Maintaining a Balance

1. Most organisms are active in a limited temperature range

Substrate: a molecule on which an enzyme acts.
Substrate specific: describes an enzyme that can work on only one particular substrate molecule, because the active site is
reciprocally shaped to bind with that molecule.
Active site: the part of an enzyme molecule to which the substrate bines; the active site has a particular shape, giving the
enzyme its substrate-specificity.
Identify the role of enzymes in metabolism, describe their chemical composition and use a simple model to describe
their specificity on substrates.
Metabolism is the sum total of all chemical reactions occurring within a living organism. Each step of a metabolic pathway is
catalyzed by enzymes. It is divided into two parts:
Anabolic: are reactions that involve the building up of larger organic compounds from simple molecules, eg large
polysaccharide molecule such as starch being made from monosaccharide units such as glucose. These require an
energy input (endergonic)
Catabolic: are reactions that involve the breaking down of complex organic compounds to simple ones, eg digestion of
food, large food molecules such as proteins are broken down into small amino acids, which can be used for other uses.
These require an energy output (exergonic)
All the above, ie every metabolic reaction in your body is carried out by enzymes, they are organic protein catalysts (chemical
substance that speed reactions without taking part in it).
Enzymes
Are protein molecules, (proteins are made of polypeptides, which are made of amino acids) present in cells, which act
as a biological catalyst, controlling the rate of each step of complex chemical reactions.
Remain unchanged at the conclusion of the reaction, therefore can be reused multiple times.
Are highly specific- one enzyme catalyst, one substrate, one type of reaction.
Work best under certain conditions of temperature, concentration and pH.
Usually named after substrate, ending with ase.
They also contain other elements, known as co-enzymes/co-factors, which help specific enzymes to function. Eg.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
They are globular proteins and therefore have long chains or sequences of amino acids that have been folded into a
specific 3-D shape.
The effective functioning of this enzyme relies on its shape.
Characteristics of Enzymes reactions are more efficient in OPTIMUM environments.
Enzymes are temperature sensitive meaning an enzyme can be denatured if exposed to temperatures above their optimum
temperature. Cold temperatures may slow the reaction down.
Enzymes are pH sensitive meaning that a selective pH range will allows the enzyme to work efficiently but outside of this range
will alter the enzyme to the point where it is denatured.
Enzymes are
substrate
specific
refers to an
enzyme only
being able to

synthesis or break down a specific group of substrates due to the shape of its active site.

The role of Enzymes in Metabolism

The following functions of enzymes lead to their effective role in metabolism:
Acceleration of chemical reactions (can speed up or slow down reactions without change in temperature)
Lowering of activation energy
Action on specific substrates
Specificity of Enzymes
Enzymes are highly specific in their action; this means that each enzyme acts on one substrate only, this is because the shape of
the active site of the enzyme matches the shape of the substrate material. The products are the substances that the substrate(s)
become. One substrate can be split,
or two substrates can be joined.
There are two current hypotheses:
-

The Lock and Key Model:

suggests that the substrate
fits exactly into the active
site of the enzyme like a
key fits into a lock. It
assumes that the enzyme
had a rigid and unchanging
shape.
The Induced Fit Model:
states that the binding of
the substrate to the
enzyme induces a
temporary change in shape
of the enzyme. The active
site is more flexible than a
key hole. The new shape of
the enzyme better
accommodates the shape
of the substrate and a
reaction occurs.

Rate of Reaction
-

Enzymes are highly

efficient have a high rate
of reaction.
Enzymes are highly effective - only minute traces are needed to bring about reactions, and they can be reused.
The rate of enzyme reaction is affected by the concentration of the substrate. The higher the substrate concentration,
the greater the rate of enzyme reaction, until all available enzymes are being used to catalyze reactions. This point is
known as the saturation point.

Identify the pH as a way of describing the acidity of a substance

The pH describes the acidity of a substance. The pH scale is used to measure the acidity or alkalinity. Acid contains Hydrogen
+
ions, therefore the higher the concentration of H the more acidic the substance. 0-6pH is an acidic substance eg. HCl and
Lemon Juice. Bases contain Hydroxide ions, therefore the higher the concentration of OH ions, the more basic the substance. 814pH is an alkaline substance, such as drain cleaner (sodium hydroxide)
Identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or
resources and perform a first-hand investigation to test the
effect of increase temperature, change in pH and change in
substrate concentration on the activity of a named enzyme.
TEMPERATURE
Aim: To investigate how temperature affects the rate of the
enzymes reaction.
Hypothesis: As temperature increase, enzyme activity will all
increase, until a maximum temperature is reached, at which
the enzyme will become denatured.
Risks: Splashing hydrogen peroxide, cutting on broken glass,
irritation from catalase.
Heat both catalase and peroxide to same temperature (0,
37, 80), add catalase to hydrogen peroxide and measure the
height of oxygen bubbles bubbles indicate reaction,
more/ higher bubbles, higher reaction rate.
Results:
At 0 degrees there was very limited reaction, seen by the
lack of bubbles produced. This also occurred at 80 degrees,
as the enzyme had been denatured and its active site had
been changed, hence no reaction occurred. At 37 degrees
quite a lot of bubbles were produced, indicating a reaction,
due to it being the optimum temperature.
Discussion:
The condition when the enzyme was most active
was at 37 degrees and this is because it is the internal
temperature of the human body, and it is where the enzyme
is at its optimum temperature.
Trends: 80 degrees the enzyme was denatured, 0
degrees reaction was limited. The graph is a bell curve,
(upside down parabola) with the maximum value being the
optimum temperature at 37 degrees.
Control: 2ml of hydrogen peroxide, heated to each
temperature to ensure that the peroxide would not react on
its own.
PH
Aim: To investigate how the pH of an enzyme affects the
rate of reaction.
Hypothesis: A change in pH of the enzyme will result in an
alteration in the reaction rate.

Risks: Splashing hydrogen peroxide, cutting on broken glass, irritation from catalase.
Independent: pH of enzyme
Dependent: Rate of reaction (height of bubbles)
Controlled: amount of substrate, amount of enzyme, same ruler.
Method: Heat control, hydrogen peroxide, and catalase/ ph 2 buffer to 37 degrees. Pour the catalase/ buffer solution into
hydrogen peroxide measure the height of bubbles. Repeat for pH 7 and pH 12.
Results:
When testing how the pH level of an enzyme affects its rate of reaction on a substrate, pH 7 was the most reactive, according to
the average. pH 2 was the least reaction, with the least amount of bubbles and pH 12 was moderately reactive, at a basic
solution. However, pH 7 dd produce the highest amount of bubbles, and it is neutral.
Discussion:
The enzyme was most active under pH 7, the most common pH found within the body.
It again is like an upside down parabola, or a bell curve, with pH 7 being the best, or maximum point.

SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION

Aim: To investigate how a change in concentration of the substrate affects reaction rate.
Hypothesis: the higher the concentration of the substrate, the greater the reaction rate.
Risk: Risks: Splashing hydrogen peroxide, cutting on broken glass, irritation from catalase.
Independent: changing concentration of substrate
Dependent: the rate of reaction (height of bubbles)
Controlled: amount of substrate, amount of enzyme, ruler
Measure 2ml x 2 of 35% hydrogen peroxide, and 1 ml of catalase heats them all to 37 degrees, add catalase to one hydrogen
peroxide and measure. Repeat for 17.5% concentration and 5% concentration.
Results: By changing the concentration, the rate of reaction either increased or decreased. However our data did not
correspond (17.5, then 35, then 5 35 should have been the highest)
Discussion:
There was experimental error 35% was meant to be the highest, but 17.5% was.
The trend is that as you increase substrate concentration the reaction rate will increase, but only to a point. This is
called the saturation point, and it is the highest that the rate of reaction will go to. It plateaus after the saturation point
you can keep adding substrate but nothing will happen.

Describe homeostasis as the process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment
-

Homeostasis is a process by which the internal environment of an organism is kept within its normal limits, or a
constant or almost constant internal state is maintained, regardless of external environmental changes.
In humans, it is important for chemical reactions such as enzymes and metabolic processes to be within a specific
temperature range to work efficiently. Outside these ranges, enzymes can be denatured or slow down, meaning the
body and its functions can shut down.
Metabolic efficiency relies on constant levels of variables such as temperature and pH, concentration of metabolites,
water and salt concentration and absence of toxins. This allows the enzymes optimal conditions to be met and the
body to work efficiently and remain as stable and possible.

In order to maintain a constant internal environment, the following two steps are essential; first we need to detect the
change, and then counteract the change.
Explain why the maintenance of a constant internal environment is important for optimal metabolic efficiency.

