondary amines are known for their non-selectivity, and can remove
comparatively more CO2than H2S from the feed syngas stream.
Tertiary Amines:
Triethanolamine (TEA) and Methyldiethanolamine (MDEA) represent completely substituted
ammonia molecules with no hydrogen atoms attached to the nitrogen, and are called tertiary
amines.
In comparison, a tertiary amine process such as MDEA and physical solvent systems of Selexol
and Rectisol can selectively remove first H2S then CO2
from a feed gas stream, and thus in principal, has a higher degree of control with meeting the
needed clean syngas specification. Also, MDEA has a lower circulation rate and regeneration
energy requirement than primary and secondary amine processes of MEA and DEA
respectively.
11
Chapter 1
Introduction
NOTES:
1. These data alone should not be used for specific design purposes. Many design factors must be considered for actual plant
design.
2. Dependent upon acid gas partial pressures and solution concentrations.
3. Dependent upon acid gas partial pressures and corrosiveness of solution. Might be only 60% or less of value shown for
corrosive systems.
4. Varies with stripper overhead reflux ratio. Low residual acid gas contents require more stripper trays and/or higher reflux
ratios yielding larger
reboiler duties.
5. Varies with stripper overhead reflux ratios, rich solution feed temperature to stripper and reboiler temperature.
6. Maximum point heat flux can reach 20,00025,000 Btu/hr-ft2at highest flame temperature at the inlet of a direct fired fire
tube. The most satisfactorydesign of firetube heating elements employs a zone by zone calculation based on thermal efficiency
desired and limiting the maximum tube wall temperature as required by the solution to prevent thermal degradation. The
average heat flux, Q/A, is a result of these calculations.
7. Reclaimers are not used in DEA and MDEA systems.
8. Reboiler temperatures are dependent on solution conc. flare/vent line back pressure and/or residual CO2content required. It
is good practice to operatethe reboiler at as low a temperature as possible.
9. According to Total.
10. B.L. Crynes and R.N. Maddox, Oil Gas J., p. 65-67, Dec. 15 (1969). The heats of reaction vary with acid gas loading and
solution concentration. Thevalues shown are average
12
Chapter 1
Introduction
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Operation energy consuming.
Required very careful operation of unit.
High corrosion potential than any other alkanolamines.
Non selective removal in a mix acid gas system.
High vapor pressure causes high vaporization losses in low-pressure operation.
easily degraded.
by oxidation
by reaction of COS and CS
by overheating the solution
13
Chapter 1
Introduction
b) DEA
Advantages:
used in 15-20 wt% solution but upgraded from 25-40 wt% solution
reduced in solution circulation flow rate and energy consumption
Greater resistance to degradation than MEA
Low in vapor pressure make DEA losses are reduced
Effective in simultaneously remove CO2 and H2S
Preferable to replace MEA for treatment of natural gas with low acid gas
content
Disadvantages:
14
Chapter 1
Introduction
c) MDEA
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
15
Chapter 1
Introduction
Reaction 2 is instantaneous; the rate of diffusion of H2S from vapor to liquid phase controls the
rate of absorption of H2S.
For CO2, rate of absorption proceeds by two parallel chemical reaction schemes.
16
Chapter 1
Introduction
The second mechanism consists of direct reaction of the amine and CO2 to form a
zwitterionic intermediate which reacts with a second mole of amine to form the amine
carbamate.Only primary and secondary amines such as MEA, DEA, and DGA can react
via the carbamate mechanism. With these classes of amines, carbamate formation is
rapid and the bulk of the CO2 is absorbed in this way.In the carbamate mechanism, two
moles of amine are consumed for each mole of CO2absorbed. Thus, primary and
secondary amines have a maximum practical CO2 loading of 0.5mole/mole.
17
Chapter 1
II.
Introduction
18
Chapter 1
Introduction
PHYSICAL ABSORPTION:
In this process an organic solvent is used to remove the acid gases from syngas. The process is
carried out at low temperatures and high pressures. In physical absorption the loading capacity
of the solvent is mathematically described by Henrys law which states that the absorption is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the acid gas component in the syngas. Hence the
more the volume of the syngas to be processed, the more is the solvent rate required for the
desired absorption. This is shown in the fig below. During solvent regeneration reboiling is used
along with flashing and stripping which raises the temperature and reduces the solubility of
absorbed aid gases.
Characteristics:
19
Chapter 1
Introduction
Properties of solvents:
For industrial used, properties of solvents should have:
high solubility with respect to acid gases
low viscosity at operating temperature to facilitate solvent circulation
resistivity to corrosion of carbon steel
high thermal stability, i.e. not degraded under operating conditions (T, P, reaction)
low vapor pressure at operating conditions to minimize solvent loss
reasonable price
20
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.6.2 Adsorption:
It is the selective concentration of one or more components of a gas at the surface of a micro
porous solid. The mixture of adsorbed components is called the adsorbate, and the micro
porous solid is the adsorbent. The attractive forces holding the adsorbate on the adsorbent are
weaker than those of chemical bonds, and the adsorbate can generally be released (desorbed)
by raising the temperature or reducing the partial pressure of the component in the gas phase
in a manner analogous to the stripping of an absorbed component from solution. When an
adsorbed component reacts chemically with the solid, the operation is called chemisorption
and desorption is generally not possible.
Although adsorption can be practiced with many solid compositions, the great majority ofgaspurification and dehydration adsorbents are based on some
form of silica, alumina (including bauxite), carbon, or certain silicates, the so-called molecular
sieves. The silica and alumina-base adsorbents are primarily
used for dehydration, while activated carbon has the specific ability of adsorbing organic vapors
and is very important for this purpose. The molecular sieves have very unusual properties with
regard to both dehydration and the selective adsorption of other compounds.
21
Chapter 1
Introduction
22
Chapter 1
Introduction
Advantages:
Operational simplicity. The one-stage systems have no moving parts. For the two-stage
systems, the addition of the recycle adds some complexity.
Reduced space requirements
Ideal for remote locations
Can be used to debottleneck existing solvent-based plant. In such cases, the membrane
is used for bulk acid gas removal, and the existing solvent-based system is used for the
final cleanup.
contains little or no H2S.
in treating NG very rich in CO2(over 20%)
use lower CO2content to around 2%
Disadvantage:
cannot be widely used until improve in permeability and selectivity of membrane and
resistance to deterioration.
Because membranes use pressure as the driving force of the process, there may be a
considerable energy requirement for gas compression.
23
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.6.5 Condensation:
As a means of gas purification is of interest primarily for the removal of volatile organic
compounds(VOCs) from exhaust gases. This process consists of simply cooling the gas stream to
a temperature at which the Organic compound has a suitably low vapor pressure and collecting
the condensate.
24
Chapter 2
Process Selection
Chapter 2
Process Selection
In our process the the partial pressure of acid gas of the feed (syngas ) is 71.355 psia while
the partial pressure of acid gas in the product is 7.178 psia. By comparing these values on
the chart above shown we get the following result
25
Chapter 2
Process Selection
Our process lies in the region where physical or amine system is feasible. We have to make now
selection between the amine or physical system.
The physical absorption process has draw back compare to other process that it is economically
less feasible when partial pressure of acid gas is low because capacity of physical solvent is
function of partial pressure.
