Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245

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Catechins and procyanidins in Mediterranean diets

Cyril Auger a, Najim Al-Awwadi b, Aur
elie Bornet a, Jean-Max Rouanet c,
Francis Gasc a, Gerard Cros b, Pierre-Louis Teissedre a,*
a
Oenologie Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University Montpellier 1, 15, Avenue Charles Flahault, B.P. 14491,
Montpellier Cedex 5 34093, France
b
Pharmacology Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University Montpellier 1, 15, Avenue Charles Flahault,
B.P. 14491, Montpellier Cedex 5 34093, France
c
Nutrition Department, University Montpellier 2, Montpellier 34095, France
Received 20 August 2003; accepted 19 November 2003

Abstract

A great many epidemiological studies indicate that a diet rich in flavonoids from vegetables and fruits intake appear to be in-
versely related to coronary heart disease (CHD) and cancers mortality. Regular moderate consumption of wine can contribute to
this phenomenon. Flavonoids in wine and food have been shown to be antioxidant and anti-aggregant in vitro and could indeed help
protect against coronary disease. Thus, flavonoids may partly explain the protective effects of the Mediterranean diet, rich in
vegetable, fruit and wine against CHD or cancers.
The first step in evaluating this hypothesis is to create a catechins–food composition table. Fruits and vegetables as: plum, apples,
strawberries, cherry and others berries, lentil, chocolate, beans, contains good amount of catechins and procyanidins with a
maximum observed until 49 mg/100 g for plum to 157 mg/100 g for broad bean. Grapes contains catechins and procyanidins in seeds
and skins. For red wine, the consumption of 180 mL for which the mean catechin and procyanidin concentration is 557.9 mg/L gives
a mean daily intake of 100.4 mg of these compounds. This reasoning applied to each type of wine (red, white and ros
e) for regular
(daily), moderate (180 mL) consumption gives estimations of catechin and procyanidin intake of 100.4 mg for red wines, 2.7 mg for
white wines and 3.1 mg for ros
e wines. Green and black tea provide also catechins, respectively, until 42 and 25 mg/100 mL.
A second step consists to determine to what extent each of these foodstuffs contribute to antioxidant flavonoids in the blood.
Which type of diet contributes most to plasma concentration of catechin and procyanidins metabolites. If catechins monomers: (+)-
catechin and ())-epicatechin are absorbed with formation of specific metabolites; the metabolism of procyanidins is actually unclear
and more research is needed concerning this class of flavonoids.
If, as reported, antioxidant flavonoids, especially catechin and procyanidins, have a significant protective effect against CHD red
wine and some fruits and vegetables, owing to their flavonoids, may provide the highest protection among all the Mediterranean
foodstuffs which have been tested.
Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction suggest that they might prevent chronic diseases in hu-

Catechins and procyanidins, two of the major groups
of flavonoids, are bioactive compounds present in a
variety of plant foods and beverages. Experimental data
Abbreviations: C, catechin; EC, epicatechin; B1, B2, B3, B4, B5 and
B7, procyanidins dimers; C1, procyanidins trimer; GC, gallocatechin;
GC–C, gallocatechin–catechin; EC–EC–C, epicatechin–epicatechin–
catechin; EGC, epigallocatechin; ECG, epicatechingallate and EGCG,
epigallocatechingallate.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +33-04-67-54-8674; fax: +33-04-67-54-
8686.
E-mail address: teissed@univ-montp1.fr (P.-L. Teissedre).
mans. One of the key elements of Mediterranean diet is
the use of wine, usually taken with foods. Besides the
evidence from human experience and ancient medicine,
modern experimental data support the notion that the
most striking effect of wine in protecting against car-
diovascular disease involves the reduction of oxidative
damage to plasma lipoproteins. This oxidative damage
is thought to be mediated by eating foods contain-
ing oxidized lipids. In fact, eating a meal containing
oxidized lipids increases the plasma level of lipid
hydroperoxides and increases the susceptibility to
oxidation of LDL (Ursini & Sevanian, 2002).

