1

TRIBOLOGY LABORATORY

FRICTION AND WEAR EXPERIMENTS

1. OBJECTIVE
Experimental evaluation of the friction coefficient and wear rate for a given pair of materials, in a nonconformal contact (cylinder/plane). The tests are made on a standard friction and wear testing machine
known as Timken machine.

2. TEST RIG DESCRIPTION

Timken machine is a specialized test-rig for tribological experiments performed usually on nonconformal (counterformal) contacts of cylinder on flat surface type. It can be used either for materials
characterization (friction coefficient and wear rate) or for lubricant and additive characterization
(seizure parameters). If necessary, by changing the form of the fixed specimen, Timken machine can be
used for other non-conformal contacts (cylinder on cylinder, for example) or even for conformal contacts
like inner cylindrical contact (like in shoe-brakes). The tests can be made for different pairs of materials, in
contact under different normal loads, Fn, with different relative angular speed, n , with or without lubrication.
A sketch of the test rig is shown in Fig. 1. A constant speed a.c. electric motor drives a precision spindle shaft
via a V-belt transmission. A set of interchangeable pulleys allows to perform tests at various speed. The
contact is mechanically loaded using a classical loading arm which can be loaded at different arm lengths with
various calibrated weights. An adjustable support allows to use, if required, a vessel with lubricant where the
specimens can be dropped in.

V-belt
transmission

Spindle

Loading
arm

Electric
motor

Unloading
Discharge
lever

Frame

Lubricant
tank

Rotating
specimen

Loading
weights
Strain
gauges

Adjustable
support

Fixed specimen
support
Fig. 1. General view of Timken Machine

As can be seen from Fig. 2, which is a magnified view of the specimens in contact, there are two identical
contacts between the specimens in order to improve the load distribution as well as for increasing the
efficiency of the experiments. The evaluation of the friction force is made continuously by measuring the
tangential elastic deformation of the support of the fixed specimen. The measurement is made with 2 pairs of
resistance strain gauges mounted on the elastic part of the support and measuring the elastic bending

TRIBOLOGY LABORATORY

deflection. A preliminary calibration of the strain-gauge bridge is necessary before experiments. The
calibration can be made using a simple loading system, consisting of a pulley and some calibrated weights
(see Fig. 3). The rotational speed of the spindle shaft is measured with an optical transceiver connected to an
electronic counter with digital display.

Rotating
specimen 1

n
b

Loading
arm

Fn

b
Fixed
specimen 2

aH
aH

Strain gauges
bridge

Ff

Strain gauges

Fn

a)
P

Fig. 2. Magnified view of the two specimens

Fixed
Specimen 2
n

weight

K=tan
Ff

Rotating
Specimen 1

P [N]

Footprint

Fig. 4. Geometry of the contact zones after wearing

[div]

b)
Fig. 3. Calibration device

3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
a) Balance the bridge (strain gauges bridge), following the proper procedure of the instrument.
b) Calibrate the strain-gauges indication using the device shown in Fig. 3a. By hanging various known
weights, Pk (no more than 4 Kg) on the plate and reading the corresponding indication of the bridge, k,
one can obtain the force-deformation relationship in several points. It is recommended to make at least 5
measurements and fill in the Table 3. Assuming elastic deformation and using least square fit
approximation one can draw the calibration graph (the straight line in Fig. 3b). From this graph results the
elastic constant of the friction force measuring system, dP/d = tan = K =.............. N/div. .
c) Load the contact by hanging a known weight, G =...........N, at a certain hanging point, m=.......... (marked
on the loading arm with numbers 5,6,7,8,9 or 10).
NOTE that the hanging point must be one of the six points marked on the loading arm and denoted by
a number, m, called multiplication factor.
d) Turn on the electric motor and measure the duration of the experiment, t =............ sec , (the total duration
of the test is recommended to be between 3-5 minutes). During testing, read periodically (every 30 sec.

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for exemple) the indication of the bridge, o =...............[div] and the shaft rotational speed,
n=...............rev/min. Fill in the Table 4 with the recorded results.
e) Turn off the electric motor and measure, using a vernier caliper, the footprints produced on the fixed
specimen (softer material): L1 = ........... mm, L2 = ........... mm. If different calculate an average value, L=
........... mm.