According to Stupin, partial pressure of acid gas above 200 psia is suitable for physical
absorption whereas low partial pressure of acid gas is suit able for alkaline solution absorption.
Schaaf and Tennyson (1977) indicated that chemical solvents are use at partial pressure
between (60-100psia)and above this pressure range physical solvent is used15
From the discussion above made, chemical absorption would be our choice. In chemical
absorption we have different types of amines. We have selected a tertiary amine (Methyl di
ethyl Amine) due to the following distinctions over primary and secondary amines 16.
MDEA serves saving of energy from reduced reboiler duties (reflux ratio 0.5 to 1.0) and
lower overhead condenser duties. Highly selective towards H2S when compared with
CO2, resulting in lower circulation rates and recycling higher quality of acid gas to
sulphur recovery unit.
MDEA can be used in greater concentration thus a greater capacity to react with acid
gas
26
Chapter 2
Process Selection
Usually the concentration 30-50% and 0.4-0.5 moles acid gas pick up per mole of MDEA
has increased the capacity of existing unit and allowed the equipment to be to be
considerably smaller for newer units. High pick up rate and high concentration reflects
lower solvent circulation rates for equivalent capacities
MDEA has less heat of reaction with CO2 and H2S as compared with DEA and MEA
27
Chapter 2
Process Selection
The treated gas having H2S content of about 2ppmv is then sent to the ZnO bed to meet the
desired concentration of H2s of 10-5mol % to synthesize methanol
28
Chapter 2
Process Selection
II. Absorber:
The characteristic, objective of Absorber are mentioned below:
Objective:
The main application of absorber is to remove acid gas from the feed.
Characteristic:
29
Chapter 2
Process Selection
Alternative Equipment:
Hydraulic turbine can be used in place of flash drum. Through the use of hydraulic turbine we can
produce power to drive circulation pumps.
30
Chapter 2
Process Selection
Alternative:
The alternative equipment for this purpose is plate frame exchanger . This exchanger offer high
heat transfer rates and larger surface area but are more prone to fouling.
V. Regenerator:
The characteristic, objective of Regenerators are mentioned below:
Objective:
The function of regenerator is to remove acid gases from rich solution by stripping so that rich
amine solution is regenerated.
Characteristics:
To prevent loss of amine due to physical entrainment at the tower of regenerator there is
demister pad is installed.
VI. Reboiler:
The objectives, characteristics of Reboiler are shown below:
Objectives:
The main purpose of Reboiler is to add heat to the acid gases containing rich solution to generate
energy for moving the chemical reaction in backward direction which will result in stripping of acid
gases from rich solution and reboiler also produce steam required to remove acid gases. The
overhead reflux ratio governed the efficiency of stripping.
Characteristics:
The reboiler mostly use is kettle type. The recommended tube pitch is square.
The outlet temperature of the regenerated solution depends on amine strength and
operating pressure.
The heating medium rate controls the duty of reboiler.
The prevent amine degradation the temperature of less than 145 degree C is
recommended for tube skin.
31
Chapter 2
Process Selection
To enhance the good natural circulation, space should be left below the bundle. This space
will also provide place for sludge deposition.
To avoid overheating and localized drying the layer of liquid should be high enough that it
totally covers the tube bundle.
32
Chapter 2
Process Selection
33
Chapter 3
Material Balance
Chapter 3
Material Balance
3.1 Introduction:
A mass balance (also called material balance) is an application of law of conservation of mass to
the analysis of physical systems. By accounting for material entering and leaving the system,
mass flows c a n b e identified which might have been unknown or difficult to measure without
this technique. The exact conservation law used in the analysis of system depends on the
context of problem but all revolve around mass conservation. That is that matter cannot
disappear or be created spontaneously.
The general form quoted for a mass balance is the mass that enters a system must, by
conservation of mass, either leave the system or accumulate within the system.
Mathematically the mass balance for a system within the system without chemical reaction is
as follows.
34
Chapter 3
Material Balance
Here an assumption is taken that there is no chemical reaction is taking place and our system is
steady state process. Hence
Mole %
0.3198
0.1658
0.1462
0.3541023
0.01316
8.35E-5
1.65E-5
2.54E-5
7.05E-7
7.696E-5
0.000336
0.000379
Molar Flow
lbmole/hr
7089
3675.648
3242.0364
7849.63
291.4674
1.86654
0.373308
0.563
0.01563
1.706
7.46616
8.32764
35
Chapter 3
Material Balance
Feed (F)
205
Our inlet gas separator has a temperature of 110 F, so those components which have critical
temperature less than 110 F will remain in gas phase. Otherwise they will be in liquid phase.
Gaseous Phase Components
H2
H2O
Co2
NH3
CO
C6H6
CH4
C10H8
C2H4
C2H6
H2S
N2
36
Chapter 3
Material Balance
Hydrogen Sulfide has not critical temperature less than 110 F but it has a very high vapor
pressure so that at this temperature of inlet gas separator, H2S will be present in gas phase.
According to Roult,s Law,
Component
ln(P*)
(P*)psi
(P*)mmHg
H2O
18.3036
3816.44
-46.13
4.179
1.263
65.30
NH3
16.9481
2132.50
-32.98
9.42
238.52
4536.9
C6H6
15.9008
2788.51
-52.36
5.33
4.02
206.44
C10H8
16.1426
3992.01
-71.29
-0.06
.0182
0.94
37
Chapter 3
Material Balance
YH2O =
(1)
2. For Ammonia:
YNH3 =
(2)
3. For Benzene:
XC6H6 = 9.35 x 10-3 XC6H6
YC6H6 =
(3)
4. For Naphthalene:
YC10H8 =
(4)
For H2:
7089.5 = XH2L + YH2V
As it is only present in Vapor phase, so XH2L = 0
7089.5 = YH2V
YH2 =
II.
For CO2:
3674.73 = YCO2 V
YCO2 =
III.
(7)
For CH4:
291.69 = YCH4 V
YCH4 =
V.
(6)
For CO:
3241.36 = YCO V
YCO =
IV.
(5)
(8)
For C2H4:
1.86 = YC2H4 V
38
Chapter 3
Material Balance
YC2H4 =
VI.
(9)
For C2H6:
0.367 = YC2H6 V
YC2H6 =
VII.
(10)
For H2S:
7.44= YH2S V
YH2S =
Viii.
(11)
For N2:
8.39 = YN2 V
YN2 =
IX.
(12)
For H2O:
7849.39 = XH2O L + YH2O V
From Eq.1
7849.39 = YH2O/2.9406 x 10-3 L + YH2O V
7849.39 = YH2O { L (340.136) + V }
YH2O =
X.
For NH3:
1.706 = XNH3 L + YNH3 V
From Eq.2
1.706 = YNH3/0.555 L + YNH3 V
1.706 = YNH3 {1.80 L +V}
YNH3 = *
XI.
(14)
For C6H6:
2.44 = XC6H6 L + YC6H6 V
From Eq.3
2.44 = YC6H6/9.35 x 10-3 L + YC6H6 V
2.44 = YC6H6 {106.95 L + V}
YC6H6 =
XII.