0963-9969/$ - see front matter Ó 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2003.11.008
234 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
However, the epidemiological studies in this field are
based on data concerning the flavonoid composition of
foods, and the contribution of a regular, moderate
consumption of foods and beverages remains difficult to
quantify. In this study, we have tried to obtain an esti-
mation of catechins and procyanidins contents in foods
and beverages entering in mediterranean diet. We also
discuss the metabolism of these molecules and the
appearance of metabolites in the plasma.
2. Mediterranean diet
‘‘The traditional mediterranean diet is based on a
daily consumption of: fruits, vegetables, beans, other
legumes and nuts, breads, pasta, rice, couscous, polenta,
bulgur, other grains and potatoes, olive oil, cheese and
yogurt. A few times per week people can have fish,
poultry, eggs and sweets. Red meat can be consumed
only a few time per month. Usually people drink wine
daily in moderation and maintain a regular physical
activity.
This diet is poor in saturated fat but rich in fibers. Its
high fat acids monounsaturated rate is mainly provided
by olive oil’’ (WHO, 1994). During a median of 44
months of a follow-up population-based, prospective
investigation involving 22,043 adults in Greece, there
were 275 deaths. A higher degree of adherence to the
Mediterranean diet was associated with a reduction in
total mortality (adjusted hazard ratio for death associ-
ated with a two-point increment in the Mediterranean-
diet score, 0.75 [95% confidence interval, 0.64–0.87]). An
inverse association with greater adherence to this diet
was evident for both death due to coronary heart disease
(adjusted hazard ratio, 0.67 [95% confidence interval,
0.47–0.94]) and death due to cancer (adjusted hazard
ratio, 0.76 [95% confidence interval, 0.59–0.98]). A
greater adherence to the traditional Mediterranean diet
is associated with a significant reduction in total mor-
tality (Trichopoulou, Costacou, Bamia, & Trichopou-
los, 2003).
For Simopoulos (2001), the term ‘‘Mediterranean
diet’’, implying that all Mediterranean people have the
same diet, is a misnomer. The countries around the
Mediterranean basin have different diets, religions and
cultures. Their diets differ in the amount of total fat,
olive oil, type of meat and wine intake; milk vs. cheese;
fruits and vegetables; and the rates of coronary heart
disease and cancer, with the lower death rates and
longer life expectancy occurring in Greece. Extensive
studies on the traditional diet of Greece (the diet before
1960) indicate that the dietary pattern of Greeks consists
of a high intake of fruits, vegetables (particularly wild
plants), nuts and cereals mostly in the form of sour-
dough bread rather than pasta; more olive oil and olives;
less milk but more cheese; more fish; less meat; and
moderate amounts of wine, more so than other Medi-
terranean countries. Analyses of the dietary pattern of
the diet of Crete shows a number of protective sub-
stances, such as selenium, glutathione, a balanced ratio
of (n
6):(n
3) essential fatty acids (EFA), high
amounts of fiber, antioxidants (especially resveratrol
from wine and polyphenols from olive oil), vitamins E
and C, some of which have been shown to be associated
with lower risk of cancer, including cancer of the breast.
Recently, it was found that the inhabitants of Greece
and Southern Italy had a very low incidence of coronary
artery disease and that, among other components, their
diets were very rich in oleic acid, the main constituent of
the olive oil, making up about 29% of their daily caloric
intake. It was observed for in vitro models of early
atherogenesis based on cytokine-stimulated cultured
endothelial cells, that the incorporation of oleic acid in
total cell lipids is accompanied by decreased expression
of a number of major pro-inflammatory proteins, such
as endothelial leukocyte adhesion molecules. Oleic acid
was purposed for a direct vascular atheroprotective ef-
fect, and it was suggested that it may be possible to
prevent atherosclerosis by modulating the vascular re-
sponse to classical triggers (high levels of cholesterol and
the advanced glycation end-products of diabetes,
Massaro & De Caterina, 2002).
An Identification and quantitation study of major
carotenoids in selected components of the Mediterra-