All chemical reactions within cells must occur efficiently and be effectively coordinated to bring about optimal metabolic
efficiency. Cells are extremely sensitive to changes in their internal environment and any imbalance adversely affects their
functioning. The internal environment must be maintained within narrow range of conditions and chemical content must be
kept stable so that enzymes can function effectively and metabolic efficiency can be maintained. Enzymes control all the
metabolic processes within these cells, and they work optimally in an environment where their optimum temperatures and pH
levels are met and maintained.
pH and Temperature for enzyme functioning
Enzymes only function within a narrow range of temperature and pH; outside of these ranges, narrow variation cause a
decrease in the activity of enzymes.
Very low temperatures could cause the water in the cells to freeze. This brings about changes in the concentration of
solutes in the cytoplasm, which in turn affect the pH and osmotic balance.
Very high temperatures cause both enzymes and other proteins to denature, further disrupting cell functioning and
metabolic activity.
Metabolites
Metabolites are chemicals that participate in chemical reactions in cells.
ATP energy needs to be available, which relies on respiration, which relies on metabolites such as oxygen and glucose.
An absence of these slows down or stops respiration, affecting overall efficiency.
Water and Salt Concentration
All chemical reactions within organisms take place in water. For chemical reactions to proceed, the reactants must be
dissolved in the water. Therefore water concentration of cells and their surrounding fluid is important. Dissolved
substances such as salt affect osmotic balance of fluids, and so the concentration of dissolved substances must be
maintained at a narrow range.
An absence of toxins
A build-up of CO2 and other wastes can be toxic and affect enzymes and metabolic activity and therefore their levels
and therefore removal needs to be maintained.
Explain that homeostasis consists of 2 stages: detecting changes and counteracting changes.
Homeostasis involves an enormous amount of coordination and control in a living organism. Homeostasis is brought about in 2
stages:
1. Detecting Change sensory cells or Receptors detect change in the temperature and or chemical composition within the
body. This change in the environment is called a Stimulus.
2. Counteracting Change effector organs work to reverse the change. A response that successful reverse the change will
return the body to homeostasis.
Within each organism, variables have an ideal or normal value, called a Set Point. Homeostasis is maintained as long as there is
only a narrow range of fluctuation.

If a fluctuation is large and exceeds the normal

range, a negative feedback mechanism comes into
operation in response to this change.
Outline the Role of the nervous system in
detecting and responding to environmental
changes

The structures of the nervous system involved in the stimulusresponse pathway of coordination are:
-

Receptors: sensory cells, sometimes in sense organs

A control centre: the central nervous system which
includes the brain and spinal cord
Effectors: eg Muscles and glands
Nerves: which link all the other parts, relaying messages
from one part to another in the form of electrochemical
nerve impulses.

The role of the nervous system in homeostasis is coordination. A

pathway exists, whereby a stimulus is detected by a receptor, a
message is carried by nerves to a control centre and a response is
triggered. In homeostasis the response usually counteracts the
stimulus, reducing its effect so that a balance is maintained. This is
termed as the Negative feedback mechanism.
Detecting Change: Receiving Stimuli
Sensory cells called receptors (can be sensory organs or individual
cells) detect stimuli, which are changes in the external environment.
There are also receptors that are sensitive to changes inside the
body. These interoreceptors within the body are important in
detecting changes relating to homeostasis. Receptors may be
named according to the type of energy or molecules they detect eg.
Thermoreceptors detect internal changes in temperature and
chemoreceptors detect internal changes in chemicals.
Coordination: the role of the nervous system in processing
information
The brain and spinal column make up the Central Nervous System.
The information carried by the nerves is messages transmitted in
the form of electrochemical nerve impulses. Incoming information
passes from sensory receptors via sensory nerves to the CNS, which
in turn transmits outgoing information to the effector organs via
motor nerves. The role of the CNS is to process incoming
information, analyse it and then initiate an appropriate response.
Counteracting Change: Responding
A response is a reaction in an organism or its tissues, as a result of receiving a stimulus. It is carried out by structures in the body
known as effector organs- these are often muscles and/or glands. The response causes the body to correct any deviation from
the normal balanced state.

The Role of the Nervous system in Thermoregulation in

humans
The body then counteracts the change with warming or
cooling the body. The body can be warmed by :
Raised hairs on the body, which are an attempt to
trap a layer of warm air around the body to reduce
the amount of heat lost.
Vasoconstriction- which is the narrowing of the
arteries, and withdrawing them from the skin so
that heat is maintained within the core of the body.
Shivering is brought about by rapid, small muscle
contractions which generate heat.
Increased metabolism
The body can be cooled by:
Vasodilation: blood carrying heat is directed to the
surface of the skin, vessels become larger and move
towards outside of body to release heat.
Sweating: Sweat evaporates from the skin, heat is
released.
Decreased metabolism.

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources, and use available evidence to develop a model of a
feedback mechanism.
This model is accurate in regards to temperature control as it shows the steps and processes involved in homeostasis of
thermoregulation. It is an effective visual model to help one understand complex processes. However some limitations of this
model is that it is quite generalized, not showing the biochemistry involved. (like model 2 pages back)
Identify the broad range of temperatures over which life is found compared with the narrow limits for individual
species.
Temperature is one of the many limiting factors that can determine the presence of life on Earth. Chemical reactions that occur
in cells take place only within a relatively narrow range of temperatures, due to the temperature sensitivity of enzymes.
The diverse array of organisms living on Earth are found across a broad range of temperatures- there are living creatures that
can survive in temperatures as low as -70 degrees or as high as 56 degrees in deserts and 350 degrees in hot vents. However,
individual species cannot survive in an environment with a temperature range this large; they need much narrower ranges.
Much like enzymes, species have an optimal range of temperatures at which they can function. For each living species, this is a
fairly narrow temperature range within which they can live comfortably.
Thermal vents can reach temperatures of 350 degrees, and organisms such as the Pompeii Worms can withstand these extreme
temperatures. Deserts can have extreme fluctuations between night and day and an organism like the Sahara Bull Ant can live in
these conditions by maintaining its internal core temperature of 56 degrees for some time.
The platypus can survive in temperatures ranging from -8 to 34 degrees.

Ambient temperature refers to the temperature of the environment- the air of water in the immediate surroundings of an
animal.
Adaptation: a characteristic that increases the survival and reproductive changes of an organism in its environment.
Compare responses of named Australia ectothermic and endothermic organisms to changes in the ambient
temperature and explain how these responses assist temperature regulation.
Ectothermic organisms depend on an external source- the environment- for heat energy. Fish, amphibians, reptiles and most
invertebrates fall into this category.
Endotherms rely on internal sources such as metabolic activity for heat energy. Birds and mammals are endothermic.
Ectotherms Influenced by the ambient temperature
and the organism has only a limited ability to control its
body temperature.

The Eastern Brown Snake is found in hot, dry areas of

Australia. Brown Snakes are usually diurnal (awake
during the day) but may become active at night if the
daytime temperature is too hot. If the ambient
temperature rises beyond the brown snakes tolerance
level, it will seek shelter in the shade during the day and
become active when it becomes cooler. If cold weather
occurs for a prolonged period, the snake will hibernate
in a sheltered spot.
The Central Netted Dragon is an Australian desertadapted lizard that inhibits central Australias plains and
open scrub. In low ambient temperatures the dragon
will lie in the sunlight and alter its body position to
expose more of its body surface area to the suns rays,
increasing its core body temperature. `

Endotherms has the ability to control its body temperature and

maintain it at a stable level within a very narrow range.
In low ambient temperatures the main source of heat in the body is
generated as a result of the metabolic activity of their cells, particular
the muscle and liver cells. The size of the animal also plays a
significant role- a small body loses heat much more quickly and so
small mammals often have high metabolism.
The common bentwing bat produces brown fat (heat producing tissue
which can be quickly metabolised in cold conditions. The bat produces
brown fat in the late summer and through autumn when food is
abundant. In the cold winter months the brown fat is metabolised and
used to increased body temperature. If ambient temperature is high,
the rate of heat loss from there body can be adjusted by altering the
flow of blood near the body surface. Evaporative cooling such as
sweating, panting or licking saliva onto the body surface are common
cooling mechanisms.
The Fairy Penguin is found in Tasmania and New Zealand. They have
feathers that provide an insulting layer, trapping a layer of air close to
the skin reduces the amount of heat lost. In cold conditions the
feathers are lifted away from skin increasing the air layer. In hot
conditions the feather lay flat against the skin, trapping only a small
amount of air. They also huddle together (behavioral) in cold weather.

Analyse information from secondary sources to describe adaptations and responses that have occurred in
Australian organisms to assist temperature regulation.
Adaptation: a characteristic that increase the survival and reproductive chances of an organism in its environment.
Behavioral Adaptations: the way an organism acts.
-

The main behavioral adaptation seen in animals is that they alter their body position and increase or decrease the
amount of their surface area exposed to the sunlight. Eg. Seek shade, burrows. Frill-necked lizards bask in the sun until
they reach an adequate core temperature, and then move to the shade. The Water holding frog retreats to a burrow in
hot conditions.
Nocturnal Activity involves animals in hot conditions remain relatively inactive during the day (hottest time) (dont
want to generate any more heat through metabolic activity), and then become active at night when temperatures cool.
Seen in the bilby.
Migration: physically move to another habitat that is within their tolerance range.

