Islam and secularism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2010)

The role of Islam or religion in the Muslim-majority countries as outlined in the constitutions. Including Islamic or secular states.

The idea of secularism in Islam means favoring a modern seculardemocracy with separation of mosque and state, as opposed
to Islam as a political movement. Secularism in the Muslim countries refers to the ideology of promoting the secular as opposed to
the religion. It is often used to describe the separation of civil/government matters from religious theocracy. Secularism is often
condemned by Muslims who do not feel that religious values should be removed from the public sphere, though "Muslim theologians
have long distinguished between matters of din [religion] anddawlah [state]."[1] Secular states had existed in the Muslim
world since the Middle Ages.[2] The quest for Secularism has inspired some Muslim scholars who argue that secular government is
the best way to observe sharia and enforcing sharia through coercive power of the state negates its religious nature, because
Muslims would be observing the law of the state and not freely performing their religious obligation as Muslims," says Abdullahi
Ahmed An-Na'im, a professor of law at Emory University and author of a book on the future of sharia. A majority of Muslim countries
have a dual system in which the government is secular but Muslims can choose to bring familial and financial disputes to sharia
courts. The exact jurisdiction of these courts varies from country to country, but usually includes marriage, divorce, inheritance, and
guardianship.[3] However, it has acquired negative connotations in some Middle Eastern countries and is often criticized by conflating
it with anti-religion and colonial intervention.
Contents
[hide]

1 Definition

2 Overview

3 History

3.1 Early history

3.2 Modern history

3.2.1 Secular women

4 Influences

4.1 Colonial influence

4.2 Communist influence

5 Secular states with majority Muslim populations

5.1 Africa

5.2 Asia

5.3 Europe

5.4 Secularist movements

5.4.1 Turkey

5.4.2 Iran

5.4.3 Tunisia

5.4.4 Egypt

5.4.5 Syria

5.4.6 Lebanon

5.4.7 Iraq

5.4.8 Bangladesh

6 Opposition and critique

6.1 Secularism and religion

6.1.1 Secularism and Islam

6.1.1.1 Islamic modernizers

6.2 Secularism and authoritarianism

7 See also

8 References

9 Further reading

[edit]Definition
Main article: Secularism
The etymology of the Arabic word for secularism can be controversial in itself. While some refer to almaniyya which is derived from
the wordalam, suggesting that secularism is wordly, others prefer to think of ilmanniyya relating the word for secularism to the Arab
word ilm (science, or knowledge). Some writers suggest another Arabic term alamaniyya to avoid the confusion while others
prefer dunyawiyya, meaning temporal, in contrast to dini (religious).[4]
[edit]Overview
Many Muslims argue that, unlike Christianity, Islam does not separate religion from state and a majority of Muslims around the world
welcome a significant role for Islam in their countries' political life.[5] It is apolitical Islam, not political Islam, that requires explanation
and that is an historical fluke of the "shortlived heyday of secular Arab nationalism between 1945 and 1970."[6]
In contrast, scholar Olivier Roy argues that "a defacto separation between political power" of sultans and emirs and religious power
of the caliph was "created and institutionalized ... as early as the end of the first century of the hegira," what has been lacking in the
Muslim world is "political thought regarding the autonomy of this space." No positive law was developed outside of sharia. The
sovereign's religious function was to defend the Islamic community against its enemies, institute the sharia, ensure the public good
(maslaha). The state was an instrument to enable Muslims to live as good Muslims and Muslims were to obey the sultan if he did so.
The legitimacy of the ruler was "symbolized by the right to coin money and to have the Friday prayer (Jumu'ah khutba) said in his
name."[7]

The concept of Secularism in Islam has been claimed to have religious sanction too. The Sahih of Imam Muslim, the second most
authentic book on Hadith, dating from the 2nd century Hijrah, contains a chapter headed as follows: Whatever the Prophet has said
in matters of religion must be followed, but this does not apply to worldly affairs.
The Hadith is as follows: Once Prophet Muhammad came across some people doing artificial pollination of palm trees. Due to some
reason he disliked the idea and commented that it would be better not to do any pollination at all. However for the following year the
harvest was poor. When he came to know about this Prophet Muhammad admitted his limitation of knowledge regarding secular
affairs and said: If a question relates to your worldly matters you would know better about it, but if it relates to your religion then to
me it belongs.
Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, the prominent Indian Muslim scholar, comments on this Hadith [8]: Islam separated religious knowledge
from physical knowledge. The source of religious knowledge which came into general acceptance was divine revelation (the
authentic version of which is preserved in the form of the Quran), while full freedom was given to enquiry into physical phenomena,
so that individuals could arrive at their own conclusions independently.
He further says: According to this hadith, Islam separates religious matters from scientific research. In religious affairs, there has to
be strict adherence to divine guidance. But in scientific research, the work must proceed according to human experience. For this
reason definition of secularism in the Islamic perspective has been suggested as a separation of Religion and Science rather than
Religion and State and the political view of Islam is even claimed to be secular, rather than Islamism [9]
[edit]History
[edit]Early