nean diet (green leafy vegetables, figs and olive oil)
commonly eaten by Greek migrants to Melbourne, a
population group maintaining a traditional dietary
regimen, and who exhibit relatively high circulating ca-
rotenoid concentrations and low cardiovascular disease
mortality, was realized. Prior to analyses, foods were
selected on the basis that they are commonly eaten by
Greek migrants but not by Anglo-Celtic persons and the
dietary intake was assessed for both populations. Wild
green vegetables contained high concentrations of lutein
(sow thistle > amaranth > purslane > dandelion) and
b-carotene (sow thistle > amaranth > purslane ¼ dande-
lion). Sow thistle and amaranth contained lutein (15 and
13 mg/100 g, respectively) and b-carotene (3.3 and 4.0
mg/100 g, respectively) at concentrations greater than
that seen in the commercially available species of chic-
ory and endive. Figs contained all major carotenoids
appearing in plasma, albeit at low concentrations. Extra
virgin cold-pressed olive oil contained substantial
quantities of lutein and b-carotene, but the more-refined
Ôextra lightÕ olive oil did not. In these investigations,
these components of the traditional Mediterranean diet
contribute to the higher circulating concentrations
of carotenoids in Greek migrants compared to Anglo-
Celtic Australians (Su, Rowley, Itsiopoulos, & OÕDea,
2002).
In another study (Tokudome et al., 2000), morbidity
and mortality statistics, including incidences of fat-
 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
related cancers (FRCs), and dietary intake and sources
of fats and oils were compared for Japanese, Mediter-
ranean and American people. Incidences of FRCs, ex-
cept for steeply increasing colon cancer, have remained
low in Japan. Similarly, Mediterranean people enjoy
relatively low risks of FRCs compared with American
people. The low risks of FRCs in Japanese could be
explained by limited intake of fats and oils as a whole,
and a low ratio of n
6 polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFAs) versus n
3 PUFAs through consumption of
the latter from marine foods. They also frequently
consume vegetables and fruit, and dietary fiber. Medi-
terranean people moderately consume fats and oils from
a large amount of olive oil, containing not only oleic
acid but also polyphenols (including flavonoids), a-
tocopherol and carotenoids (including carotene), which
are antioxidants and anti-carcinogenic as in red wine,
vegetables (including herbs) and fruit. The diet also
features medium intake of fish and shellfish along with
cereals/pasta/bread. From the standpoint of intake of
total fat, the low risks of FRCs in Japanese seem
‘‘plausible’’, while the low risks in Mediterranean people
may be termed ‘‘paradoxical.’’ The authors suggest that
a limited consumption of fats and oils, moderate intakes
of marine foods, and vegetables and fruit, in line with
a modest intake of energy may be advocated for
promoting health, prolonging life and prevention of
lifestyle-related diseases including FRCs.
In their conclusion study Trichopoulou and Vasi-
lopoulou (2000) indicate that a diet that adheres to the
principles of the traditional Mediterranean is associated
with longer survival. The Greek version of the Medi-
terranean diet is dominated by the consumption of olive
oil and by high consumption of vegetables and fruits.
Antioxidants are a common element in these foods and
an antioxidant action provides a plausible explanation
for the apparent benefits. These authors suggest that
wild edible greens frequently eaten in rural Greece in the
form of salads and pies contain very high quantities of
flavonoids that could be considerably higher than those
found in red wine or black tea. While there is no direct
evidence that these antioxidants are central to the ben-
efits of the Mediterranean Diet, indirect evidence from
epidemiological data and the increasing understanding
of their mechanisms of action suggest that antioxidants
may play a major role.
However, in one of the best known studies, Renaud
and de Lorgeril (1992) suggest an explanation of the
phenomenon particularly favourable to the French
population with regard to cardiovascular disease,
known as the ‘‘French Paradox’’, which was first de-
scribed in 1987 by Richard (Richard (1987)). The results
of the Monica program (1989), a worldwide CAD sur-
veillance system organised by the World Health Orga-