(13)
(15)
For C10H8:
0.0156 = X C10H8 L + YC10H8 V
From eq.4
0.0156 = YC10H8/4.23 x 10-5 L + YC10H8 V
0.0156 = YC10H8 {23640.6L + V}
YC10H8 = *
(16)
39
Chapter 3
Material Balance
Now , we know that
+
*
+
+
+*
+*
+*
+*
+*
We know that
L = 22167 V
Putting this value in above Equation and solving by computer program
V = 14358
L = 22167 14358
L = 7809
By putting the value of V in Eq. (5 to 16) , we get
Composition of stream 300:
YH2
0.494
YC02
0.256
YCO
0.2258
YCH4
0.0203
YC2H4
0.00013
YC2H6
0.000026
YH2S
0.00052
YN2
0.00058
YH2O
0.00294
YC6H6
2.87 x 10-6
YNH3
6.0 x 10-5
YC10H8
8.5 x 10-11
40
Chapter 3
Material Balance
H2S 4ppm
CO2 2 mole%
311
Amine recirculation rate
300
V = 14358
303
E
For stream 300:
Component
H2
CO2
CO
H2O
CH4
C2H4
C2H6
C6H6
C10H8
NH3
H2S
N2
Mole %
0.494
0.256
0.2258
0.00294
0.0203
0.00013
0.000026
0.00000287
8.5E-11
0.00006
0.00052
0.00058
Molar Flow
7092.852
3675.648
3242.0364
42.21252
291.4674
1.86654
0.373308
0.04120746
1.22043E-06
0.86148
7.46616
8.32764
41
Chapter 3
Material Balance
GPM =
= 0.40
GPM =
GPM = 3919
Solution density at standard state = 8.68
Then ,
3919
x 8.68
= 2041015.2
Using recommended 15% safety factor, lean amine flow rate = 2041015.2
x 1.15
= 2347167.48
We know , re-circulated MDEA contains
42
Chapter 3
Material Balance
= 9848.80
So,
Acid gas present (CO2)
= 49.24
= 2166.689
=
= 65200
Lean amine re-circulation rate (including acid gas) = 65200 + 9848.589 + 49.24
= 75098
We can write,
D = 10680.037 + 0.02D + 4 x 10-6
D = 10680.037 + 0.0200D
D = 10898
In D stream,
CO2 = 10898 x 0.02
CO2 = 217.96
= 9590.24
= 0.7412
In E stream,
CO2 = 161728.5 + 2166.689 9590.24
43
Chapter 3
Material Balance
CO2 = 154304.95
= 3507.28
= 7.44
= 65200
308
MDEA = 9848.589
312
305
309
307
Inlet stream 305:
MDEA = 1173583.74
MDEA = 1173583.74
Water = 1173583.74
Water = 1173583.74
44
Chapter 3
Material Balance
H2S = 254.218
CO2 = 2166.68
CO2 = 154308
45
Chapter 3
Material Balance
313
312
309
Inlet stream 313:
CO2 =?
CO2 = 152141.31
H2S =?
H2S = 254.218
H2O =?
H2O = 9388.66
Our reflux drum has a temperature of 130 F , so those components which have a critical
temperature less than 130 F will remain in gaseous phase otherwise they would remain in
liquid phase.
Gaseous phase components
CO2
H2O
H2S
So feed stream contain same CO2 and H2S as in the vapor phase.i-e
CO2 = 152141.32
46
Chapter 3
Material Balance
= 3548 + 7.447
= 3465.477
= 1.26 x 3465.477
= 4366.501
= 78597
of water
= 422643.7
47
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
4.1 Introduction:
As with mass, energy can be considered to be separately conserved in all but nuclear process.
The conservation of energy, however differ from that of mass in that energy can be generated
(or consumed) in a chemical process. Material can change form, new molecular species can be
formed by chemical process, but total mass flow into a process unit must be equal to flow out
at the steady state. The same is not true of energy. The total enthalpy of outlet streams will not
equal to that of inlet streams if energy is generated or consumed in the process; such as that
due to heat of reaction. Energy can exist in several forms: heat, Mechanical energy, electrical
energy, and these are the total energy that is conserved. In process design, energy balance are
made to determine the energy requirements of the process: heating, cooling and power
required. In plant operation, energy balance (energy audit) on the plant will show the pattern
of the energy usage, suggest areas for conservation and savings.
48
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Potential energy:
Kinetin energy:
Internal energy:
The energy associated with molecular motion. The temperature T of the material is a measure
of its internal energy U;
U = f(T)
iv.
Work:
Heat:
Energy is transferred either as heat or work. A system does not contain Heat but the transfer
of heat or work to a system changes its internal energy. Heat taken in by a system from its
surrounding is conventionally taken as positive and that given out as negative.
vi.
Electrical energy:
Electrical and mechanical forms of energy are included in the work term in an energy balance.
Electrical energy will only be significant in an energy balance on electrochemical processes.
49
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
205
Syn gas
301
(1)
(2)
50
Chapter 4
I.
Energy Balance
Hydrogen:
Cp= 6.9
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7093.44 x6.9x33
Q=1615176.288
II.
Cp=9.12
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=3657.555x9.12 x33
Q=1100777.753
III.
IV.
Water H2O
Cp=17.98
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7862.6349 x 17.98 x33
Q=46611`5215.792
51
Chapter 4
V.
Energy Balance
Methane CH4:
Cp=8.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 288.171 x 8.7 x 33
Q= 82733.8941
VI.
Ethylene C2H4:
Cp= 10.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.8575 x 10.7 x 33
Q=655.91665
VII.
Ethane C2H6:
Cp= 13.09
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.3657 x 13.09 x 33
Q= 157.9954
VIII.
Benzene C6H6:
Cp= 21.13
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.563 x 21.13 x 33
Q= 392.60
52
Chapter 4
IX.
Energy Balance
Tar C10H8:
Cp=33.88
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.01562 x 33.88 x 33
Q= 17.47
X.
Ammonia NH3:
Cp= 8.63
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.76 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 502.5100184
XI.
Cp=8.63
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7.448112 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 2022.832738
XII.
Nitrogen:
53
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Water H2O
Cp=17.98
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7808.2191 x 17.98 x33
Q=4632928.721
II.
Benzene C6H6:
Cp= 21.13
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.05356974 x 21.13 x 33
Q= 37.353644
III.
Tar C10H8:
Cp=33.88
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.01562 x 33.88 x 33
Q= 17.47
IV.
Ammonia NH3:
Cp= 8.63
54
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.843372 x 8.63 x 33
Q=240.1839119
Hydrogen:
Cp= 6.9
Cp=9.12
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7092.852 x6.9x33
Q=1615042.4
II.
III.
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=3242.0364 x 6.97 x 33
Q=745700.7924
55
Chapter 4
IV.
Energy Balance
Water H2O
Cp=17.98
Cp=8.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 42.21252 x 17.98 x33
Q=25046.37662
V.
Methane CH4:
VI.
Ethylene C2H4:
Cp= 10.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.86654 x 10.7 x 33
Q=659.075274
VII.
Ethane C2H6:
Cp= 13.09
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.373308 x 13.09 x 33
Q= 161.2578568
56
Chapter 4
VIII.
Energy Balance
Benzene C6H6:
Cp= 21.13
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.041 x 21.13 x 33
Q= 28.73354978
IX.
Tar C10H8:
Cp=33.88
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.22043E-06x 33.88 x 33
Q= 17.47
X.
Ammonia NH3:
Cp= 8.63
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.86148 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 245.34
XI.
Cp=8.23
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7.46616 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 2027.734394
57
Chapter 4
XII.