history

Secular governments had existed in the Muslim world since the 10th century. According to the scholar Ira M. Lapidus:
In fact, religious and political life developed distinct spheres of experience, with independent values, leaders, and organizations.
From the middle of the tenth century effective control of the Arab-Muslim empire had passed into the hands of generals,
administrators, governors, and local provincial lords; the Caliphs had lost all effective political power. Governments in Islamic lands
were henceforth secular regimes - Sultanates - in theory authorized by the Caliphs, but actually legitimized by the need for public
order. Henceforth, Muslim states were fully differentiated political bodies without any intrinsic religious character, though they were
officially loyal to Islam and committed to its defense.[10]
In the same period, religious communities developed independently of the states or empires that ruled them. The ulamaregulated
local communal and religious life by serving as judges, administrators, teachers, and religious advisers to Muslims. The religious
elites were organized according to religious affiliation into Sunni schools of law, Shi'ite sects, or Sufi tariqas. [...] In the wide range of
matters arising from the Shari'a - the Muslim law - the 'ulama' of the schools formed a local administrative and social elite whose
authority was based upon religion. Thus though the Muslim madhahib were not organized in the same way as Christian churches,
they had many of the religious and social functions we associate with churches. But whether or not we wish to speak of churches,
religious organizations, institutions, personnel and activities were clearly separate from the ruling regimes. [11]

As long as two decades ago, Sir Hamilton Gibb, in his essay 'Constitutional Organization', showed that Muslim political thinkers
themselves had become aware of the separation of state and religion and recognized the emergence of an autonomous sphere of
religious activity and organization. For example, Ibn Taymiyya held that apart from the Caliphate, the ulamaconstituted the
true umma of Islam, and that ruling regimes were 'Muslim' regimes not by any intrinsic quality but by virtue of the support they lent
the Muslim religion and religious communities.[12]
In early Islamic philosophy, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise providing a justification for the emancipation
of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology, thus Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.[13][14]
[edit]Modern

history

Many of the early supporters of Secularist principles in Middle Eastern countries were Baathist and non-Muslim Arabs, seeking a
solution to a multi-confessional population and an ongoing drive to modernism.[15]
The most controversial work is that of Ali abd al-Raziq, an Islamic Scholar and Sharia judge who caused a sensation with his work
"Islam and the Foundations of Governance" (Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm) in 1925. For the first time in Muslim history, he argued
there was nothing in the texts that made it obligatory that Muslims had to have the Caliphate form of religious government and that
they can choose a system that suits them. This publication caused a fierce debate especially as he recommended that religion can
be separated from government and politics. He was later removed from his position. Rosenthall commented on him saying:
"we meet for the first time a consistent, unequivocal theoretical assertion of the purely and exclusively religious character of Islam".
[16]

The term almaniyya acquired a bad connotation and was associated with irreligion in the Muslim world after the establishment of an
anti-religious political system, but portrayed as secular, in Turkey in 1924 by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk.[17]
[edit]Secular women
It was suggested that secular oriented women do not support sharia as the main source of legislation, rather they refer to civil
law and the resolution of human rights conventions, as adopted by the United Nations, as frames for reference for their struggle.
Azza Karam (1998:13), for example, describes secular feminists as follows: "Secular feminists firmly believe in grounding their
discourse outside the realm of any religion, whether Muslim or Christian, and placing it, instead within the international human rights
discourse. They do not waste their time attempting to harmonize religious discourses with the concept and declarations pertinent to
human rights. To them religion is respected as a private matter for each individual, but it is totally rejected as a basis from which to
formulate any agenda on womens emancipation. By so doing, they avoid being caught up in interminable debates on the position of
women with religion."[18]
However variations exist concerning the interpretation and manifestation of secularism in womens politics and lifestyles many of
them are united in their opposition to the establishment of an Islamic state (for example that is compulsory to wear veiling) and they
share the sense that religion should not be mixed with politics. Siham K., a member of Rabat Al-Mara Al`arabiyya (the Alliance for
Arab Women) p141 said: "I am one of the people who believe that Islam has to be separated from civil, political and economic rights
and duties. It is an option that Egypt is a Muslim country. This should remain personal. The freedom of belief is integral. It should not

interfere with womens rights. It cannot be part of the view of politics and the future. This is another story altogether. I want religion to
be detached away from actual politics."[19]
Generally, secular women activists call for total equality between the sexes, attempt to ground their ideas on womens rights outside
religious frameworks, perceive Islamism as an obstacle to their equality and a linkage to patriarchal values. (Karam, 1998:
2345).And they argue that secularism was important for protecting civil rights. [20][21]
[edit]Influences
[edit]Colonial

influence

When colonial rule was established, the process of secularization began to expand into Muslim lands.[citation needed] Secularism thus
came as the European colonialists dominated the region and supplanted rule with their own processes and procedures.
Modernisation was seen as a legacy of European colonialism perpetuated by western-oriented elites who imposed and fostered the
twin processes of westernization and secularization.
[22]