nization (WHO), confirm that mortality levels provoked
by coronary artery disease are much lower in France
235
than in other industrialised countries, even though the
consumption of saturated fats in France is much the
same and blood cholesterol levels are generally higher
(World Health Organisation (1989)). Furthermore,
other factors associated with risk of coronary artery
disease, such as arterial blood pressure, body weight and
smoking, are no lower in France than in the other
countries. This is the French Paradox.
Renaud and de Lorgeril used WHO and OECD data
to study which food parameters could be correlated with
cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality levels. Among
the numerous different foods, only the consumption of
dairy fats (between 1980 and 1985) showed positive
correlation with CVD mortality (1987 levels), but this
correlation was highly significant (r ¼ 0:73, P < 0:001).
However, although the consumption of dairy fats is the
same in France as in the UK, Australia and Germany,
mortality from coronary artery disease is lower in
France. Using multifactor analysis, Renaud and de
Lorgeril revealed that in 17 wine-drinking countries, the
only dietary factor correlating significantly with coro-
nary artery disease mortality, apart from dairy fats, was
wine (r ¼ 0:87, P < 0:001). Moreover, wine consump-
tion had a negative coefficient indicating a protective
effect. It was thus realised that the French case was not
paradoxical when wine consumption was taken into
account. In this study, the protection afforded by wine
consumption was also detected in Switzerland and other
industrialised countries. From this, attention turned to
the non-alcoholic fractions of wine.
Wine, particularly red wine, is an important source of
polyphenols which are capable of inhibiting the pro-
cesses behind coronary artery disease. This hypothesis is
supported by the results of recent epidemiological
studies concerning foodstuff polyphenols, particularly
flavonoids. A correlation was also noticed between in-
creasing levels of flavonoid ingestion from fruit and
vegetables and reduction in coronary artery disease. The
studies carried out by Hertog, Feskens, Hollman, Ka-
tan, and Kromhout (1993), Knekt, Jarvinen, Reunanen,
and Maatela (1996) and Rimm, Katan, Ascherio,
Stampfer, and Willett (1996) reveal the benefits of a diet
rich in flavonoids. Recently, the total dietary intakes of
10,054 men and women during the year preceding the
baseline examination were determined with a dietary
history method. Flavonoid intakes were estimated,
mainly on the basis of the flavonoid concentrations in
Finnish foods. The persons with higher quercetin in-
takes had lower mortality from ischemic heart disease.
The incidence of cerebrovascular disease was lower at
higher kaempferol, naringenin and hesperetin intakes.
Men with higher quercetin intakes had a lower lung
cancer incidence, and men with higher myricetin intakes
had a lower prostate cancer risk. Asthma incidence was
lower at higher quercetin, naringenin and hesperetin
intakes. A trend toward a reduction in risk of type 2
236 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
diabetes was associated with higher quercetin and my-
ricetin intakes. The risk of some chronic diseases may be
lower at higher dietary flavonoid intakes (Knekt et al.,
2002).
Despite emerging evidence of the role of flavonoids in
CVD prevention, the association remains unclear in
some studies. Recently, it was examined whether flavo-
noids and selected flavonols and flavones or their food
sources are associated with CVD risk. Women (n ¼ 38
445) free of CVD and cancer participated in a pro-
spective study with a mean follow-up of 6.9 year. On the
basis of a food-frequency questionnaire, total flavonoids
and selected flavonols and flavones were categorized
into quintiles, and food sources were categorized into
four groups. Relative risks were computed for important
vascular events (519 events; excluding revasculariza-
tions) and CVD (729 events), including myocardial in-
farction, stroke, revascularization and CVD death. The
mean flavonoid intake was 24.6  18.5 mg/day, primar-
ily as quercetin (70.2%). For both CVD and important
vascular events, no significant linear trend was observed
across quintiles of flavonoid intake (P ¼ 0:63 and 0.80,
respectively). No individual flavonol or flavone was as-
sociated with CVD. Broccoli and apple consumption