Energy Balance
Nitrogen:
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 8.32 x 6.97 x 33
Q=1915.440476
=(4633244.686+8213985.662)
58
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
4.5 Absorber:
302
311
300
303
(1)
(2)
59
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Hydrogen:
Cp= 6.9
Cp=9.12
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7092.852 x6.9x33
Q=1615042.4
II.
III.
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=3242.0364 x 6.97 x 33
Q=745700.7924
60
Chapter 4
IV.
Energy Balance
Water H2O
Cp=17.98
Cp=8.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 42.21252 x 17.98 x33
Q=25046.37662
V.
Methane CH4:
VI.
Ethylene C2H4:
Cp= 10.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.86654 x 10.7 x 33
Q=659.075274
VII.
Ethane C2H6:
Cp= 13.09
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.373308 x 13.09 x 33
Q= 161.2578568
61
Chapter 4
VIII.
Energy Balance
Benzene C6H6:
Cp= 21.13
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.041 x 21.13 x 33
Q= 28.73354978
IX.
Tar C10H8:
Cp=33.88
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.22043E-06x 33.88 x 33
Q= 0.00136449
X.
Ammonia NH3:
Cp= 8.63
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.86148 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 245.34
XI.
Cp=8.23
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7.46616 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 2027.734394
62
Chapter 4
XII.
Energy Balance
Nitrogen:
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 8.32 x 6.97 x 33
Q=1915.440476
Hydrogen:
Cp= 6.9
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7092.852 x6.9x33
Q=1615042.4
II.
Cp=9.12
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=217.96 x 9.12 x33
Q=655597.2416
III.
Cp= 6.97
63
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=3242.0364 x 6.97 x 33
Q=745700.7924
IV.
Water H2O
Cp=17.98
Cp=8.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 42.21252 x 17.98 x33
Q=25046.37662
V.
Methane CH4:
VI.
Ethylene C2H4:
Cp= 10.7
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.86654 x 10.7 x 33
Q=659.075274
VII.
Ethane C2H6:
Cp= 13.09
Q= o x Cp x T
64
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Q= 0.373308 x 13.09 x 33
Q= 161.2578568
VIII.
Benzene C6H6:
Cp= 21.13
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.041 x 21.13 x 33
Q= 28.73354978
IX.
Tar C10H8:
Cp=33.88
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1.22043E-06x 33.88 x 33
Q= 0.00136449
X.
Ammonia NH3:
Cp= 8.63
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 0.86148 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 245.34
XI.
Cp=8.23
Q= o x Cp x T
65
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Q= 0.0218 x 8.63 x 33
Q= 5.920662
XII.
Nitrogen:
Cp= 6.97
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 8.32 x 6.97 x 33
Q=1915.440476
I.
Cp=9.38
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=3507 x 9.38 x75
Q=2467174.5
II.
Water H2O
Cp=18.02
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 65602 x 18.02 x75
Q=88117800
66
Chapter 4
III.
Energy Balance
Cp=8.3
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7.477232968x 8.3 x 75
Q= 4654.577523
IV.
MDEA:
lbmol/hr ,
Cp= 69.04
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 9849 x 69.04 x 75
Q=
50998122
Cp=9.12
Cp=18.02
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=49.24 x9.12 x33
Q=`14819.2704
II.
Water H2O
67
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 65602 x 18.02 x33
Q=38771832
III.
MDEA:
Cp= 65.33
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 9849 x 65.33 x 33
Q=
21233360.61
68
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
310
311
E-1
69
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
(1)
(2)
70
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Heat In = 130628533+213955756+160602.17
Heat in = 344744891
QDuty = Heat in - Heat Out
= 156223570 BTU/hr OR 156.22
4.8 Over head Stripper Condenser:
306
313
Cp= 9.67
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 3457.757 x 9.67 x 126
Q= 4213000.284
II.
71
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Cp= 8.4
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7.477 x 8.4 x 126
Q=7913.6568
III.
Water H2O
Cp= 18.14
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 4366.5 x 18.14 x 126
Q= 9980247.06
Cp= 9.25
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 3457.757 x 9.25 x 53
Q= 1695165
II.
Water H2O
Cp= 17.99
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 4366.5 x 17.99 x 53
Q=3273.281
72
Chapter 4
III.
Energy Balance
Hydrogen Sulphide H2S
Cp= 8.26
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 7.477 x 8.26 x 53
Q= 4163327
73
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
4.9 Stripper:
306
309
305
307
(1)
(2)
74
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
MDEA
Cp= 0.615
Cp= 1.007
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1173584 x 0.615 x 123
Q= 88775742
II.
Water H2O
III.
Cp= 0.219
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 254.218 x 0.219 x 123
Q= 6847.8703
IV.
Cp= 0.246
75
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 154308 x 0.246 x 123
Q= 238812897
MDEA
Cp= 0.658
Cp= 1.018
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 1173584 x 0.658 x 181
Q= 139771476
II.
Water H2O
III.
Cp= 0.226
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 2166.68 x 0.226 x 181
Q=356102299
76
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Cp= 0.22
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 152141.3 x 0.22 x 126
Q= 4217357.4
II.
Water H2O
Cp= 1.007
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 78597 x 1.007 x 126
Q=9972544.6
III.
Cp= 0.246
Q= o x Cp x T
Q= 254.218 x 0.246 x 126
Q= 7879.7411
77
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
Components
I.
Water H2O
Cp= 0.999
Q= o x Cp x T
Q=78597 x 0.999 x 53
Q= 4161475
78
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
304
30 Psia
T= ?
(1)
(2)
5. Assuming that the volume remain constant ( i.e process streams are liquid )
So
W= v(P2 P1)
(3)
79
Chapter 4
Energy Balance
V= 81014.76521 ft3/hr
(4)
(1lbmol
150.42 F= T2
80
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Basic Principle:
The main purpose of separator is to separator liquid from vapor and vice versa. This separation
is accomplished by providing velocity low enough so that vapor get separated from liquid.
Gravity plays vital role in this separation along with density difference.
c) Knock-out drums:
This type of separator is used when very low liquid content are present in inlet stream. Due to
this reason Knock out drum is mostly installed on compressor inlet stream to stop liquid from
going in the compressor and damaging it.
81
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= 21.67
= 996.348
20
= Liquid density,
= vapour density,
= settling velocity,
(
= Maximum velocity
82
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= Liquid density,
= vapour density,
= 1.97 or 0.602
= 2.06 m
= 1.928 m
83
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
22
If
ratio:
84
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
85
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
1540-2500m
Number of plates
Port size
Up to 700
Up to 39cm
Plates
Thickness
0.5-1.2 mm
Size
Spacing
Corrugation depth
0.03-2.2 m
1.5-5.0 mm
3-5 mm
2.