Colonial powers in many cases replaced indigenous political, social, economic, legal, and educational institutions. For instance, in
many former colonised Middle East countries, the Kuttab or the madrassas (the Quranic schools) were moved to the western
format. The French colonial government in the protectorates of the Maghreb changed the education system into a secular model
closely modeled on their own. The colonialists firmly believed that their secular system was more modern, efficient, and progressive
than the incumbent practices. Naturally, these changes had far-reaching social consequences, especially for women, and laid the
foundation of Arab Secularism by separating theclergy from government affairs, education, and justice.[23]
In consequence, "perception of the public, political, and social domain through the prism of religion became marginal and was
replaced by a new perception, a perception that was modern, temporal, ideological, ethical, evolutionary, and political." [24] This
provided a challenge to some governments, which had no choice but to change in the face of overwhelming force. It is from this
experience that secularism gained also its perceived foreign identity.
[edit]Communist

influence

In 1918 the Soviet Union opened the Commissariat for Muslim Affairs, which actively opposed the colonial powers in the Middle East
and their system of Mandates.[25]
In the 1920s the formation of the first communist parties in the Middle East started playing a key role in the anti-colonial struggle and
promoting their ethos regarding workers rights. During the Second World War they also played a role fighting against fascism and
participating in the international peace movement.[26]
A key element of the Communism movement was the well organized network of parties in different countries that provided support
to each other and enabled communist organizations to become an effective outlet against oppression.

Communism went on to become one of the key components of Arab Nationalism and was particularly prominent during the rule
of Gamel Abdel Nasser in Egypt in which Egyptian communists stood aside.[27] And even though communism was often a prominent
supporter of Arab nationalism, the international relationships which allowed it to be such a potent force were also used by opposition
regimes, and to some extent third parties during the Cold War. A good example of this is the Communist Party of Iraq which was
oppressed by Saddam Hussein,Islamists for their secular policies and by the US during the Cold War period.[28]
[edit]Secular

states with majority Muslim populations

A Mosque in Baku, the capital ofAzerbaijan.

See also Indices of democracy in Muslim-majority countries

[edit]Africa

[edit]Asia

Burkina Faso[29]

Chad[30]

Gambia[31]

Guinea[30]

Mali[32]

Senegal[33]

Bangladesh[34][35]

Kazakhstan[36]

Kyrgystan[37]

Malaysia

Tajikstan[38]

Turkmenistan[39]

Uzbekistan

Indonesia[40]

Syria

Albania

Azerbaijan[41]

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Kosovo

Turkey[42]

[edit]Europe

[edit]Secularist

movements

[edit]Turkey
Main article: Secularism in Turkey
Secularism in Turkey was both dramatic and far reaching as it filled the vacuum of the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I.
[citation needed]

With the country getting down Mustafa Kemal Atatrk led a political and cultural revolution. "Official Turkish modernity took

shape basically through a negation of the Islamic Ottoman system and the adoption of a west-oriented mode of modernization, but a
la turca."[43]
In 1924 Atatrks Revolution brought Islamic authority under the full and absolute control of the secular state. The institutionalization
of secularism involved bringing all religious activity under the direct control of the secular state.

The abolition of the Caliphate.

Religious lodges and Sufi orders were banned.

A secular civil code was adopted to replace the previous codes based on Islamic law
(sharia) outlawing all forms of polygamy, annulled religious marriages, granted equal rights
to men and women, in matters of inheritance, marriage and divorce.

The religious court system and institutions of religious education were abolished.

The use of religion for political purposes was banned.

The article that defined the Turkish state as Islamic was removed from the constitution.

The alphabet was changed from Arabic to Roman.