Structural Adaptations: the physical characteristics of the organism

Insulation- body coverings such as fur, hair, feathers, coats and blubber that enable a layer of air to be trapped to
reduce the amount of heat lost. Emu act as an insulator to reduce heat gain and loss.
Surface Area to Volume Ratio- larger animals have smaller SA:V rations and therefore dont lose as much heat.
Wombats are large animals with small SA so that they lose very little heat.
Colouration: dark colours absorb light and the associated heat tolerate colder climates. Light colours reflect heat
tolerate warmer climates.

Physiological Adaptations: the way the organisms body functions.

-

Hibernation and Torpor: lower their metabolic rate to conserve energy and reduce the amount of metabolic heat
energy that they generate within their own bodies. Hibernation is an extended period of inactivity in response to cold,
where the body temperature does not drop below 30 degrees, but heart rate and oxygen consumption drop
considerably. Torpor is short term hibernation where the body temperature drops much lower than 30 degrees and
metabolism, heart rate and respiratory rate decrease, accompanied by a reduced response to external stimuli.
Regulate blood flow: increase or decrease amount of blood lost to surroundings. Vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
The bilby has extensive blood vessels in its ears to aid with the loss of heat.
Changing of Colouration: if the colour of an organism can change, this enables it to live and remain active over a wider
temperature range. Eg. Male Australian Alpine Grasshopper is a dark colour at temperatures below 15 degrees and as it
basks in the sun during the day it becomes a paler blue colour to reflect light and avoid overheating.

Identify some responses of plants to temperature change

2. Plants and animals transport dissolved nutrients and gases in a fluid medium.
Describe the composition of the blood.
Cell Type

Size
(diameter)
7-8 um

Where produced

Structure

Function

Red Blood Cells

Density (per mL
blood)
4-6 million

Form in bone
marrow

Transport Oxygen

White Blood Cells

4000 11000

12 um

Bone Marrow

Round, biconcave, slightly

flattened, red due to
hemoglobin
Larger than red blood cell,
have a nucleus

Platelets

400000

3 um

Bone Marrow

Disc shaped, half the size of a

red blood cell

Protect body
against invading
organisms.
Clotting

Plasma: Liquid part of the blood

Red Cells: Cells which carry oxygen
White cells: Cells which digest bacteria and make antibodies
Platelets: Parts of cells (from bone marrow) which stat the
process of blood clotting
Antibodies: Disease fighting chemical substances made by some
white blood cells called lymphocytes
Haemoglobin: The chemical inside red cells which picks up
oxygen
Oxyhaemoglobin: Haemoglobin which has picked up oxygen.
Blood is the main transport medium of the body. An adult has
approximately 5L of blood. For normal functioning of the body
and its enzymes, these levels of temperature, pH and blood
volume must be carefully maintained. Blood also carries the
nutrients required by the body, waster to be excreted from the
body, gases and other chemicals such as control substances,
infection fighting chemicals, clotting factors and many more.
Plasma
-

Yellow, watery, fluid part of blood, consists of about 90% water and the other 10% consist of mainly proteins.
It carriers:
o Plasma proteins: clotting factors, immunoglobulins (antibodies to fight infections) and albumen, as well as
enzymes.
o Nutrients: the end products of digestion amino acids, glucose, glycerol and fatty acids.
o Gases: oxygen and carbon dioxide.
o Excretory waste products: nitrogenous waste such as urea.
o Ions: sodium.
o Regulatory substances such as hormones.
o Other substances such as vitamins.
Perform a first-hand investigation using the light microscope and prepared slides to gather information to estimate the
size of red and white blood cells and draw scaled diagrams of each.

Background info: Anton van Leeuwenhoek provided on of the first precise descriptions of red blood cells in the late 1600s, even
approximating their size.
Aim: To estimate the size of red blood cells and white blood cells seen with a light microscope.
Method:
1. Estimate the field of view under low power. Place the mini-grid (or transparent ruler) on the microscope stage and view
under the 10 objective. Use the grid/ruler to estimate the diameter of the field of view in mm and m (1 mm = 1000 m)
2. Calculate the field of view under high power. Rotate the high power objective lens into place.
Calculate the field of view: low power = 100; high power = 400; high power field of view = 100/400
3. Estimate the size (diameter) of a red blood cell. View a prepared slide of a blood smear under high power on the microscope.
Distinguish between the numerous small red blood cells and the few, larger white blood cells.
4. Estimate the size of a red blood cell by counting or estimating the approximate number of red blood cells that would fit across
the diameter of the field of view (using 400 magnification). Using this number and the known diameter for the field of view,
calculate the size of each blood cell.
5. Repeat this process three times, using different areas of the blood smear for each estimate
6. Estimate the size of white blood cells. Since there are so few white blood cells, it is not possible to count the number of white
cells across the diameter and much more difficult to estimate how many would fi t across the diameter. Another method of
estimating their size is to compare their proportions with that of red blood cells. Use this estimate to then calculate their size.
Conclusion: A red blood cell is between 7 -8 um in diameter and a white blood cell is 1.5 x larger, around 10-12 um.
Discussion:
You can distinguish between red blood cells and white blood cells because red blood cells are smaller and have a
biconcave shape represented by an outline, whereas white blood cells are larger, and that nucleus is stained.
Red blood cells could be counted across, the field of view divided by the number of red blood cells; however, white
blood cells are sparingly found and therefore must be estimated through comparison to red blood cells.
Identify the form(s) in which each of the following is carried in the Mammalian blood: Carbon Dioxide, Oxygen, Water,
Salts, Lipids, Nitrogenous Waste, and Other products of digestion.
Substance
Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen

Water

Salts
Lipids

Nitrogenous Waste

Other products of

Form in which it is carried

70% of carbon dioxide is transported in the form of hydrogen carbonate ions- formed in the red blood cells
but carried in the plasma. The remaining carbon dioxide is carried either dissolved in the plasma (7%) or it is
carried combined with haemoglobin (23%).
Most of the carbon dioxide mixes with water in the cytoplasm within the blood cells and forms
carbonic acid. This is rapidly converted to hydrogen carbonate ions which move out of the red blood
cells into the blood plasma, and 70% of carbon dioxide is carried this way.
When oxygen diffuses across the lungs into the blood, 98.5% combines reversibly with haemoglobin inside
red blood cells. A very small proportion (1.5%) may travel dissolved in plasma.
Each red blood cell contains approximately 250 million molecules of haemoglobin, resulting in a very high
oxygen carrying capability.
Water is the medium of transport of all substances in the body. It forms the basis of the cytoplasm in all cells,
the interstitial fluids surrounding cells and blood and lymph. About 90% of blood plasma is water. The other 10%
is made up mostly of various kinds of protein molecules.
Salts are carried in blood as ions dissolved in the plasma. Substances that become ions in solution are often
referred to as electrolytes, because of their capacity to conduct electricity.
These are insoluble in water, and therefore pose a problem in terms of transport. A small portion of fatty acids
and glycerol are soluble and enter the bloodstream directly, but most need to be packaged into small
droplets, which pass into the lymphatic system and then into the blood stream. Lipids are transported in
small spherical particles called micelles. These are transported in colloidal solution.
These substances need to be transported in a diluted form, from cells where they are produced, to the
excretory organs where they can be eliminated from the body. Nitrogenous wastes in the form of ammonia,
urea, uric acid and creatinine are all carried dissolved in the blood plasma.
Glucose and amino acids are water soluble and so they are transported in the bloodstream dissolved in the

digestion

plasma, along with other soluble substances, such as nitrogenous bases, vitamins and glycerol.

Explain the adaptive advantage of haemoglobin.

Red blood cells contain large quantities of a protein called haemoglobin, which reversibly binds with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Red blood cells are responsible for most gaseous exchange in the human body.
Haemoglobin is a protein made up of 4 polypeptide chains (called globins) and each is bonded to a haem (iron-containing
group). Heam is a red pigment molecule and iron comes from diet.
Advantages of Haemoglobin
-

Increase the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood: Haemoglobin can carry much more oxygen than could be dissolved in
the plasma. Haemoglobin molecules each contain 4 haem units, giving one haemoglobin molecules the ability to bond
with 4 oxygen molecules.
Ability to bind oxygen increase once the first oxygen molecules binds to it: the bonding of each oxygen molecule
causes the haemoglobin to change slightly in shape, allowing easier binding of subsequent oxygen molecules.
Capacity to release oxygen increases when carbon dioxide is present: When there is a high level of CO2 in the blood,
haemoglobin increases its ability to release oxygen. Once it has release oxygen, there is an increased ability to pick up
CO2.
Haemoglobin is packaged inside red blood cells, so there osmotic balance of cells/fluids is not adversely affected. If O2
was dissolved in the plasma, it would change its composition and affect osmotic balance.
Outline the need for oxygen in living cells and explain why removal of carbon dioxide from cells is essential.

Oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration, a process by which cells obtain energy from glucose. Energy is needed for lifesustaining processes such as growth, repair of tissues, movement, excretion and reproduction. Oxygen combines with
glucose in a sequence of enzyme-controlled steps during cellular respiration to release chemical energy as ATP.
Carbon dioxide is produced in cells as a waste product of chemical respiration. It must be removed from cells to prevent
change in pH in the cells. When carbon dioxide reacts with water it forms carbonic acid and build up of this in the body is
toxic as it lowers the pH inside the body, affecting homeostatic balance. An acidic pH affects the function of enzymes and
therefore the removal of Carbon dioxide is essential.
Perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
Carbon dioxide is produced in living organisms as a result of cellular respiration. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water it forms
carbonic acid, which is toxic to cells..
INVESTIGATION 1
This investigation involves two stepsfirst, it must be demonstrated that the gas being used for the investigation is carbon
dioxide and, second, the carbon dioxide must be bubbled through water of known pH, to investigate whether the carbon
dioxide has any effect on the pH of the water.
Aim: To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air and to determine the effect of carbon dioxide on the pH of
water.
1. To demonstrate the presence of Carbon Dioxide students may exhale through a drinking straw into a test tube of limewater,
and observe if the limewater turns milky white, to demonstrate that carbon dioxide is present in exhaled air.
2. To determine the pH of water: the pH of water before and after the addition of carbon dioxide is determined by using
universal indicator solution. Place 3 drops into the water and compare to colour chart. Blow into the flask, through 4 plastic
straws for 2 minutes and estimate the colour change against the chart.
INVESTIGATION 2

Aim: to use computer based technology such as a data logger to find the effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the pH of water.
Results: Carbon Dioxide did change the pH of water, making it slightly acidic, because carbonic acid had formed.
Analyse information from secondary
sources to identify current technologies that allow
measurement of oxygen saturation and carbon
dioxide concentrations in the blood and describe
and explain the conditions under which these
technologies are used.
Background Information
The level of certain chemicals in the blood gives an
indication of the state of health of a person.
Correct levels of chemicals in blood are maintained by homeostasis, so changes in these levels reflect ineffective metabolic
functioning. Unless this can be corrected, the imbalance in metabolism will result in poor health, which may deteriorate to a
degree that is life-threatening. The concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood are important indicators of how
well the lungs are functioning and the effectiveness of the circulation of blood within the body. The pH of the blood is an
indicator of kidney and lung functioning. Both lungs and kidneys are excretory organslungs excrete carbon dioxide, preventing
a build-up of carbonic acid and kidneys excrete excess hydrogen ions (H+). A build-up of either of these chemicals would affect
blood pH, making it more acidic.
Current Technologies
There are two main technologies used to determine the levels of gases in blood.
Pulse oximeters are used extensively in hospitals. A clip with a sensor is placed on the finger and the sensor shows the pulse
rate and oxygen saturation level. This technology is used extensively because it is non-invasive and gives a good idea of the
oxygen saturation levels of
haemoglobin in the patients
bloodan indication that breathing
and circulation are normal.
Arterial blood gas (ABG) analysis is a
more invasive technique of analysis
and is only carried out if
abnormalities show up in the pulse
oximeter readings. ABG analysis
involves removing blood from an
artery and performing a blood test
using computer-based technology
to analyse the chemical
components in the sample of blood.
This technology measures the
partial pressures of oxygen and
carbon dioxide, the pH and the level
of bicarbonate ions. The main use
of ABG analysis is in the study of
lung disease and conditions of poor
gaseous exchange, but the pH and
electrolyte (ion) levels measured
also give important information

about how well the kidneys are functioning.

Compare the structure of arteries, capillaries and veins in relation to their functions.
The transport or vascular system in mammals consists of the heart, blood vessels, lymph vessels and the fluids within them
blood and lymph.

Direction of Flow
From heart to cells

Blood Vessel and Diagram

Artery

From cells to heart

Vein

From arteries to
veins

Structure relating to function

Function is to carry blood away from the heart to various
parts of the body. The walls of the arteries are thicker than
those of veins to withstand the bursts of force of the blood
being pumped from the heart at high pressure. Arteries close
to the heart have thick layers of smooth muscle to help
withstand increases in pressure. The smooth muscle also
functions to adjust the diameter of lumen and regulate blood
flow. When the smooth muscle contracts vasoconstriction
occurs, slowing blood flow. When the smooth muscle relaxes,
vasodilation occurs, and blood flow increases.
The walls of arteries have a large proportion of elastic fibres
enables the arteries to expand to accommodate increased
volume of blood pumped with each heartbeat. These fibres
also allow the arteries to recoil to their original size.
Walls as thinner than that of arteries as the blood they receive
flows at low pressure. Function is to carry blood back to the
heart. The walls have very few elastic fibres as no stretch and
recoil is necessary, smooth muscle is also thinner blood is
pumped at less pressure. Lumen also has a wider diameter
allow easier flow of blood. There are 2 mechanisms to prevent
the backflow of blood. 1. Veins situated between large muscle
groups are easily compressed due to thin walls. When
muscles in the surrounding tissue contract, the thing walls of
veins allow them to be compressed, propelling the blood
towards the heart.
2. Veins have valves --. Occur at regular intervals along the
inside of vein walls and prevent blood from flowing
backwards.

Extremely tiny microscopic vessels 1 cell thick bring

blood into close contact with tissues, allowing for exchange of
chemical substances between the cells and bloodstream.
Diffusion is a fairly slow process and so the structure of
capillaries is suited to slowing down the flow of blood.
Maximise the exchange of substances thin walls
efficient diffusion, small lumen forcing red blood cells to
flow one at a time, slowing the flow of blood.
Form an expansive network no cell is far from blood
supply.

Describe the main changes in the chemical composition of the blood as it moves around the body and identify tissues
in which these changes occur.
General Notes:
Before liver oxygenated blood low in nitrogenous waste
After liver deoxygenated blood nitrogenous waste higher (the liver makes urea)
Oxygen goes DOWN through every organ being used CO2 goes up waste
Kidney before urea is high after urea is low
The difference in the chemical composition of blood entering or leaving an organ depends on the function of that organ.
Substance
Source (carried from)
Destination (carried to)
Form of chemical in the blood
Component of blood in
which it travels
Oxygen
Lungs (from inhaled air)
Heart and all tissues of
98.5% as Oxyhaemoglobin in
Red blood cells
the body
blood
Plasma
1.5% dissolved in plasma
Carbon Dioxide Cells as a byproduct
Back through heart and
Dissolved in plasma
Red blood cells
of cellular respiration
to lungs
Carried by haemoglobin
Plasma
Bicarbonate ions
Water
Food, drinking water
All cells of the body
Water molecules forming liquid
Plasma
Cells byproduct of
Excreted by skin, lungs
medium
cellular respiration and
and bladder
metabolic function
Salts
Food
Goes to cell to be used
Dissolved disassociated into
Plasma
Excreted through skin,
positive and negative ions
sweat and urine
Lipids
Food
Carried to the cells
Chylomicrons in lymph and as
Lymph
stored a source of energy lipoproteins in blood
Plasma
not used and turns to
fat
Other products: Glucose and food based
Sites where that are
Dissolved
Plasma
amino acid,
nutrients from digestion needed cells of the
glucose
body requiring energy
Nitrogenous
Byproduct of protein
Organs where is can be
Dissolved mostly as urea, but
Plasma
Waste
breakdown that occurs
excreted kidneys via
some uric acid and ammonia
during metabolic
liver, skin
functioning in cells
Hormones
Produced in the
Target organs which are
Secretions from glands into
Plasma
endocrine glands
sensitive to chemical
blood stream
signals
Changes in Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen content of the blood
Carbon Dioxide
Before lungs high in carbon dioxide at lungs carbon dioxide is excreted after lungs level is low.
After lungs Carbon dioxide is low after cell carbon dioxide is high because thats where it has been produced.
Oxygen
Before lungs low in oxygen because it has been used at lungs, oxygen is absorbed after lungs blood is high in oxygen.
After lungs high level of oxygen after cell low level because it has just been released to the cell.
An increase in oxygen and a decrease in Carbon dioxide concentrations are evident in blood that has passed through
the lungs.
A decrease in oxygen and an increase in carbon dioxide is evident in blood that has passed through any organ other
than the lungs.

Changes in other chemicals in the blood

An increase in digestive end products is evident in blood that has passed through an organ involved in absorbing
digestive food, such as the small intestine. These products of digestion travel in the bloodstream from the digestive
tract directly to the liver.
A decrease in digestive end products is evident once blood has passed through the liver as this is the centre of food
metabolism.
An increase in nitrogenous wastes is evident in blood that has passed through the liver, the organ where proteins are
de-aminated to form these wastes
A decrease in nitrogenous wastes is evident in blood that has passed through the
kidneys, since they filter nitrogenous wastes out of the blood and excrete them.
Analyse information from secondary sources to identify and describe the products extracted from donated blood and
the uses of these products.
A blood transfusion is a transfer of blood or any of its components to a recipient. The blood may come from a specific donor or
from a blood bank. People may require transfusions during life threatening emergencies, where they have lost a lot of blood, or
as a result of serious burns. There may also be a need for blood transfusions after a surgical operation so the blood supply can
be increased. The standard donation is 450ml and is tested for diseases, antibodies and it type. The blood collected may be
stored as whole blood or split into components, all of the components are important, whole blood is only used in emergency
blood losses. Saline solutions are sometimes used to increase the volume of the blood. Careful blood matching is important
between donated blood and the receiver to ensure no adverse reactions occur.
Donated blood is broken down into the following components:
Red Blood cells:
This is used to increase the amount of oxygen carried around a persons body tissues, it is usually given to those who have lost a
lot of blood, usually in accidents or operations, or due to hemorrhaging. It is also given to people with anemia, or whose bone
marrow is no longer producing enough healthy red blood cells.
Platelets:
Are essential for blood clotting, when the skin is
broken, or people have cancer of the blood or
bone marrow, or lymph such as leukaemia.
Patients undergoing cancer treatments do not
make enough blood platelets and are given
platelets extracted from donated blood.
Plasma:
The liquid portion of the blood contains clotting
factors (and immunoglobins). Plasma is used to
treat people with blood clotting disorders such as
haemophilia, it also is used to adjust the osmotic
pressure of blood, to help pull fluid out of tissue
when necessary.
Immunoglobulins (also called gamma globulins,
immune serum and antibodies)
These are an infection fighting parts of blood
plasma. They are used to treat people who have
difficulty fighting infections and whose immune
systems are not working normally because of
diseases such as AIDS.