86
Chapter 5
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Equipment Design
87
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Advantages
Efficient heat transfer, low
weight
Flexibility
Easily accessible heat
transfer area
Minimized vibration
Reduced friction
High dimensional tolerances
Simplified regasketing while
still in frame
Superior bonding
Benefits
Reduced capital cost, smaller
foundation
Easy to modify for altered
duties
Reduced shutdown time
Longer life time greater
reliability
Easy opening and closing,
reduced maintenance
Improved performance
Reduced shut-down time,
reduced maintenance cost
Greater reliability
27
88
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Incoloy 825
Monel 400
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C-276
Aluminum brass 76/22/2
Cupronickel (70/30)
Cupronickel (90/100)
Diabon F 100
Gasket selection:
The main points which should be consider while selecting any gasket are shape, good
sealing ability, temperature and chemical resistance. Different gaskets and their
respective operating temperature are shown in below:
28
89
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Comparison between Shell & tube heat exchanger and Plate heat exchanger:29
Features
Multiple duty
Piping connection
Heat transfer ratio
Operating weight ratio
Hold-up volume
Space ratio
Welds
Sensitivity to vibrations
Gaskets
Detection of leakage
Access for inspection
Time required for opening
Repair
Modification
Fouling
Traditional PHE
Possible
From one direction(on frame
plate)
3-5
1
Low
1
None
Not sensitive
On every plate
Easy to detect on the exterior
On each side of plate
15 min with pneumatic
tightener
Easy to replace plate and/or
gasket
Easy by adding and removing
plates
10-25% that of STHE
STHE
Impossible
From several directions
1
3-10
High
2-5
Welded
Sensitive
On each flanged joint
Difficult to detect
Limited
60-90 min
Requires tube plugging (
decreased capacity)
Impossible
-----------
90
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
or 45784.3 kW
) (
(
(
)
)
= 38.6
= 1.16
30
As in this exchanger both stream are light organic liquid so the value of overall coefficient (U)
31
= 548.763 m2
91
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Number of plates =
= 125
Channel velocity=
=
x(
=1.02
Re(Reynoldss No)=
=
= 31789
Pr (Prandtl No) =
=
= 97
= 1368
Channel velocity=
=
x(
x
=1.03
Re(Reynoldss No)=
=
= 17240
Pr (Prandtl No) =
92
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
=
= 169
= 1147
4. Overall Coefficient:
Fouling factor for rich and lean amine (light organic) is
33
We Take plate thickness as 0.75 mm and we use titanium material which has thermal
conductivity of 21 Wm-1 oC-1
=
=
= 2.829x10-4
U= 3524 Wm-2 oC-1
The value of overall coefficient is much above the supposed value so the calculated number of
plate per pass is satisfactory
5. Pressure Drop
For Lean amine
Jf = 0.60 x (Re)-0.3
= 0.60 x (31789)-0.3
= 0.0267
Path length = plate length x number of passes = 1.5 x 1 = 1.5 m
Pp=8 x Jf x
x density x
93
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Pp= 8 x 0.0267 x
x 938 x
= 15655
x density x
x 921x
= 18848
94
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
95
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to install.
Pressure drop is low as compared to valve and bubble cap plates.
Peak efficiency is generally high.
Maintenance cost is reduced due to the ease of cleaning.
In case of capacity rating, sieve plate has high rank as compared to valve and bubble plates.
Sieve plate:
Sieve plate is simplest type of cross-flow plate. Vapor passes up through perforations in the
plate; and the liquid is retained on the plate by vapour flow. The perforations are usually small
96
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
holes, but larger holes and slots are used. The arrangement, number and size of the holes are
design parameters.
Because of their efficiency, wide operating range, ease of maintenance and cost factors, sieve
and valve trays have replaced the once highly thought of bubble cap trays in many applications.
Foaming
Entrainment
Weeping/dumping
Flooding
Foaming:
Foaming refers to the expansion of liquid due to passage of vapor or gas. Although it provides
high interfacial liquid-vapor contact, excessive foaming often leads to liquid buildup on trays. In
some cases, foaming may be so bad that the foam mixes with liquid on the tray above.
Whether foaming will occur depends primarily on physical properties of the liquid mixtures, but
is sometimes due to tray designs and condition. Whatever the cause, separation efficiency is
always reduced.
Entrainment:
Entrainment refers to the liquid carried by vapor up to the tray above and is again caused by
high vapor flow rates. It is detrimental because tray efficiency is reduced: lower volatile
material is carried to a plate holding liquid of higher volatility. It could also contaminate high
purity distillate. Excessive entrainment can lead flooding.
Weeping/Dumping:
This phenomenon is caused by low vapor flow. The pressure exerted by the vapor is insufficient
to hold up the liquid on the tray. Therefore, liquid starts to leak through perforations. Excessive
weeping will lead to dumping. That is the liquid on all trays will crash (dump) through to the
base of the column (via a domino effect) and the column will have to be re-started. Weeping is
indicated by a sharp pressure drop in the column and reduced separation efficiency.
97
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Flooding:
Flooding is brought about by excessive vapor flow, causing liquid to be entrained in the vapor
up the column. The increased pressure from excessive vapor also backs up the liquid in the
down comer, causing an increase in liquid holdup on the plate above. Depending on the degree
of flooding, the maximum capacity of the column may be severely reduced. Flooding is
detecting by sharp increases in column differential pressure and significant decrease in
separation efficiency.
Column Diameter:
Vapor flow velocity is dependent on column diameter. Weeping determines the minimum
vapor flow required while flooding determines the maximum vapor flow allowed, hence column
capacity. Thus, if the column diameter is not sized properly, the column will not perform well
98
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
ABSORBER DESIGN
Flow rate = 10898 Ibmole/hr
Pressure = 422 psia
Temperature = 110 F
Flow rate = 14358 Ibmole/hr
302
Temperature = 110 F
Density = 21.47 kg/m
H2 = 7092.85 Ibmole/hr
CO = 3242.036 Ibmole/hr
H2 = 7092.85 Ibmole/hr
CO = 3242.036 Ib mole/hr
N2 = 8.3276 Ibmole/hr
300
N2 = 8.3276 Ibmole/hr
311
303
99
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
or
99.7%
) min = Ki Eai
L =
Vn+1 =
= 433psia.
36
Ki = 1.6
So, (
Operating (
) = 1.25 (1.5952)
= 1.994.
100
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
) .
=
= 1.246.
Theoretical stages at operating conditions.
Eai = AioN+1 Aio / AioN+1 1
0.997 = (1.246)N+1 1.246 / (1.246)N+1 1
(N+1) log 1.246 = log (
= 27 stages.
101
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Where,
Lw =Liquid mass Flow rate ,
Vw = Vapour mass Flow rate ,
In this Case,
Lw = 148.045
Vw = 17.18
Pv = 21.47
PL = 1001.48
FLV =
= 1.26
We use Plate Spacing 700mm.
38
K1 = .034
Then, UF = 0.034
= 0.23
We take actual velocity as 85% of flooding velocity
So, Uv = 0.85 x 0.23
= 0.20
Maximum volumetric vapor flow rate =
=0 .80
Net area required = An =
= 4 m2
102
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
x 100 = 12%
= 0.77
103
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
+ 2/3
how = 750 *
Lw = weir length, m
how = height over weir , mm liquid
Lw = liquid flow rate
] 2/3
K2 = 31.2
Uh(min) = [
(
)
(
)
Uh = 0.77m/s
Actual minimum vapor velocity =
=
= 1.62 m/s.
104
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= 2.32 m/s.
Co = 0.84
hd = 51 [
]2 [
= 8.34 mm
hr =
= 12.48mm
105
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
]2
where,
hdc = head loss in downcomer, mm
Lwd = liquid flowrate in downcomer, kg/s
Am = Either downcomer area or clearance area under the downcomer Aop which is smaller.