were associated with nonsignificant reductions in CVD
risk: 25–30% and 13–22%, respectively. A small pro-
portion of women (n ¼ 1185) consuming P 4 cups (946
mL) tea/day had a reduction in the risk of important
vascular events but with a nonsignificant linear trend
(P ¼ 0:07). In their conclusions Sesso, Gaziano, Liu,
and Buring (2003) indicate that flavonoid intake was not
strongly associated with a reduced risk of CVD. The
nonsignificant inverse associations for broccoli, apples
and tea with CVD were not mediated by flavonoids and
warrant further study.
Erlund, Meririnne, Alfthan, and Aro (2001) studied
intake of orange juice and grapefruit juice containing
high amounts of flavanones naringenin and hesperetin
able to exhibitestrogenic, anti-carcinogenic and antiox-
idative properties. Plasma kinetics and urinary excretion
of flavanones (naringenin and hesperetin) were devel-
oped. Healthy volunteers ingested orange juice (five
women and three men) or grapefruit juice (two women
and three men) once (8 mL/kg). Eleven blood samples
and urine were collected between 0 and 24 h after juice
administration. Flavanones were analyzed by HPLC
with electrochemical detection. Naringenin and hes-
peretin were bioavailable from the studied juices, but
interindividual variation in bioavailability was remark-
able. The resulting plasma concentrations were com-
paratively high, and the peak plasma concentrations
(Cmax ) were 0.6  0.4 lmol/L (means  SD) for na-
ringenin from orange juice and 6.0  5.4 lmol/L for
naringenin from grapefruit juice. The corresponding
value for hesperetin from orange juice was 2.2  1.6
lmol/L. The elimination half-lives were between 1.3 and
2.2 h, and therefore plasma concentrations reflect short-
term intake. The relative urinary excretion varied de-
pending on the flavanone source and dose and was
30.2  25.5% and 1.1  0.8% for naringenin from
grapefruit juice and orange juice, respectively, and
5.3  3.1% for hesperetin from orange juice. The con-
siderable difference in the relative urinary excretion of
naringenin from the two juices was most likely caused
by dose-dependent renal clearance rather than differ-
ences in bioavailability (as indicated by the similar Cmax -
to-dose ratios). The authors concluded that because of
the relatively high concentrations of flavanones in
plasma after ingestion of orange juice or grapefruit juice,
considerable health effects could ensue in individuals
consuming them regularly.
In another work, De Vries, Hollman, Van Amer-
sfoort, Olthof, and Katan (2001) studied the bioavail-
ability of flavonols (especially quercetin) from red wine,
in comparison with that from the major dietary sources,
yellow onions and black tea. Twelve healthy men con-
sumed 750 mL red wine, 50 g fried onions or 375 mL of
black tea, each for 4 days in random order. These sup-
plements provided similar amounts of quercetin (14–16
mg). There was a washout period of 3 days between each
period of supplementation. The plasma quercetin con-
centration after the consumption of wine was lower than
that after onions (P < 0:05) and not different from that
after tea. Urinary excretion of quercetin after wine did
not differ from that after onions and was higher than
that after tea (P < 0:05). It was concluded that flavonols
from red wine are absorbed. However, because one glass
of red wine provides fewer available flavonols than one
portion of onions or one glass of tea, red wine appears
to be a poorer source of flavonols than these other two
sources.
In parallel to these epidemiological and bioavail-
ability studies, biochemical data on wine flavonoids,
particularly catechins and procyanidins should be con-
sidered. Differences in the ability of wine, and other al-
coholic beverages, to protect against cardiovascular
disease could be explained by the specific action of
catechins and procyanidins and their metabolites from
wine, which are practically absent from other alcoholic
beverages.
3. Biochemical properties of catechins and procyanidins
3.1. Structure of catechins and procyanidins
(+)-Catechin and ())-epicatechin are the basic units
of this group. The procyanidins are formed from the
association of several of these monomeric units: 2–5
units for catechin oligomers, over 5 units for catechin
polymers (Fig. 1). The procyanidins differ in the position
and configuration of their monomeric linkages. The
 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245 237