White blood cells:

Another infection fighting component of the blood, only used occasionally to treat life-threatening infections when the white
blood cell count is very low or the white blood cell are not working properly. Most of the time antibiotics are used rather than
giving a white blood cell transfusion.
Whole blood is only used when a person has lost more than 20% blood volume, or when a particular component is not available.
It is given to people who have lost a lot of blood through accident or operations to restore blood volume.
Analyse and present information from secondary sources to report on progress in the production of artificial blood and
use available evidence to propose reasons why such research is needed
-

Artificial blood is a life-saving substance that carries oxygen to the body when there is a shortage of red blood cells.
Whilst is does not perform all the functions of real blood, its main function is to carry the oxygen to the cells.
Blood transfusions have been the subject of medical research for centuries. In the early 1900s, successful transfusions
were carried out as an understanding of blood components grew. Up until the HIV crisis in the 1980s, there was little
interest in artificial blood as there did not seem a great need. With the transmission of the virus during transfusions,
there was nothing to replace donor blood, so artificial blood became a priority for research. Sensitive screening tests
have now been developed for potential infective organisms, such as HIV and hepatitis, making donor blood much safer.
Research is being continued as humanity has to be prepared for another HIV episode or similar when blood may
become contaminated. The concerns came to a head in early 2008, when a meta-analysis of findings from 16 clinical
trials of five different products that had been used on over 3500 patients was published in the Journal of the American
Medical Association .
The ideal characteristics expected in an artificial replacement for blood have become more complex and include
characteristics that were identified in the past as well as some new requirementsthat the product:
can be stored for long periods and easily transported
does not need to be cross-matched for different blood types
can be produced in large quantities at low cost
is completely safe (has no toxic effects on the body and is free from disease)
does not trigger an immune response
continues to circulate (does not settle out) and, once the patients own blood is restored, may be safely excreted.
The main area of current research targets the transport of oxygen so that it is easily picked up and, more importantly, efficiently
released where it is required. Three main types of oxygen carriers are being developed: perfluorocarbons (PFCs), haemoglobinbased oxygen carriers (HBOCs) and artificial red cells called microcapsules.
Perfluorocarbons carry oxygen in a dissolved form. They can carry up to 50 times more dissolved oxygen than plasma, enough to
supply sufficient oxygen to tissues in the absence of red blood cells. The main diffiulty with these products is in enabling them to
mix with the bloodstream they must be combined with lipids to form an emulsion.
Haemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs) involve extracting haemoglobin from outdated donated human blood (or bovine
blood) and modifying it to a form in which it can be used in artificial blood.
Artificial red cells are currently being developed as microcapsules of phospholipid into which haemoglobin can be placed, but
research is still in early stages.
The brand Haemopure is made from stabilised bovine (cattle) haemoglobin in a balanced salt
solution; it has a shelf life of 36 months and can be stored at room temperature. The Haemopure molecule is 1000 times smaller
than a red blood cell, allowing it to fl ow through partially blocked arteries and so it may be useful in heart surgery.

Advantages of artificial products

The main advantages of the current artificial bloods available is that they meet the following expectations:
They can be sterilised.
They can be stored for long periods of time.
No cross-matching is needed (no cell membranes).
There is no risk of infection.
Perfluorocarbons are relatively cheap to produce.
Describe current theories about processes responsible for the movement of materials through plants in the xylem and
phloem tissue.
Both xylem and phloem are specialised vascular tissue.
Structure and Function of the Xylem
A specialised tissue for the transport of water and dissolved inorganic minerals from the roots to the leaves. Occurs as
a result of a transpiration stream: as water evaporates through stomata in the leaves, it sets up a concentration
gradient across the leaf, creating a suction pull on the water.
Consists of 2 main types of elements xylem tracheids and xylem vessels. Tracheids are elongate with end walls that
taper to a point. Xylem vessels from continuous tubes for the transport of water. When cells specialise to become
xylem cells, their transverse walls break down, so that the cells become continuous tubes.
The walls of the xylem vessels are reinforced with lignin thickenings, laid down in rings or spirals. When drawing these,
draw two sticks of walls and spiral within demonstrating lignin. These thickenings prevent the vessels from collapsing
and help the easy movement of water and dissolved substances.
Water potential combination of 2 factors, wall pressure and osmotic pressure, difference in concentration and
pressure of water, eg. in root tip, less water than in soil, water moves in. Water moves across a membrane from higher
water potential to lower water potential.
Structure and Function of Phloem
Specialised tissue that transports sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plants.
2 main types of phloem cells sieve tube elements and companion cells. Sieve tube elements are cells with living
contents, but do not have a nucleus. Companion cells are small cells associated with sieve cells, keeping them alive.
Organic nutrients produced by photosynthesis move down or up the plant in a process known as translocation.
Nutrients made in leaves must be transported to other areas such as roots and shoots for growth. Leaves are the
SOURCE produce more sugar than required (high concentration) and root as the SINK consumes sugar for its
growth and to store (low concentration)
Theories about how materials move in xylem and phloem
The transpiration stream theory (cohension-adhesion-tension) of movement of water and mineral ions in the xylem.
The pressure flow theory (source-path-sink) of translocation of organic materials in phloem.
Transportation of materials in xylem: the transpiration stream theory
Occurs due to physical forces that result from water (and ions) being moved by passive transport.
A column or water is sucked up by the stem by the evaporative pull of transpiration and is known as the transpiration
stream.
Once water has been absorbed into the roots of plants (by osmosis and diffusion) they moves across the root of the
plant.
Root pressure results from the continual influx of water, forcing the solution upwards, but only slightly.
Transpiration stream causes the upward movement- water is drawn up the xylem tubes to replace the loss of water
from the leaves by transpiration. Evidence of this includes:
o Xylem vessels are hollow and narrow, offering little resistance to the flow of water.
o Due to the adhesive (attraction between water molecules and the walls of the xylem) and cohesive (attraction
between water molecules) properties of water, a continuous column of water is maintained, moving upwards
through the xylem.

A concentration gradient exists across the leaf:

At the surface of the leaf, the osmotic pressure is high ( low water concentration) because water is
continually evaporating.
In the centre of the leaf water concentration is high and osmotic pressure is low.

Water loss at the leaf surface (through stomata) results in the osmotic movement of water across from the adjacent internal
cells into those that have just lost some water. This osmotic flow continues across the leaf to the xylem tissue. When molecules
of water leave the xylem, this creates tension in the column of water rising up the xylem. Due to cohesion and adhesion the
column does not break, and the whole column of water is pulled upwards, creating the transpiration stream.
Transportation of materials in phloem: the pressure flow theory
Translocation in phloem tissue moves products of photosynthesis by active transport.
The flow of materials (mostly sucrose) in phloem is an active process that requires energy. The mechanism of flow is
driven by an osmotic pressure gradient generated by different in sugar and water concentrations. It involves the active
loading sugar into phloem at one end (known as the source) and then the active unloading from phloem into
surrounding tissues at the other end (the sink). The loading of sugar into phloem at the source attracts water to flow in
(because of differences in osmotic pressure) an the offloading at the sink causes water to flow out of the phloem.
Loading at the source
-

Amino acids, sucrose and other mineral nutrients are loaded into the phloem in the leaves. Symplastic loading sugars
and other nutrients move in the cytoplasm from the mesophyll
cells to the sieve elements. Apoplastic loading sugars and
nutrients move along a pathways through the cell walls until
they reach the sieve element.
As sugars enter the phloem the phloem sap
becomes more concentrated and so the osmotic pressure at
the source end is high. This draws the water into the phloem
from the adjacent xylem tissue by osmosis.
Offloading at the Sink
Materials flow to the sink. At the sink, sugars
and materials are removed from the phloem by active
transport. As sugars move out of the phloem, they draw water
out with them (osmosis) This results in low osmotic pressure
(due to the higher water concentration) in the phloem at the
sink region
Pressure flow (along the path)
This difference in osmotic pressure between the
source and the sink in the phloem drives the phloem sap to
flow. The direction of flow depends on where the sink areas of
the plant are, in relation to the source. Water can move into
the phloem by osmosis at any point along the gradient. The
flow is continuous, because sucrose is continually being added at one end and removed at the other.
Choose equipment or resources to perform a first- hand investigation to gather first-hand data to draw transverse and
longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem tissue.