A portion of religious activity was moved to the Turkish language, including the Adhan (call to
prayer) which lasted till 1950.[44]

Throughout the 20th century the secular Turkish nationalism was continually challenged by Islamists, Kurdish
people and Marxistmovements. And, although most Turkish citizens still are in favor of secularism,[citation needed] political Islamists and
neo-fundamentalists are gaining ground since the mid eighties, such as the Refah Party and AK Party.[citation needed] These groups
oppose laws that limit religious teachings and forbid the external display of religious symbols, including the headscarf in public
spheres.[45]
Despite military coups in the last thirty years (1960, 1971, 1980), the existence of a Turkish secular democracy (Turkey is one of the
rare Muslim-majority countries with free elections involving multiple parties and freedom of speech) is supported by discussion of
Turkey joining the European Union.[46]
[edit]Iran
Main article: Secularism in Iran
Following the military coup of 21 February 1921, Reza Khan had established himself as the dominant political personality in the
country. Fearing that their influence might be diminished, the clergy of Iran proposed their support and persuaded him to assume the
role of the Shah.[47]
1925-1941: The Reza Shah began to make some dramatic changes to Iranian society with the specific intention of modernization
and removing power from the clergy. He changed religious schools to public education, built Irans first university and banned the
hijab in public. Nevertheless, the regime was somewhat undemocratic with the removal of Majles power (the first parliament in 1906)
and the clampdown on free speech.[48]

1951-1953: During the early 1950s the Prime Minister Dr Mossadeq was again forming a pro secularization government with a
socialist agenda with the specific aim of reducing the power held by the clergy. However his plans for nationalization the oil industry
were a step too far for Britain. So with the help of the CIA they supported a coup which replaced the government with Mohammad
Reza Shah.[19]
1962-1963: Using the mandate of modernization, the Shah introduced dramatic changes what was called the White Revolution.
During this time a number of changes were made to put Iran on the path to become a successful secularist capitalist country:

Workers rights

Land reform based on international standards

Womens suffrage

Further actions to reduce the power of the clergy.

1963-1973: the changes seemed to be paying off with Iran experiencing rapid economic growth however the sheer pace of change
alienated many political opponents of the Shah and any dissent was crushed by the secret police. Despite the new infrastructural
and economic improvements the opposition rallied untied behind Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and by the end of the 1970s the
Shah was overthrown in anIslamic Revolution (1979).[19]
[edit]Tunisia
Main article: Secularism in Tunisia
Under the leadership of Habib Bourguiba (19561987), Tunisias post independence government pursued a program of
secularization and modernization.[49]
Bourguiba, who has Been one of the most avowedly secularist political strategies in the Arab world, modified laws regarding habous
(religious endowments), reformed education, and unified the legal system so that all Tunisians, regardless of religion, were subject
to the state courts. He restricted the influence of the religious University of Ez-Zitouna and replaced it with a faculty of theology
integrated into the University of Tunis, banned the headscarf for women, made members of the religious hierarchy state employees
and ordered that the expenses for the upkeep of mosques and the salaries of preachers to be regulated.[50]
Moreover, his best known legal innovations was the Code du Statut Personel (CSP) the laws governs issues related to the family:
marriage, guardianship of children, inheritance and most importantly the abolishing of polygamy and making divorce subject to
judicial review.[51]
Bourguiba clearly wanted to undercut the religious establishments ability to prevent his developmental program, and although he
was careful to locate these changes within the framework of a modernist reading of Islam and presented them as the product of
ijtihad (independent interpretation) and not a break with Islam, he became well known for his secularism. John Esposito notes that
For Bourguiba, Islam represented the past; the west was Tunisias only hope for a modern future[52]

Following increasing economic problems[citation needed], Islamist movements came about in 1970 with the revival of religious teaching in
Ez-Zitouna University and the influence which came from Arab religious leaders like Syrian and Egyptian brotherhoods. [53] There is
also influence by Hizb ut-Tahrir, whose members issue a magazine in Tunis named Azeytouna. [54] In the aftermath, the struggle
between Bourguiba and Islamists became uncontrolled and in order to repress the opposition the Islamist leaderships were exiled,
arrested and interrogated.[55]
[edit]Egypt
Main article: Secularism in Egypt
Secularism in Egypt has had a very important role to play in both the history of Egypt and that of the Middle East. [citation needed] Egypts
first experience of Secularism started with the British Occupation (18821952), the atmosphere which allowed the protection of
debate. In this environment pro-secularist intellectuals like Ya'qub Sarruf, Faris Nimr, Nicola Haddad whom sought political asylum
from Ottoman Rule were able to publish their work. This debate had then became a burning issue with the work of Egyptian
Shaykh Ali abd al-Raziq (18881966), The most momentous document in the crucial intellectual and religious debate of modern
Islamic history[56]
By 1919 Egypt had its first political secular entity called the Hizb 'Almani (Secular Party) this name was later changed to the Wafd
party. It combined secular policies with a nationalist agenda and had the majority support in the following years against both the rule
of the king and the British influence. The Wafd party supported the allies during World War II and then proceeded to win the 1952
parliamentary elections, following these elections the prime minister was overthrown by the King leading to riots. These riots
precipitated a military coup after which all political parties were banned including the Wafd and the Muslim Brotherhood.[19]
The government of Gamel Abdel Nasser was secularist-nationalist in nature which at the time gathers a great deal of support both in
Egypt and other Arab states[citation needed].
Key elements of Nasserism[57]:

Secularist/Nationalist dictatorship: No religious or other political movements allowed to

impact government.