Aop = hop Lw
Where, hop = height of bottom edge of apron above plate
Lw = length of weir
hop = hw 10
= 50 10 = 40mm
So, Aop= 0.040 x 1.85m
106
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= 0.074m
]2
hdc = 166 [
= 6.62mm
7. Entrainment Calculation:
For checking entrainment , we calculate
Uv =
Uv =
= 0.2 m/s
% flooding =
=
= 86%
107
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
108
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Stripping Phenomenon:
Stripping is a mass transfer operation that involves the transfer of a solute (as H2S & CO2 in our
case) from the liquid phase to the gas phase.
Stripping Agents:
Air
Stream
Inert gas
Hydrocarbon gases
Reboiled vapors (as in our case)
Types of Stripper:
i.
Refluxed Stripper:
It is employed if simple stripping is not sufficient to achieve the desired separation and
contacting trays are needed above the feed tray.
ii.
Reboiled Stripper:
If the bottom product from a stripper is thermally stable, it may be Reboiled at the bottom of
the column.
iii.
109
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
308
3
305
110
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Ki = 35
So, ( )min =
=
= 0.0285
111
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
112
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Where,
Lw =Liquid mass Flow rate ,
Vw = Vapour mass Flow rate ,
In this case,
In this Case,
Lw = 315
Vw = 20.38
Pv = 1.96
PL = 935.24
FLV =
= 0.71
We use Plate Spacing 800mm.
38
K1 = .054
Then, UF = 0.054
= 1.18
We take actual velocity as 85% of flooding velocity
So, Uv = 0.85 x 1.18
= 1.00
Maximum volumetric vapor flow rate =
=10.4
Net area required = An =
113
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= 10.4 m2
x 100 = 12%
= 0.77
114
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
+ 2/3
how = 750 *
Lw = weir length, m
how = height over weir , mm liquid
Lw = liquid flow rate
] 2/3
K2 = 31.2
Uh(min) = [
(
)
(
)
Uh = 6.17m/s
Actual minimum vapor velocity =
=
= 8.11 m/s.
115
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= 11.6 m/s.
Co = 0.84
hd = 51 [
]2 [
= 20 mm
hr =
= 13mm
116
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
ht = 188 + 13 + 20
= 221mm liquid
= 9.81 x 10-3 x 221 x 935.24
= 2027.6 Pa
= 0.29 Psia (per plate)
6. Downcomer Design:
The downcomer area and the plate spacing must be such that the level of the liquid and froth in
the downcomer is well below the top of outlet weir on the plate above. If the liquid rises above
the outlet weir the column will flood.
hb = (hw + how) + ht + hdc
Where,
hb = downcomer backup, measured from plate surface, mm
hdc= head loss in downcomer, mm
hdc = 166 [
]2
where,
hdc = head loss in downcomer, mm
Lwd = liquid flowrate in downcomer, kg/s
Am = Either downcomer area or clearance area under the downcomer Aop which is smaller.
Aop = hop Lw
Where, hop = height of bottom edge of apron above plate
Lw = length of weir
hop = hw 10
= 50 10 = 40mm
So, Aop= 0.040 x 2.99m
117
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
= 0.120m
]2
hdc = 166 [
= 13.07mm
7. Entrainment Calculation:
For checking entrainment , we calculate
Uv =
Uv =
= 1 m/s
% flooding =
=
= 85%
118
Chapter 5
Equipment Design
Basis 24 hours
Vol. of MDEA for 24 hr = 2349334.04 x 24/64.6 = 872817.6 ft3
Total vol. of vessel = vol. of MDEA + 10% allowance
= 872817.6 x 1.10 = 960099.36 ft3
Let us suppose that 0.3% of MDEA solution is slipped in the surge tank
=960099.36 *0.03=2858.29 ft3=81m3
V = d2h/4
Let, h/d = 3
or h = 3d
3
V = 3 d /4
From here, d = 3.25m so, h=9.75 m
[1]
Design Specifications
Time of operation = 24hr
Dia. Of vessel = 3.25m
Height of Vessel = 9.75m
Recommended material of instruction is carbon steel
119
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
120
Chapter 6
121
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
Direct costs
Indirect costs
Purchase equipment
Purchase equipment installation
Instrumentation
122
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
Piping
Electrical Equipment and materials
Building (including services)
Service facilities
Taxes
7.3
Various methods are employed for estimating capital investment are as follows:
Preliminary estimate
Definitive estimate
Detailed estimate
In choosing the method for cost estimation following factors are considered:
7.4
123
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
The percentage used in making an estimation of this type should be determined on the basis
of type of process involved, design complexity required, material of construction, location of
the plant, past experiences, and other items depend on the particular unit under
consideration.
= Ce = E
Ce= a + b (S)n
Where a & b are cost constants
S = size parameter
n = exponent for that type of equipment
(these all above values have been obtained from table # 6.6, Coulson vol.6, Ed.5. for year
2007 )
1. Cost of Absorber:
We know that
C= a+b(S)n
Diameter of Absorber = 2.4 m
sizing factor (S) = 2.4
a = 110, b = 380, n= 1.8
46
so,
C = 110+380(2.4)1.8
= $1947
( Cost/Tray)
124
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
= $105138
This cost is for year 2007, so by applying inflation rate of 3.3% per year, we can find cost in
2013.
C = 105138(1.033)6 = $127750.21
2. Cost of Exchanger:
We know
C= a+b(S)n
Sizing parameter of exchanger (S) = 584 m2
a = 1350, b = 180, n = 0.9547
so,
C = 1350+180(584)0.95
= $73313
This cost is for year 2007, so by applying inflation rate of 3.3% per year, we can find cost in
2013.
C = 73313(1.033)6 = $89080.
125
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
C = 5000+1400(81)0.7
so,
= $35343
This cost is for year 2004, so by applying inflation rate of 3.3% per year, we can find cost in
2013.
C = 35343(1.033)9 = $47337.
E = $354856
% of E
Cost ($)
0.25E
0.07E
0.08E
0.05E
0.05E
0.02E
0.15E
0.01E
88714
24840
28388
17723
17723
7097
53228
3549
126
Chapter 7
Cost Estimation
0.33E = $117102
(1)
Construction Expenses
0.41E = $145490
(2)
$262592
Total Cost
$503855
Contactors Fee
Contingency
(D+I+X+Y) = $540043
0.15(D+I+X+Y) = $81006
127
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study. The purpose may be the analysis of a yet
to be built plant or a review of the risk of unexisting unit. The scope of the study is the
boundaries of the physical unit, and also the range of events and variables considered. The
initial establishment of purpose, objectives, and scope is very important and should be precisely
set down so that it will be clear, now and in the future, what was and was not included in the
study. These decisions need to be made by an appropriate level of responsible management.
128
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
To find out those areas in design which can have significant hazard potential.
To study and find out those aspect of design that effects the occurrences of hazardous
incidence.
To make study team familiar with design information.
To make sure that systematic study of areas involving hazard potential is made.
To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study team's detailed
comments
Team Secretary
Process Engineer
Mechanical Engineer
Commissioning/Operations
Engineer/Manager
Instrument Engineer
The use of keywords is effective and the whole group is able to participate.
HAZOP is an excellent well-proven method for studying large plant in a specific manner.
HAZOP is very time consuming and can be laborious with a tendency for boredom for
analysts.