Aim: To observe and draw transverse and longitudinal sections of phloem and xylem.

Method:
1. Set up a slide of a longitudinal section of a plant root or stem (showing phloem and
xylem) on the microscope.
2. Locate the appropriate tissue types under low power. Identify the colours that xylem and phloem are stained - this will help
you to recognise them under high power.
3. Investigate the structure of:
o xylemmost easily identified by its pink-stained walls. In longitudinal section, the pink patterned wall thickenings
spiral, annular, reticular and pitted - make it easily recognizable.
o phloemappears green in colour when locating tissue in longitudinal section, do not confuse it with parenchyma

cells which also stain green, but which are much larger, brick shaped and hollow in appearance. In longitudinal section,
phloem cells are elongate and much narrower, and easily distinguished by darker staining horizontal sieve plates which
separate each sieve tube elements from one another. There are also companion cells which have a darkly stained
nucleus.

Guide to drawing plant cells

1. Draw only a few cells (four to six) of each tissue type in each diagram, making cells large
enough to be clearly seen (each diagram should be approximately 5 5 cm).
2. Use a single line for the thin walls of cells such as parenchyma cells and phloem cells.
3. For thicker-walled cells, for example xylem, use a double line to represent the wall.
4. Do not draw cells as spherical when they are clearly polygonal in shape.
5. Do not draw cells overlapping (like fi sh scales)each cell is an entire entity and so the wall of each cell must be drawn
completely. Adjacent walls should be shown as such, not as shared walls between cells.
6. Pay special attention to:
the relative proportions of the different cells (that is, their size in relation to other cell types)
the characteristic shape of the cells (see 4 above)
the thickness and structure of the walls (see 2 and 3 above)
the way cells join together and the size and shape of the intercellular spaces (see 5 above)
whether cells are hollow (the contents have died) or if they have large vacuoles and/or

strands of cytoplasm in the centre.

Structure
Xylem
Overall Shape
Cell Wall
Phloem
Sieve tube cell shape and
contents
Companion Cell shape and
contents
Sieve plate appearance

Description of Longitudinal Section

Description of transverse section

Long tubular pathways

Broken

Circular and cluttered

Broken (lignin cell walls)

Long tubular pathways

Large circular shapes

Narrow opening with nucleus

Small circle shape

Large circular shape filled with smaller

circles

Large circular shape with smaller

circles inside.

3. Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases, water and waste products of
metabolism in cells and in interstitial fluid.
The maintenance of relatively constant concentrations of gases, water and waste products in the internal environment
of living products is an important aspect of homeostasis.
Excretion is the process by which waste products, which have been produced as a result of metabolism, are removed
from the body. The excretory system is made up of the systems and organs that carry out the removal of metabolic
wastes from the body.

Explain why the concentration of water in cells should be maintained within a narrow range for optimal function.
Excretory systems:
o Remove metabolic wastes (CO2 and nitrogenous wastes such as urea)
o Maintain optimal water and salt levels (osmoregulation)
o Maintain blood pH
o Maintain blood volume and pressure
o Organs involved include lungs, skin and kidneys.

Importance of Water Concentration

-

Water is a solvent in cells, makes up part of blood, cytoplasm etc. Lots of ions dissolved in water. Also a transport
medium in plants, acting as a medium for the translocation of ions in xylem and sugars in phloem tissue.
Many important organic and inorganic substances are dissolved in water, such as glucose, amino acids, urea, ammonia
and ions.
If not enough water, concentration of dissolved substances can increase. This means changes in water concentration
lead to corresponding changes in solute concentration in cells.
Water moves osmotic pressure can change as water move from high to low concentration (with gradient) therefore
solute/solvent concentration is important. Water enters and leaves cells by the process of osmosis and the movement
of water depends on the osmotic gradient.
Water allows chemical reactions to occur reactants must be dissolved and water can also be a reactant eg.
photosynthesis
Cell structure and Cell Support: too much water cell can burst, too little water cell is flaccid and cytoplasm is too
concentrated (change in pH) Water also maintains cell shape.

Problems associated with change in water concentration

-

If the balance of water and solutes in cells is not maintained at an optimal concentration, too much water may move
into cells, causing them to burst, or water may move out causing the cell to shrink, and the cytoplasm to become
concentrated.
The osmotic pressure of living tissue can also affect the pH in cells too little water leads to an increase in the
concentration of solutes.
Explain why the removal of wastes is essential for continued metabolic activity

Importance of Waste Removal

-

Wastes from metabolism are TOXIC and must be removed in order to maintain homeostasis.
If it is not removed, it will build up and alter the environment of the cell.
Nitrogenous Waste Ammonia, urea increase in pH to more basic; Co2 pH will decrease to be acidic, however
all will all lead to a loss of enzyme function.
The role of the kidney in excretion and osmoregulation
The excretory system is a group of organs that function together to remove metabolic wastes from the tissues of an
organisms and expel them to the outside. The KIDNEYS are the main excretory organs responsible for removing
nitrogenous wastes from the bodies of vertebrate animals, including fish and mammals.
The function of the kidney in excretion is to filter the blood that enters, removing wastes from the blood stream so that
they can be excreted. Filtration is carried out in millions of tiny excretory units called nephrons.
Urine is the excretory solution and it drains out of the kidneys, carrying wastes out of the kidney via ducts. In the
vertebrates, the ureters lead to a urine storage organ, the bladder which passes urine via the urethra to the outside.
The oxygenated blood arriving at the kidney, via the renal artery, carries nitrogenous wastes and these together with
water and other solutes, are filtered to form urine. The kidney is drained of its fluids by 2 vessels:
o The renal vein, which carries purified blood back to the general circulation
o The ureter, which carries urine out of the kidney.
Animals use water to flush metabolic wastes out of the body. Excretion therefore, brings with it the problem of
regulating the amount of water lost, while ensuring the wastes are removed.
The role of the kidney includes both the excretion of nitrogenous wastes and osmoregulation (maintaining the water
and salt balance in animals).
Distinguish between active and passive transport and relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian kidney.

Movement of materials into and out of cells takes place either passively or actively. Passive movement includes the processes of
diffusion and osmosis. Active transport requires an input of cellular energy to actively move molecules against a concentration
gradient.

Osmoconformers: adapt to environment in their cell concentrations and balance

Osmoregulators: regulate their water and salt levels inside them.
Within the kidney, the movement of substances between the bloodstream and excretory fluid in the mircoscopic tubules
involves both active and passive transport.
Passive Transport in the Mammalian Kidney
Diffusion and osmosis results from the random movement of particles, whereby particles continually collide and move
randomly. When they are in a higher concentration in one region, this constant movement slowly results in an overall
spreading out from the point concentrated point, finally bringing about their even distribution within a space.
The main limitations of passive movement are that it depends on the presence of a difference in concentration of
substances between 2 regions and that it is relatively slow, especially when the concentration gradient is not too steep.
Diffusion is the movement of any molecules from a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration,
until equilibrium is reached. This does not require any energy input.
Facilitated Diffusion: is similar to simple diffusion, but carrier proteins or channels in the membrane help with this
process. A channel is the fastest way, in that larger particles can travel straight through the membrane. Carrier Proteins
bind with the solutes and then changes shape to move the solute through the membrane.
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water
concentration through a selectively permeable membrane. It does not require an energy input. The rate of
movement through the membrane is affected by solute concentration and opposing physical pressure.
Within the kidney tubules, there is a two-way movement of substances:
o Waste substances pass from the bloodstream into the kidney tubules, to be excreted in urine (filtration and
secretion).
o Substances required by the body are removed from the urine in the kidney tubules (before it is excreted) and
returned to the bloodstream (reabsorption).
Passive transport moves water (by osmosis), and some nitrogenous wastes such as urea and ammonia (by diffusion) in
the kidney of mammals.
In the kidney, only excess water and salts are excreted; homeostasis requires that sometimes water and salts should be
conserved to maintain the required levels within the body and at other times they should be excreted.
Active transport in the mammalian kidney
Active transport is the movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentration, requiring
the input of energy.
Sometimes there is need for a chemical to move against the concentration gradient, and to this energy is needed. This
may be in the form of a carrier protein.
Active transport moves mainly sodium ions, glucose, amino acids and hydrogen ions across the wall of the nephron:
o All glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed by kidney cells so that they are not lost in urine and so they move
against a concentration gradient.
o Additional nitrogenous wastes and hydrogen ions are added to urine in the kidney tubules, and therefore have
to move across a concentration gradient.
Explain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in some
organisms.
Diffusion and osmosis are both types of passive transport that require no energy input and so they are slowthe movement of
molecules relies on differences in the concentration gradient between two solutions (they move from a high to a low
concentration), and so both diffusion and osmosis slow down as the difference in concentration gradient becomes smaller, and
they stop once the concentration gradient reaches equilibrium.