Modernization.

Industrialization.

Concentration on Arab values rather than Muslim values.

Following the death of Nasser, President Sadat (19701981) continued economic liberalization and maintained the governments
secularist policy[citation needed], even going as far as signing peace agreements with Israel which was a first for any Middle Eastern
country. However, following further intensive clampdowns on political opposition, Sadat was assassinated and replaced by Hosni

Mubarak who again faces the issue of keeping the Islamist support at bay whilst keeping his power base during increased pressure
to be democratic.[58]
Nowadays, most proponents of secularism emphasize the link between secularism and national unity between Coptic
Christians andMuslims.
[edit]Syria
Main article: Secularism in Syria
The process of secularization in Syria began under the French mandate in the 1920s and went on continuously under different
governments since the independence. Syria has been governed by the Arab nationalist Baath Party since 1963. The Baath regime
combined Arab Socialism with secular ideology and an authoritarian political system. The constitution guarantees religious freedom
for every recognized religious communities, including many Christian denominations. All schools are government-run and nonsectarian, although there is mandatory religious instruction, provided in Islam and/or Christianity. Extremist forms of Islam are not
tolerated by the government. The Syrian legal system is primarily based on civil law, and was heavily influenced by the period of
French rule. It is also drawn in part from Egyptian law of Abdel Nasser, quite from the Ottoman Millet system and very little
from Sharia. Syria has separate secular and religious courts. Civil and criminal cases are heard in secular courts, while the Sharia
courts handle personal, family, and religious matters in cases between Muslims or between Muslims and non-Muslims. [59] NonMuslim communities have their own religious courts using their own religious law.[60]
[edit]Lebanon
Main article: Secularism in Lebanon
This section requires expansion.

Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy within the overall framework of Confessionalism, a form of consociationalism in which the
highest offices are proportionately reserved for representatives from certain religious communities.
A growing number of Lebanese, however, have organized against the confessionalist system, advocating for an installation
of lacit in the national government. The most recent expression of this secularist advocacy was the Laque Pride march held in
Beirut on April 26, 2010, as a response to Hizb ut-Tahrir's growing appeal in Beirut and its call to re-establish the Islamic caliphate.
[edit]Iraq
Main article: Secularism in Iraq
This section requires expansion.

About 95 percent of Iraqis are Muslim and Islam is the officially recognized state religion.
[edit]Bangladesh
Main article: Secularism in Bangladesh

This section requires expansion.

[edit]Opposition

and critique

[edit]Secularism

and religion

[edit]Secularism and Islam

Islamists believe Islam fuses religion and politics, with normative political values determined by the divine texts. [61] It is argued that
this has historically been the case and the secularist/modernist efforts at secularizing politics are little more
than jahiliyyah (ignorance), kafir(unbelief), irtidad (apostasy) and atheism.[56][62] "Those who participated in secular politics were
raising the flag of revolt against Allah and his messenger."[63]
Saudi scholars denounce secularism as strictly prohibited in Islamic tradition. The Saudi Arabian Directorate of Ifta', Preaching and
Guidance, has issued a directive decreeing that whoever believes that there is a guidance (huda) more perfect than that of the
Prophet, or that someone else's rule is better than his is a kafir.[64]
It lists a number of specific tenets which would be regarded as a serious departure from the precepts of Islam, punishable according
to Islamic law. For example:

The belief that human made laws and constitutions are superior to the Shari'a.

The opinion that Islam is limited to one's relation with God, and has nothing to do with the
daily affairs of life.

To disapprove of the application of the hudud (legal punishments decreed by God) that they
are incompatible in the modern age.

And whoever allows what God has prohibited is a kafir.[65]

In the words of Tariq al-Bishri, "secularism and Islam cannot agree except by means of talfiq [combining the doctrines of more than
one school, i.e., falsification], or by each turning away from its true meaning." [66]
Secularists have been vilified, threatened, beaten and even murdered by militant Muslims. The case of Faraj Foda, who was
accused by Islamists of being an apostate from Islam, and agent of Western powers and culture which resulted in his assassination.
"The killing of Faraj Foda was in fact the implementation of the punishment against an apostate, which the State has failed to
implement."[67][68]
[edit]Islamic modernizers
See also: Islam and modernity, Islamic Modernism, and Liberal movements within Islam
Modernists argue that secular rule is necessary with a role for faith in civil society. So, unlike authors such as Bernard Lewis who
have argued that Arab-Muslim is incompatible with democracy because concepts associated with democracy like the separation of

religion from state, representative government and freedom are unknown within Islam and the Arab political tradition. [69][70] others,
like Dr. Muhammad Imara, suggest that secularism may not be incompatible with Islam "We do not reject secularism because it has
been imported from the West. We need only examine our circumstances in light of our Islamic religion and its nature, to find out
whether secularism would mean progress for us in the same way it did for Europe, or whether it would prove to be inappropriate and
harmful."[71]
Main points of discussion:

There is nothing un-Islamic about separating religion from state affairs. [citation needed][72]

The Sharia was a flexible system which could adapt and use reason. [citation needed][73]

Only Muhammad could rule by divine right and even he consulted with others whilst making
decisions thus providing a precedent for consultative process and change. [citation needed][73]

The concept of a divinely empowered caliph or religious leader is as much of an innovation

as secularism and a notion imported fromCatholicism.[citation needed][74]

That the pinnacle or Middle Eastern and Islamic civilization was based on Islam being the
religion of progress, intellect and scientific endeavor.[citation needed][73]

[edit]Secularism

and authoritarianism

There is an opposite relationship between secularism and oppression in the Middle East.[citation needed] In the second half of the 20th
century this has been distorted due to the feared repercussions of (amongst others) the anti-social and anti-progression elements of
Islam. Spread of Islamist Fundamentalism makes secular leaders more repressive and authoritarian in order to protect secularism.
At the same time the more repression from the government makes society opponent to secularism and this opposition makes
Islamist Fundamentalism more popular in the Middle East.[75] Some argue that this can be attributed to a desire by such dictators to
cement their power and the need to progress social reforms.[citation needed] This has left in many countries the mosque as the only place
to voice political opposition.[76] Scholars like Vali Nasr however argue that the secular elites in the Muslim world were imposed by
colonial powers to maintain hegemony.[77]
Many people also associate secularism with military regimes, such as those in Turkey and Algeria.[citation needed] Islamic Salvation Front
(FIS) succeeded in December 1991 elections in Algeria[78] and Welfare Party succeeded in 1995 elections in Turkey.[79] Both of these
parties are example of Islamic parties. However, both of these parties were faced with military coups in order to protect secularism.
[80]

While Welfare Party government in Turkey was forced to resign from the office by Turkish military in February 1997 with a military

intervention which is called as "post modern coup",[81] FIS in Algeria lived an austere military coup which carried the country in to a
civil war in 1992.[80] Military forces in those countries could use their power in undemocratic ways in order to protect secularism.

In some countries, the fear of Islamist takeover via democratic processes has led to authoritarian measures against Islamist political
parties.[82] "The Syrian regime was able to capitalize on the fear of Islamist coming to power to justify the massive clampdown on the
Syrian Muslim Brotherhood."[83] When American diplomats asked Hosni Mubarak to give more rights to the press and stop arresting
the intellectuals, Mubarak rejected it and said, "If I do what you ask, the fundamentalists will take over the government in Egypt. Do
you want that?" Or when President Bill Clinton asked Yasser Arafat to establish democracy in Palestine in 2001, Yasser Arafat also
replied similarly. "He said that in a democratic system Hamas will take control the government in Palestine". [75] Most of the Middle
Eastern autocrats drew upon the risk of Islamist fundamentalism in order to justify their autocratic rule of government in the
international arena. In Freedom Houses 2008 Freedom in the World Report, the connection between authoritarianism and the risk
of Islamist fundamentalism in the Middle East is reduplicated. "The presence of movements committed to violent jihad poses a
threat to the security of ordinary people and provides an excuse for the enactment of authoritarian emergency measures by rulers
bent on suppressing all sources of political opposition."[84]
[edit]See

also

Secularism

Democracy in the Middle East

Secularization

Secular Education

Talal Asad

Sadik Al-Azm

Progressive British Muslims

Muslim Wake Up!

Tolu-e-Islam

M. A. Muqtedar Khan

Irshad Manji

Khaleel Mohammed

Jaringan Islam Liberal

Al-Mawrid

List of Muslim reformers

Islamism

Islamic state

Khilafah

Hizb ut-Tahrir

Muslim Brotherhood

Islamism:

[edit]References
Constructs such as ibid., loc. cit. and idem are discouraged by Wikipedia's style guide for footnotes, as they are easily
broken. Please improve this article by replacing them with named references (quick guide), or an abbreviated title. (July 2010)

1.

^ From the article on secularism in Oxford Islamic Studies Online

2.