4. PROCESSING OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

4.1. Calculation of the friction coefficient
The normal load, Fn, on the line of contact, introduced by the loading arm, is:

G m
+ Gl = .................. N
2

Fn =

(1)

where: G = .............. N is the weight hanged on the loading arm;

Gl =20 N - the proper weight of the loading arm;
m =.......... - multiplication factor, corresponding to the hanging point.
Using the calibration graph for the strain-gauges, transform the indication of the bridge, o, into the friction
force, F f =................N (see Fig. 3b).
Calculate the friction coefficient, using the well-known Coulomb formula

Ff
Fn

= ...............[-]

(2)

Plot on a graph the time variation of the friction coefficient

4.2. Calculation of the wear rate
Using the average length, L, of the two footprints calculate the worn volume of material (see Fig. 4)

D 2

L L
3
2
2
V = 2b arcsin
D - L = ........................mm
2
D
4

(3)

where: D = .............. mm is the diameter of the rotating specimen;

b = .............. mm is the length of the contact line.
Calculate the friction length (total distance traveled by a point):

L f = vt =

Dn
60 000

t = ................ m

(4)

Calculate the wear rate in terms of volume (or volumetric wear rate)

Q=

V
Lf

= ................ mm 3 m ;

Calculate the wear rate in terms of mass:

(5)

Qg =

m
Lf

V
Lf

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= Q 10 6 = .............g / m ,

(6)

where the density of the worn material is (see Table 2) = ............... Kg/m3.
Calculate the linear wear rate (also known as wear rate):

Qh =

10 3 = ..................[]

(7)

Af L f

Linear wear rate, Qh , is used to define the nature of interaction of the two specimens (see Table1).
In order to calculate the wear rate one must estimate the frictional area, which is variable during the process.
One may consider that the frictional area varies between the initial Hertzian aria, AH, and the final area of
contact, AC:

AH = 2 a H b = .......... ...mm 2

AC = b D arcsin

where - half-width of the footprint: a H = 1.596

- equivalent modulus of elasticity E e =

L
= .......... ... mm 2
D

Af =

A C + AH
= .......... ..mm 2
2

F n Re = .............. mm
b Ee
2

1 12
E1

1 22

= .................. MPa

E2

- equivalent radius: Re = D/2 = ........... mm

REMARK: In the general case, the equivalent radius is defined as

1
Re

R1 R 2
but in our particular case (one of the specimens is plane), R1 = D/2 and R2 = .

Calculate the maximum contact stress, Hmax, using Hertz formula for the contact of two cylinders:

Hmax = 0.4

F nEe

= .................MPa

(8)

2bRe

calculate the wear coefficient, k, using the Archard wear law:

k =Q

H
Fn

10 3...............[]

where H= ................. MPa is Brinell hardness of the softer specimen (fixed specimen 2).

5. CONCLUSIONS
Comment the values obtained.
Comment the nature of the contact.

(9)

Table 1 The relationship between the nature of

the contact and the wear intensity
Nature of the
contact

Qh

Class

-13

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

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Table 2. Mechanical properties of the tested

materials

10 -10
10-12-10-11
10-11-10-10
10-10-10-9
10-9-10-8
10-8-10-7
10-7-10-6
10-6-10-5
10-5-10-4
10-4-10-3
10-3

elastic contact
elasto-plastic contact
plastic contact

E [MPa]

[-]
[kg/m3]
Brinell
hardness H
[MP ]

2.1105
0.3

1.1105
0.4

7800

2600

1800

micro-chip-removing
process

Table 3. Calibration results

k

Rotating
Fixed
specimen (1) specimen (2)
Steel
Aluminium

-12

Calibration graph

Weight, Pk Deflection, k
[N]
[div]

1
2
3
4

P
[N]

5
6
7
8
9
10

Deflection, [div]

Bending elastic constant of the friction force measuring system calculated for least square fit:

K=

( P ) ( )
i i

=....... [N/div]

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Table 4. Experimental results

Time t [sec]

Deflection [div]

Friction force [N]

Time, t [sec]
Rotational speed n =rev/min
Normal load F =N
Mean friction force Ff med=N
Mean friction coefficient med=.

Friction coefficient [-]