Problems with relying on diffusion

Rate of movement is too slow- if the removal of wastes relied only on diffusion, wastes would only be able to move if it
was more concentrated on one side of the bloodstream than on the other. As the concentrations begin to equalize,
their movement would slow down and eventually stop.
Not all wastes can be removed by diffusion: since nitrogenous wastes are toxic, it is essential they are all removed. If
concentrations between the blood and urine are equalized no more could be removed. Therefore active transport is
essential to remove all wastes.
Larger molecules needed channels/carrier proteins.
Problems with relying on osmosis
Too much water may be lost in urine: if water contains a large number of wastes, water will be drawn into the urine by
osmosis, to dilute the wastes and try to equalize the concentration of the fluid inside the urine and in the surrounding
kidney tissue. Excretion of dilute urine means the loss of large amounts of water from the body.
Movement of water may make wastes too dilute for excretion by diffusion. Organisms that live in freshwater
environments have a different problem osmosis results in water moving into the body tissues from the surrounding
environment.
Solution to the problems combined active transport and osmosis
Active transport, which requires energy, is quicker and more effective than diffusion as it removes most wastes, even
against a concentration gradient. It can also be used to pump salts from urine back into the kidney tissues and these in
turn will draw water with them, ensuring in this way that the amount of water lost in urine does not affect the bodys
water balance.
Perform a first-hand
investigation of the structure of a
mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a
model or visual resource and identify the
regions involved in the excretion of waste
products.

Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition.
Functioning of the Nephron
The role of reabsorption is to retain required substances within the body and reduce the volume of water lost in urine.
Reabsorption

Proximal Nephron

Loop of Henle

Substances Reabsorbed
Ions (sodium, potassium,
chloride, hydrogen carbonate)
Amino Acids
Glucose

Process
Active
Transport:
Facilitated
diffusion

Ions, especially sodium

(ascending limb)

Active transport
(sodium pump);
facilitated
diffusion
Osmosis

Water (descending limb)

Distal Nephron and

Collecting Duct

Water
Some ions

Osmosis
Active
Transport

Description
A very large amount of reabsorption takes place in the
proximal part of the nephron and the tubule walls are
permeable to water. By the time the filtrate reaches the
end of the proximal part, its volume has been reduced by
65%.
The loop of Henle descends into the medulla and the
ascending limb, where the membranes are permeable to
ions, but impermeable to water. A large number of salts
are actively pumped out into the interstitial fluid in the
medulla.
This accumulation of solutes in the medulla draws water
by osmosis, mainly from the collecting tubules but also
from the descending limb of the Loop of Henle. Both of
which have membranes that are permeable to water.
A large amount of water is reabsorbed from the collecting
duct into the surrounding tissues of the medulla, through
the membranes of the collecting duct which are
permeable to water. These tubules are permeable to
water if ADH is present.

Humans osmoregulate using kidney blood flows into the glemarious bohmans capsule, where it is filtered flows
through nephron flows out, somolarity inside tublia rasies, colutes increase because water moves out, water is reabsorbed.
The loop of Henle sets up a gradient.
Secretion

Proximal Convoluted
Tubule

Substances Secreted
Hydrogen ions, uric acid,
drugs and toxins (penicillin)
Ammonia

Loop of Henle

Urea (descending limb)

Distal Convoluted
tubule

Hyrdrogen ions, Potassium

Ions
Urea

Process
Active
Transport:
Passive
Transport
Diffusion

Active and
Passive
Transport
Diffusion

Description
Further toxins such as hydrogen ions and drugs are
secreted from the blood into the kidney tubules for
excretion.
Further ammonia is secreted into the nephron by
diffusion.
The walls of the descending limb of the loop of Henle are
permeable to urea, which diffuses into the nephron from
interstitial fluid.
Blood pH affects distal nephron hyrdoen ion secretinon.
Acidemia stimulates and alkalemia inhibits distal nephron
hydrogen ion sectetion
Further urea is excreted by diffusion.

Explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid composition

Outline the role of hormones, aldosterone and ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) in the regulation of water and salt
levels in blood.
The role of aldosterone and ADH in regulating kidney functioning
-

Hormones are chemical control substances that are secreted by endocrine (ductless) glands directly into the
bloodstream.
Adjustments to the concentration of water and salts within the urine takes place mainly in the distal parts of the
tubules and the collecting tubules, by alterations to the permeability of the membranes of cells lining the nephron
walls.
These changes are brought about by 2 main hormones:
o Aldosterone- brings about retention (conservation) of salts within the body.
o ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) brings about water reabsorption (conservation) within the body.

Aldosterone
-

Aldosterone increases the amount of salt reabsorbed from the kidney tubules and as a result also helps regulate blood
pressure.
A decrease in the concentration of sodium ions in the bloodstream leads to a decrease in blood volume and this
stimulates cells in the cortex of the adrenal gland (above the kidney) to secrete aldosterone.
When aldosterone reaches the kidney, it increases the permeability of the nephron to sodium, particularly in the
ascending limb of the loop of Henle. Salt retention, therefore occurs- that is less salt is lost in urine. In the absence of
aldosterone, the salt concentration in urine is higher.
Lack of aldosterone can be due to damage to the adrenal glands or the Pituarty glands.
Inability to secrete Aldosterone can lead to Addisons disease, low sodium levels and high potassium levels in the
blood, blood glucose in balance and blood pressure changes.

Anti-Diuretic Hormone
-

The drop in blood volume due to dehydrations is detected by the hypothalums in the brain. It stimulares the pituarity
gland to release the hormone ADH, which acts on the nephorns in the kidney to increase the reabsorption of water.
The presence of ADH increase the permeability of the membranes of the cells lining the distal tubules and collecting
tubules to water.

Both ADH and aldosterone therefore play an important role in helping the kidney to carry out its homeostatic functions of
osmoregulation:
-

regulation of the solute concentration of the blood: regulating the amount of sodium and other ions that are
reabsorbed or secreted in urine)
regulation of blood volume: maintaining a constant fluid volume by producing either a large volume of dilute urine or a
small or concentration of concentrated urine.

Hormone
ADH- controls the movement in water in the
collecting duct makes membrane more
permeable and it move back to blood stream.
Aldosterone controls salt reabsorption

Gland Secreted
from
Pituitary Gland

Adrenal gland
(above kidney)

Where and how it acts

Increase permeability of
membrane to water lets it
out to blood
Increase permeability of
membrane to sodium lets
it out to the blood

Role in osmoregulation in
the body
Regulation of blood volume

Regulation of solute
concentration of the blood

Gather, process and analyse information from secondary sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the
function of the kidney.
An understanding of how the kidney functions to remove wastes, as well as the hormonal regulation of kidney functioning to
maintain homeostasis has played a key role in the development of technologies such as:
renal dialysis for people suffering from reduced kidney functioning
hormone replacement therapy for patients suffering from abnormally low levels of the hormone aldosterone.
These applications of the use of biology have helped to improve the lifestyle and increase the life expectancy of people who
suffer from these diseases.
The process of renal dialysis has been developed to carry out the function of failed kidneys so that blood may be effectively
filtered. There are two types of renal dialysis haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. The main function of a dialysis machine is
to remove metabolic wastes that have built up in the persons blood. The patient is connected to a dialysis machine, which
pumps their blood through a system of tubes (coiled to increase their surface area and therefore the rate of diffusion) which
have artificial semi-permeable membranes. The tubes are submerged in dialysis fluid (dialysate), which flows in the opposite
direction to the blood in order to maximise diffusion. Dialysate has the same concentration as blood plasma without the
metabolic wastes, and since the concentration of metabolic waste is higher in the blood than in the dialysing fluid, the waste
materials move through the semi-permeable membrane into the dialysing fluid by diffusion. Since dialysis relies on passive
transport for the removal of wastes from the blood, the dialysing fluid must constantly be replaced so that the concentration
gradient is maintained away from the blood.
Renal dialysis must be carried out for 3 to 4 hours, two or three times per week. As well as its time-consuming nature, another
disadvantage of the process is that only limited amounts of fluid/wastes can be removed from the blood; other substances such
as sodium phosphate and potassium ions do not diffuse quickly enough and therefore may accumulate in the blood and so it is

recommended that patients follow a specific diet to prevent this, as renal dialysis is not effective in regulating the concentration
of these ions in the blood.
Feature
Structure

Kidney
Consists of about 1 million nephron
which filters the blood.

Functions and
Nitrogenous Waste
Other functions

Removes urea from blood.

How often it occurs

Filtration and
Reabsorption

Maintains bodys balance of various salts

eg. Na, K. Releases into the blood stream
hormones that regulate vital functions
including blood pressure. Red blood cell
production.
Each day, 2 kidneys excrete about 1.52.5L of urine
Filters and reabsorbs required materials.

Renal Dialysis
Haemodialysis occurs in a hospital where the patient is
attached via a tube in the veins, to a machine that circulates
blood through the semi-permeable membrane filters that
take out the toxins in the blood. The procedure usually takes
3-4h. Dialysis consists of 3 parts, a compartment for the
blood, a compartment for the dialysate and a semipermeable membrane separating the 2.
Removes urea from blood.
Concentrations of desired solutes can be adjusted by altering
the compositions of the dialysis fluid to maintain natural
concentration for healthy blood.