^ Ira M. Lapidus (October 1975). "The Separation of State and Religion in the Development
of Early Islamic Society", International Journal of Middle East Studies 6 (4), pp. 363-385

3.

^ "Islam: Governing Under Sharia", Author:Tony Johnson, November 10, 2010

4.

^ http://www.islam-democracy.org/4th_Annual_confrence-shakman-Hurd_paper.asp

5.

^ "MUSLIM WORLD: Poll shows majority want Islam in politics; feelings mixed on Hamas,
Hezbollah"" LA Times",Dec 5, 2010.

6.

^ Understanding Islamism Middle East/North Africa Report N37 2 March 2005

7.

^ Roy, Olivier, The Failure of Political Islam by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard
University Press, 1994, p.14-15

8.

^ Wahiduddin Khan, Islam: Creator of the modern age

9.

^ http://www.scientificmuslim.in

10.

^ Ira M. Lapidus (October 1975). "The Separation of State and Religion in the Development
of Early Islamic Society", International Journal of Middle East Studies 6 (4), pp. 363-385
[364]

11.

^ Ira M. Lapidus (October 1975). "The Separation of State and Religion in the Development
of Early Islamic Society", International Journal of Middle East Studies 6 (4), pp. 363-385
[364-5]

12.

^ Ira M. Lapidus (October 1975). "The Separation of State and Religion in the Development
of Early Islamic Society", International Journal of Middle East Studies 6 (4), pp. 363-385
[365]

13.

^ Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd, Everything you wanted to know about
Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica.

14.

^ Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt, Arab Studies
Quarterly (ASQ).

15.

^ such as Faris Nimr and Yaqub Sarruf, intellectuals and journalists from Lebanon who
relocated to Egypt in the 1880s and Salama Musa, who is a Coptic Christian Egyptian and
founder of the Egyptian socialist Party in 1920 - Fauzi Najjar: the debate on islam and
secularism, Arab Studies Quarterly; 1996, Vol.18 Issue2

16.

^ Black, A, "The history of Islamic Political Thought", Edinburgh University Press, 2001, pp.
316-319

17.

^ Fauzi Najjar: The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt, Arab Studies Quarterly; 1996,
pp.1

18.

^ Nadje Al-Ali, Secularism Gender and the State,p140

19.

^ a b c d Ibid.

20.

^ Zainab Al-Sawaij, who serves as the executive director of the American Islamic Congress
and is a human rights activist

21.

^http://www.law.virginia.edu/html/news/2006_spr/jb_religion.htm: March 2, 2006 Conflicting

Ideas of Secularism Cloud Ideal of Secular Democracy in Middle East

22.

^ John L.Esposito, the Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality, p13

23.

^ Ibid., p13-14

24.

^ Aziz Al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities, p48

25.

^ Nicola Pratt, Democracy and Authoritarianism in the Arab World, p 163

26.

^ Ibid

27.

^ Communism in the Middle East: Information and Much More from Answers.com

28.

^ Communism in Iraq

29.

^ [1] Article 31

30.

^ a b [2] Article 1

31.

^ [3] Article 1 (1)

32.

^ [4] Article 25

33.

^ [5] Article 1

34.

^ http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/latest_news.php?nid=21979

35.

^ http://www.thedailystar.net/newDesign/latest_news.php?nid=21972

36.

^ [6] Article 1 (1)

37.

^ [7] Article 1 (1)

38.

^ [8] Article 1

39.

^ [9] Section 1: Foundations of the constitutional order, Article 1

40.

^ http://wiyono4.blogspot.com/2010/03/religion-in-indonesia.html

41.

^ [10] Article 7/Article 18

42.

^ [11] Constitution of Turkey Characteristics of the Republic: Article 2, Provisions Relating to

Political Parties: Article 68, Oath taking: Article 81, Oath: Article 103, Department of Religious
Affairs: 136, Preservation of Reform Laws: 174

43.

^ Alev Cinar, Modernity, Islam and Secularism in Turkey, p 14

44.

^ Ibid., p. 16-17

45.

^ Ibid.,p.18

46.

^ Conflicting Ideas of Secularism Cloud Ideal of Secular Democracy in Middle East,

Panelists Say

47.

^ Homa Omid, Theocracy of democracy? The critics of `westoxification' and the politics of
fundamentalism in Iran: Third World Quarterly; Dec92, Vol. 13 Issue 4

48.

^ Fred Halliday, Iran: Dictatorship and Development,p23

49.

^ Secularism and Democracy in the Middle East; http://www.islamdemocracy.org/4th_Annual_Conference-shakman-Hurd_paper.asp

50.

^ Nazih N. Ayubi, Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World, p. 113

51.

^ Laurie A.Brand, Women, the State and Political Liberalization: Middle East and North Africa
Experiences,p178

52.