HAZOP does not identify all causes of deviations and therefore omits many scenarios.
129
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
Control discussion
Limit discussion
Motivate members
Discourage recriminations
Meaning
Negation of intention
Quantitative increase
Quantitative decrease
Quantitative increase
Part of
Quantitative decrease
Reverse
Other than
Compete substitution
Comments
No flow of A
Flow of A greater than design flow
Flow of A less than design flow
Transfer of some component
additional to A
Failure to transfer all components of
A
Flow of A in direction opposite to
design direction
Transfer of some material other than
A
130
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
131
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
Table 8.152
Equipment
reference
and
operating
conditions
Deviations
from operating
conditions
What event
could cause
conditions this
deviation?
Consequences
of
this deviation
on
item of
equipment
under
consideration
Pump
cavitates
Additional
implications of
this
consequence
Process
indications
MDEA
Storage
tank
Level
Damage to
pump,
LIA-1,
FICA-1
2. Rupture 4-in.
discharge
Reagent
released
Potential fire
LIA-1,
FICA-l
3. V-3 open or
broken
4. V-l open or
broken
5. Tank rupture
Reagent
released
Reagent
released
Reagent
released
Tank overfills
Potential fire
LIA-1
Potential fire
LIA-1
Potential fire
LIA-1
Reagent
released
via RV-1
LIA-1
7. Reverse flow
from process
Tank overfills
Reagent
released
via RV-1
LIA-1
Composition
Other than
8. Wrong
reagent
Possible
reaction
Possible tank
rupture
As well as
9. Impurity in
reagent
Pressure
Less
If volatile,
possible
overpressure
Reagent
released
Can reagent
react/explode if overheated in pump?
Estimate release
quantity. Consider
second LAL
shutdown on pump.
Estimate release
quantity.
Consider V-l
protection
What external events
can cause rupture
Is RV-1 designed to
relieve liquid
atloading rate?
.Consider secondhigh
level shutoff.
Consider check
valvein pump
discharge line.
Consider second LAH
shutdown on feed
lines.
Consider
samplingbefore
unloading.
Are other
materialsdelivered in
trucks?
Consider PAL to
PICA- 1. Consider
independent
PAL.
Consider vacuumbreak
Valve.
consider PAL on
PICA-l
Tank not designed
for vacuum.
Less
More
6. Unload too
much from tank
truck
Potential fire
PICA-l
Tank implodes
Reagent
released
PICA-l
Tank implodes
Reagent
released
Reagent
released
PICA-l
Tank implodes
PICA-l
132
Chapter 8
HAZOP Study
More
Reagent
released
via RV-1
Reagent
released
via RV-1
Reagent
released
via RV-1
Tank rupture if
RV-1 fails
PICA-l
Tank rupture if
RV-1 fails
PICA-l
Tank rupture if
RV-1 fails
PICA-l
See Event 6
Tank rupture if
RV-1 fails
PICA-l
18. Temperature
of
inlet is hotter
than normal
Reagent
released
via RV-1
Tank rupture if
RV-1 fails
PICA-l
15. PV-1
failsclosed
16. V-7 closed
What is capacity of
PV-l? RV-l? Consider
independent PAH.
Consider
independent PAH.
Is V-7 locked open?
Is V-S locked open?
Consider
independent PAH.
Consider second
High-level shutoff.
What prevents high
Temperature of
inlet?
133
Chapter 9
Operational Problems
Chapter 9
9.1
Operational Problems
One of the reasons that alkanolamine processes have become the predominant choice for both
refinery gas treating and natural gas purification is their comparative freedom from operating
difficulties. Nevertheless, several factors can result in undue expense and cause difficulties in
the operation of alkanolamine units. Chief among these, from an economic standpoint are
corrosion and amine loss. Other operating difficulties, which occasionally limit the capacity of
plant for gas purification, include foaming and plugging of equipment. In many cases, operation
can be significantly improved by daily monitoring of key plant operating variables and by proper
control and design of treating plant.
9.2
Foaming53:
Foaming of alkanolamine solution is probably the most common operating problem in amine
treating units. It is most frequently encountered in contractor, but may also occur in the
stripping column.
Causes of Foaming:
Specific cause of foaming includes the following:
Water soluble surfactants in the feed gas (e.g. well treating compounds, pipeline corrosion
inhibitors) which lowers the amine solutions surface tension. Excessive antifoam can also
cause foaming.
Liquid hydrocarbons e.g. entrained compressor lubricating oils in the feed gas or
hydrocarbons condensation within the amine absorber.
Particulate contaminants (e.g. mill scale, FeS correction products, rust contained in the feed
gas or produced within amine treating units. Solids such as FeS do not cause foaming but
concentrate at liquid/gas interface and stabilize the foam by increasing the surface viscosity
retarding film drainage.
Oxygen contamination of feed gas or amine unit (usually at the amine sump or amine
storage tank) and reaction of amine heat stable salts. Dissolved iron can catalyze the
reaction of amine with oxygen to foam carboxylic acid.
Feed gas contamination such as carboxylic acid, which react with amine to form heat stable
salts.
Contamination of amine unit with gases and oils during a turnaround.
Amines filter elements that have been washed with surfactants or contaminated with oils
during manufacture.
Contaminants in the amine plant makeup water such as boiler feed water treating
chemicals and corrosion inhibitors.
134
Chapter 9
Operational Problems
Prevention of Foaming:
Foaming can be reduced or controlled by proper care of the amine solution. The following
techniques reduce the amine solution contamination and minimize foaming:
A properly designed feed gas inlet separator and filter should be provided. A feed gas
coalscer should be considered for feed gas stream contaminated with compressor
lubricating oils and other finally dispersed aerosols. A properly size slug catcher should be
provided if slugs can accumulate in the feed gas line.
A feed gas water wash should be considered when the feed gas streams is severely
contaminated with carboxylic acid or water soluble, surface active contaminates. A feed gas
water wash can also remove aerosols and ultra fine chemicals.
Onsite of offsite amine solution reclaiming to remove heat stable salts and amine
degradation products. No more than 10% of the amine should be tied up as stable salts.
Caustic addition to neutralize heat stable salts to mitigate corrosion and thereby reduce
iron sulfite formation.
A properly sized rich amine flash drum remove entrained and dissolved hydrocarbons.
Liquid skimming facilitate in the absorber sump, the rich amine flash drum, the regenerator
sump and the amine regenerator overhead accumulator.
New plants and old plants that have undergone a major turnaround or often contaminated
with oils, greases welding fluxes and corrosion inhibitors. A hot caustic wash (2-5 wt%
caustic soda) followed by a hot condensate wash can remove these impurities and help to
prevent foaming.
9.3 Corrosion:
By far the most serious operating problem encountered with amine gas purification process
is corrosion as would be expected this problem has been given widest attention. Generally,
it occurs in regenerator heat exchanger and pumps. The extent and type of corrosion has
been observed to depend upon such factors as the amine used, the presence of
contaminants in the solution leading with acid gas, the temperature and pressure,
prevailing in various part of the plant, the velocity with which the solution flows and others.
However, it appears that the principal corroding agents are the add gases. The rate of
corrosion increases with increase acid gas concentration n solution.
Corrosion due to hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide is frequently observed a filter shell
and the hot end heat exchanger tubes. To minimize corrosion by hydrogen sulfide and
carbon dioxide, the acid gases must be held in a relatively corrosive form until regeneration
of amine solution is stripping still.