Haemodialysis works more quickly than peritoneal dialysis

and can be done in short sessions.
Filters by no reabsorption

Present information to outline the general use of hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot secrete
aldosterone
The function of aldosterone in the body
Aldosterone increases the amount of salt reabsorbed from kidney tubules and as a result it also helps regulate blood pressure.
Why some people lack aldosterone
Addisons disease results from abnormally low levels of aldosterone in the body. The causes are not always known, but include:

damage to the adrenal glands that produce aldosterone, due to accident, surgery or disease (such as bacterial
infections or cancer of the gland)
damage to the pituitary gland that controls the adrenal gland (for example, because of a tumour). Consequences are
an inability to secrete adequate aldosterone.
Inadequate aldosterone may lead to Addisons disease, where the adrenal cortex is unable to secrete sufficient (or, in
severe cases any) aldosterone.
It results in low sodium levels and high potassium levels in the bloodthis is a potentially dangerous situation, initially
leading to symptoms such as weakness, fatigue and weight loss.
In severe cases of mineral ion imbalance, blood pressure drops due to the low amounts of sodium and potassium ions,
an imbalance of hydrogen ions leads to a lowering of blood pH and blood glucose imbalance may arise (this results
from a lack of another associated hormone produced by the adrenal cortex). Symptoms such as these restrict the
patients lifestyle as they cannot stand for long periods of time, may faint from low blood pressure (which brings
dangers of its own, restricting activities and independence, such as not being able to drive) and are often too tired to
do much.
Without treatment, this may result in the potentially lethal condition of heart failure. In a medical emergency, large
amounts of salt and water must be given intravenously, as well as rapid intravenous adrenal replacement therapy.

Hormone replacement therapy

Hormone replacement therapy involves restoring the balance of the hormones at levels that are normal for the body,
by giving the patients hormones.
When applied appropriately, it can increase fluid retention, raise blood pressure and remove the danger of heart
failure, allowing sufferers to lead normal lives.
Since 1927, when the first hormone replacement therapy began (using an extract from the adrenal cortex of cattle),
hundreds of human lives which would have been lost to Addisons disease in the past have been saved. Modern day
hormone replacement therapy involves administering a genetically engineered hormone called fludrocortisone.

Identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of fish and mammals.
The role of the kidney in FISH and MAMMALS
The kidneys in fish and mammals are excretory and osmoregulatory organs and their main functions are:
-

Marine fish: their kidneys conserve water, excrete excess salts and nitrogenous wastes.
Freshwater fish: their kidneys excrete excess water and nitrogenous wastes (produce large amounts of dilute urine),
conserve salt.
Mammals: their kidneys conserve water and salts when required, excrete excess water and salts and excrete
nitrogenous wastes.

In aquatic animals such as fish, the concentration of solutes in the surrounding aquatic environment has a direct influence on
the direction of movement of waterwhether it will move into or out of the body.
Water potential is the tendency of a solution to lose water by osmosis, typical of solutions that have a high water
concentration.
Freshwater Fish: Water is abundant must continually excrete dilute urine to expel water the problem faced is that there is
too much water kidneys are structurally suited for this role by having a large glomeruli for the filtration of blood in large
volumes, it is not involves in salt balance, since freshwater fish dont face the problem of salt accumulation in this environment.
Marine Fish: Lose body water by osmosis into their salty surroundings Excess salt tends to accumulate in their bodies,
moving in by diffusion from the surrounding seas water main function of kidney is to remove salt and conserve as much
water as possible small glomeruli.
Terrestrial Animals: lose both water and salts kidney excretes urine and can adjust the reabsorption of nitrogenous wastes,
water and salts, varying the concentration of urine produced adjustments is brought about by the action of hormones.
Analyse information from secondary sources to compare and explain the difference in urine concentration of terrestrial
mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish.
Role of the kidney
Excretion: type of
nitrogenous waste
removed

Freshwater Fish
Diluted urine and
ammonia, almost in a
continuous stream

Marine Fish
Excretion of concentrated urine, urea, little
water and salts

Osmoregulation

Water is abundant and

moves into fish through
osmosis and therefore
water is constantly
excreted.
Gills absorb salt from
surroundings. Salt is
reabsorbed in the

Needs to constantly drink water to counteract

the high amount of salt internally.
Surroundings contain high levels of salts and
therefore concentrated urine with little water
and excreted.
Little amount of water is excreted to ensure
that water and salt balance in maintained.
Also, gills actively excrete salt.

Water Balance

Salt Balance

Mammals
Urea, as urine, but
concentration will vary
depending on the needs of
the cell.
ADH if water is needed in
the body ADH will be released
to reabsorb water back to the
blood stream for osmotic
balance
Aldosterone if salt is
needed aldosterone will be
released to reabsorb salt.

nephron of the kidney.

Use available evidence to explain the relationship between the conservation of water and the production and excretion
of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals.
Define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic and physiological functions in response to variation in the
environment and discuss its importance to estuarine organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations

Enantiostasis: a survival mechanism involving the maintenance of an internal environment of an organism despite large changes
or fluctuations in external environment.
The survival of species that live in an environment such as an estuary, where salt and water concentrations fluctuate broadly on
a daily basis, depends on their ability to either avoid or tolerate the change.
Estuarine organisms maintaining a water and salt balance
In estuaries, the daily change in tides affects the salinity of the environment in the following ways:
-

High tide sea water flows in higher salt concentration than the cytoplasm of cells.
At low tide- sea water flows out lots of water moving through organisms.

Living organisms employ one of two strategies in enantiostasis:

-

Osmoconformers are organisms that tolerate the changes in the environment by altering the concentration of their
internal solutes to match the external environment (their body fl uids conform to that of the environment). Their
metabolism is able to tolerate changes in salinity in their own body fluids and cells.
Osmoregulators are organisms that avoid changes in their internal environment and have the ability to keep the solutes
at an optimal level (regulate solute concentrations within the body), regardless of the differing external environment.
These organisms are unable to tolerate a range of salt concentrations in their body fluids and cells and so they have
mechanisms to exclude salt to keep the internal fluid concentrations constant, despite fluctuations in the environment.

Process and analyse information from secondary sources and use available evidence to discuss processes used by
different plants for salt regulation in saline environments.
MANGROVES
-

Leaf fall plant accumulates salt in leaves before they fall. By building up concentration in the leavers the rest of the
plant can function.

Salt glands secretes salt through glands in leaves removal of excess salt
Roots exclude salt, avoid taking it in using specialised tissue.

Describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian plants that assist in minimising water loss.
Three main problems face plants with regard to minimising water loss:
1. If plants lose too much water through transpiration they run the risk of dehydrating, yet loss of water by this evaporative
cooling mechanism is an essential part of temperature regulation to keep plant cells within the optimal temperature range for
metabolic functioning.
2. If plants reduce the surface area of their leaves or lose their leaves, the number of stomata exposed to the external
environment may be reduced, but the reduced exposure of photosynthetic surface area to sunlight may be inadequate for
photosynthesis to occur.
3. If plants retain their leaves, but develop ways of ensuring that stomata do not open, gaseous exchange between the leaf and
the surrounding air becomes limited and, as a result, may not allow sufficient carbon dioxide into the planta necessary
requirement for photosynthesis.

Mechanisms that minimise

water loss
Reducing the internal
temperature of plants

Features

Reducing the exposure of

leaves (stomata) to the
sun:
Reduce exposure of
stomata
Reduction in the size of
leaves
Complete loss of leaves or
flowers

Leaf orientation

Reducing the difference in

water concentration
between the plant and the
outside air

Sunken stomata moist air

trapped in pit reduces
difference in water concentration
Hairs on leaves- trap moist layer
of air smaller difference in
concentration
Rolled leaves enclose a
microclimate of humid air to

Shiny reflective waxy cuticles

Thick insulating cuticle

Leaves reduced to leaflets

Leaves reduced to scales
Rolled Leave

Explanation of how this

conserves water
Reflect heat and light
Protect from excessive
sunlight- insulating
All epidermal cells are water
proof so water cant be lost
through evaporation due to
heat
Less water lost because
stomata are not in direct
sunlight, regulate stomata
opening and closing to
reduce water loss
Reduces about of light on
the leaves
Reduces amount of
evaporation and
transpiration, therefore
reducing water loss.
Having small petals or
leaves reduces the amount
of water/ energy needed to
grow them
On a hot dry day the
difference between air
water concentration and
plant water concentration is
high, so more water is lost.
By having a similar water
concentration surrounding
the stomatas , less water is

Examples
Eucalyptus
Banksias
Schrolphyles tough,
leathery leaves

Wattles
Eucalyptus

Succulents
Cactus

Haeka
Coastal Banksias

Features related to water

storage
Storing water
Reducing water loss in
fruits

reduce the water potential

Succulent plant organs (for
examples leaves or stems) thick
and fleshy which can swell
Woody fruits reduces water loss
from plant when fruit falls off.

lost.
Swell to hold water when it
is available, then use it as
needed or when no water is
available.

Galandrinia