^ Paper: "Secularism and Democracy in the Middle East" by Elizabeth Shakman Hurd - May
16, 2003 - Center for the Study of Islam & Democracy (CSID)

53.

^ Nazih N.Ayubi, Political Islam: Religion and Politics in the Arab World,p114

54.

^ http://www.azeytouna.net Azeytouna Magazine

55.

^ John L.Esposito, The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality?, p.167

56.

^ a b Fauzi Najjar, The debate on Islam and Secularism, Arab Studies Quarterly; 1996, Vol. 18
Issue 2

57.

^ Mahfouz's grave, Arab liberalism's deathbed | openDemocracy

58.

^ David Marquand and Ronald L. Nettler, Religion and democracy, p 67

59.

^ freedomhouse.org: View a Page

60.

^ Syria - Islam

61.

^ Bonney, R, Jihad: From Quran to Bin Laden, Palgrave Macmillan, Hampshire, 2004, p.
149

62.

^ Nabhani, T, "The Islamic State", al-Khilafah Publications

63.

^ 1948, Mawlana Mawdudi founder of Jamaat e-Islami

64.

^ Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi, Contemporary Islamic Thought, p 338

65.

^ Mohammad Ibrahim Mabruk, al-almaniyyun (Cairo, 1990),p. 149.

66.

^ Al-Ahram, 12 December 1989

67.

^ Sheikh Al-Ghazali (1992)http://www.cavecybernation.com/jawad/liberalarabs/

68.

^ The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt

69.

^ (kedourie 1994; Lewis 1993)

70.

^ Nicola Pratt, Democracy and Authoritarianism in the Arab world,p2.

71.

^ Muhammad Imara, Almaniyya wa Nahdatuna al-Haditha (Cairo, 1986).p11

72.

^ Shaykh Ali Abd al-Raziq

73.

^ a b c ibid.

74.

^ Dr. Muhammad Imara

75.

^ a b Zakaria, F. 2007, The Future of Freedom: Illiberal Democracy at Home and Abroad. W
Norton & Co Inc, New York.

76.

^ Fred Halliday, Two Hours That Shook the World.

77.

^ Esposito, J, "The Oxford History of Islam", Oxford University Press, 1999

78.

^ http://www.binghamton.edu/cdp/era/elections/alg91par.html

79.

^ http://www.konrad.org.tr/secim/ayrinti.php?yil_id=12

80.

^ a b Norton, A. R. (ed), 1996. Civil Society in the Middle East, 2nd volume. Brill, Leiden

81.

^ Yavuz, M. H. (2006) The Emergence of a New Turkey: Democracy and the Ak Parti. Utah:
Utah University Pres

[edit]Further

82.

^ Garon2003

83.

^ Nicola Pratt, Democracy and Authoritarianism in the Arab World,p137

84.

^ http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=130&year=2008

reading

Abdullah, Ghassan F. (May 1999). "New Secularism in the Arab World". Internet Infidels
Newsletter (Vol. 4, No. 5). Internet Infidels. Retrieved 2011-04-13.
[hide]

Islamic studies
Arts
Economics

History

Law & Politics

Philosophy

Science & Technology

Other fields

Architecture Calligraphy Literature Music Poetry Pottery Influences on Christian Art

Economic History Agency Banking Capitalism Poverty Socialism Trust Usury Welfare
Timeline Historiography Social Changes Conquests Golden Age Agricultural Revolution Economic
History Contributions to Medieval Europe European Renaissance
Anarchism Democracy (Consensus Consultation) Feminism Jurisprudence (Analogy Ijtihad Madh'hab)
Peace Quietism Secularism Social Changes State
Early Philosophy Contemporary Philosophy Theology (Kalam)
Ethics Logic Metaphysics Astrology Sociology (Medieval Sociology Asabiyyah)
Timeline Agriculture Alchemy & Chemistry Astronomy (Cosmology) Geography &
Cartography Inventions Mathematics Medicine (Ophthalmology) Physics Psychology
Education (Ijazah Maktab) Sufi Studies (Mysticism Cosmology Philosophy)

View page ratings

Rate this page

What's this?
Trustworthy
Objective
Complete
Well-written
I am highly knowledgeable about this topic (optional)

Submit ratings
Categories:

Muslim views

Secularism

Log in / create account

Article
Talk
Read
Edit
View history

Main page

Contents

Featured content

Current events

Random article

Donate to Wikipedia
Interaction

Help

About Wikipedia

Community portal

Recent changes

Contact Wikipedia

Toolbox
Print/export
Languages

Bahasa Melayu

This page was last modified on 29 February 2012 at 03:42.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply.
See Terms of use for details.
Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Privacy policy

About Wikipedia

Disclaimers

Mobile view

Contact us