135
Chapter 9
Operational Problems
Overloading the amine solution will increase the chance for corrosion due to pressure
reduction or high temperature in the heat exchanger. This danger can be remedied
bymaintaining sufficient pressure on the foul amine solution and by operating the unit at as
low and acid gas alkanolamine ratio as possible. This ration should not exceed 0.05 moles of
acid gas per mole of alkanolamine and should be event less of condition permits.
Mechanism of Corrosion:
It is known that free or aggressive carbon dioxide causes severe corrosion particularly at
elevated temperature and in the presence of water.
It is believed that the metallic iron with carbonic acid which results in the formation of stable
iron bicarbonate. Further heating of solution may cause the release of carbon dioxide and the
precipitate of the iron as the relatively insoluble carbonate.
Hydrogen sulfide attacks steel as an acid with the subsequent formation of insoluble ferrous
sulfite. This compound forms a coating on the metal surface which does not adhere tightly and
therefore affords little protection from further corrosion. There is no satisfactory correlation
available for carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide mixture, which relates the corrosive attacks to be
expected with any given ratio of hydrogen sulfide to sulfur dioxide.
However, certain generalized observation has been made. It appears that in plant handling
predominantly carbon dioxide, very small quantity of hydrogen sulfide may actually reduce
corrosion. On the other hand, each of the acid gases increases the corrosive attacks of the
other.
The temperature of the solution in the reboiler and the temperature of the steam used in
the reboiler should be kept as low as possible.
Use of high temperature heat carrying media, such as oil, should be avoided to maintain the
lowest possible skin temperature of metal.
Pressure regenerator with its accompanying high temperatures results in severe corrosion
of reboiler tubes; it is, therefore, good practice to maintain the lowest possible pressure on
the stripping column and reboiler.
To prevent oxygen from entering the system, it is advisable to maintain a blanket of inlet
gas over all portion of the solution, which could be exposed to atmosphere and to ensure
the pressure the suction side of all pumps.
136
Chapter 9
Operational Problems
Continuous removal of suspended solids (by nitration) and the decomposition product (by
distillation of a side stream) generally helps to reduce corrosion.
9.4
Chemical Losses54:
The loss of a solvent can be a serious operating difficulty in alkanolamine gas purification
plants. Corrosion can be incurred by entrainment of the solution in the gas stream vaporization
or chemical degradation of the amine. Loss of the solvent by entrainment or vaporization is
undesirable not only because of the cost of chemicals but also because of the contamination of
the pipelines by liquid deposited on the walls. In addition when alkanolamine solution are used
to purify the gas to be used in catalytic process, entrainment by vaporization of solvent result in
a serious poisoning of the catalyst.
9.5
Glycol volatility losses are usually significant in ethylene glycol, di-ethylene glycol but very less
in tri-ethylene and higher glycols, which have very high boiling points. Hence usually a very
small amount of glycol is lost by vaporization into gas stream in absorbers and also in
regenerators.
9.6
Entrainment:
In many cases most of the glycol loss occurs as carry over of solution with the product gas.
Entrainment losses are caused either by inefficient mist extraction or by foaming and
subsequent carry over solution. Entrainment losses from glycol absorber vary considerably
depending on the mechanical design of both the upper solution of absorber and mist
elimination devices.
137
BIBLOGRAPHY
BIBLOGRAPHY
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2- TIM C.LIEUWEN & VIGOR YANG & RICHARD YETTER, Synthesis Gas Combustion
Fundamentals and Applications,Table 1.5
3- PETER HAUSSINGER & REINER LOHMULLER & ALLAN M. WATSON,
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4- PETER HAUSSINGER & REINER LOHMULLER & ALLAN M. WATSON, Ullmanns
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7- ARTHUR KOHL & RICHARD NELSON , Gas Purification , Page 53, Edition 5 th .
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Laboratory), (2011), Advanced Carbon Dioxide Capture R&D Program: Technology
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10- ARTHUR KOHL & RICHARD NELSON , Gas Purification , Page 1202, Table 14-1, Edition
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11- ARTHUR KOHL & RICHARD NELSON , Gas Purification , Page 1048, Table 12-1, Edition
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12- ARTHUR KOHL & RICHARD NELSON , Gas Purification , Page 1256, Table 15-2, Edition
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14- TENNEYSON, R.N. & SCHAAF, R.P, "Guidelines Can Help Choose Proper Process for Gas
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BIBLOGRAPHY
15- ARTHUR KOHL & RICHARD NELSON , Gas Purification , Page 4, Edition 5th. 1979
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17- A.A.C.M BEENACKERS, Methanol production from wood-Results of the EEC Pilot
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28- T.KUPPAN, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook , Page 356, Table 5
29- T.KUPPAN, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Page 354, Table 3
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32- T.KUPPAN,Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, page 368, Table 2.
33- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardson`s Chemical Engineering , Page 757 table 12.9,
Volume 6 , Edition 4th.
139
BIBLOGRAPHY
34- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering page 558-561, Volume 6,
Edition 4th.
35- ERNEST E. LUDWIG, Applied Process Design for Chemical & Petrochemical Plants, page
109, Volume 2, Edition 3rd.
36- GAS PROCESSORS SUPPLIERS ASSOCIATION, Engineering Data Book, page 25-23,
Volume 1&2, Edition 12th.
37- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering page 567-579, Volume 6,
Edition 4th.
38- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Figure 11.27, page 568,
Volume 6, Edition 4th.
39- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Figure 11.31, page 573,
Volume 6, Edition 4th.
40- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Figure 11.30, page 571,
Volume 6, Edition 4th.
41- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Figure 11.34, page 576,
Volume 6, Edition 4th.
42- R.K SINNOTT, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Figure 11.29, page 570,
Volume 6, Edition 4th.
43- ERNEST E. LUDWIG, Applied Process Design for chemical & petrochemical plants, page
110, Volume 2, Edition 3rd.
44- APTHUR KOHL, Gas Purification. Page 205, Edition 5th.
45- APTHUR KOHL, Gas Purification. Page 204, Edition 5th.
46- RAY SINNOTT & CAVIN TOWLER, Chemical Engineering Design, page 314, Table 6.6,
Volume 6, Edition 5th.
47- RAY SINNOTT & CAVIN TOWLER, Chemical Engineering Design, page 313, Table 6.6,
Volume 6, Edition 5th.
48- R.K SINNOTT, Chemical Engineering Design, page 256, Figure 6.5a,b.
140
BIBLOGRAPHY
49- RAY SINNOTT & CAVIN TOWLER, Chemical Engineering Design, page 314, Table 6.6,
Volume 6, Edition 5th.
50- MAX S.PETERS & KLAUS D.TIMMERHAUS, Plant Design & Economics For Chemical
Engineer, page 167, Table 4, Edition 4th.
51- MAX S.PETERS & KLAUS D.TIMMERHAUS , Plant Design and Economics For Chemical
Engineers, page 63, Edition 4th.
52- MAX S.PETERS & KLAUS D.TIMMERHAUS , Plant Design and Economics For Chemical
Engineers, page 64, Edition 4th.
53- APTHUR KOHL, Gas Purification. Page 224, Edition 5th.
54- ARTHUR KOHL, Gas Purification. Page 231, Edition 5th
141