(8)

(4)

(+)-Catechin (-)-Epicatechin

NAME STRUCTURE

Procyanidin B1 ( -)-epicatechin-(4-8)-(+)-catechin

Procyanidin B2 ( -)-epicatechin-(4-8)-(-)-epicatechin

Procyanidin B3 (+)-catechin-(4-8)-(+)-catechin

Procyanidin B4 (+)-catechin-(4-8)-(-)-epicatechin

Procyanidin C1 ( -)-epicatechin-(4-8)-(-)-epicatechin-(4-8)-(-)-epicatechin
Procyanidin C2 ( - )-epicatechin-(4-8)-(-)-epicatechin-(4-8)-(+)-catechin

Fig. 1. Catechins and Procyanidins structures.

structures of procyanidin dimers B1, B2, B3 and B4, and
trimers C1 and C2 are the best known.
3.2. Antioxidant and anti-aggregant properties
These molecules possess a structure that confers them
with an antioxidant property which can inhibit the
processes leading in the long term to atherosclerosis and
arterial thrombosis.
The flavonoids are the most lipophilic of the natural
antioxidants; but less so than a-tocopherol. The a-
tocopherol seems to be located in the lipid membrane
within the phospholipid bilayer while the flavonoids are
probably mainly located at the polar surface of the bi-
layer. The aqueous, i.e., transported in the plasma, free
radicals would therefore be captured more easily by the
flavonoids than by the less accessible a-tocopherol.
Thus, the flavonoids could be concentrated near to
the membranous surface of the low density lipoprotein
(LDL) particles, ready to capture the oxygenated
aqueous free radicals. They would in this way prevent
the consumption of lipophilic a-tocopherol and thus
delay oxidation of the lipids contained in the LDL.
Moreover, if, as research suggests, the initiation phase
and the propagation phase of lipid peroxidation take
place, respectively, at the surface and the interior of the
membranes, then the flavonoids could well hinder the
correct course of the reaction by limiting the initiation
phase.
Catechins and procyanidins have been shown in vitro
to be powerful inhibitors of LDL oxidation, more so
than a-tocopherol (Teissedre, Frankel, Waterhouse,
Peleg, & German, 1996). It was also demonstrated that
vitamins and especially flavonoids in common beverages
are powerful in vitro antioxidants which enrich lower
density lipoproteins and increase their oxidative resis-
tance after ex vivo spiking in human plasma (Vinson
et al., 1999). Catechins have been also shown to be in-
hibitors of platelet aggregation (Ruf et al., 1995) and in
Russo, Tedesco, Russo, Russo, Venezia, and Cicala
(2001) red wine polyphenols may reduce platelet aggre-
gability, and the effect of de-alcoholated red wine
(DRW) and its phenolic fractions on rat platelet ag-
gregation and cyclic AMP (c-AMP) content was evalu-
ates. DRW was fractionated into four classes of
phenolic compounds: phenolic acids (fraction 1),
procyanidins, catechins and monomeric anthocyanidins
(fraction 2), flavonols and resveratrol (fraction 3) and
polymeric anthocyanidins (fraction 4). The effect of each
fraction on ADP-induced rat platelet aggregation and c-
AMP content was compared with that of DRW and
pure phenolic compounds (quercetin, catechin, resvera-
trol and caffeic acid). DRW completely inhibited ADP-
induced platelet aggregation. Fraction 2 also showed a
significant anti-aggregating activity, whereas the effects
of fractions 3 and 4 and the pure phenolics were not
significant. A significant increase in platelet c-AMP
content was observed after the addition of DRW and
238 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
fraction 2. These data indicate that DRW and its cate-
chin–anthocyanidin fraction exert a significant effect on
platelet aggregation in vitro, perhaps by enhancing
platelet c-AMP levels.
Moreover, it has been shown that the consumption of
wine by humans leads to an increase in the antioxidant
capacity of plasma (Fuhrman, Lavy, & Aviram, 1995).
Other studies have been carried out on the antioxidant
activity – through inhibition of copper-catalysed oxi-
dation of human LDL – of a selection of Californian
wines, made from cabernet-sauvignon, merlot, zinfan-
del, petite syrah, pinot-noir, sauvignon blanc and char-
donnay. The relative inhibition of LDL oxidation
(calculated with respect to the total phenol concentra-
tion of each sample) varied from 46% to 100% for red
wines and from 3% to 6% for white wines (Frankel,
Waterhouse, & Teissedre, 1995). The antioxidant activ-
ity of wines made with long maceration times exclusively
from Rh^ one valley syrah and grenache varieties was
60% relative inhibition of LDL oxidation (Teissedre,
Waterhouse, & Frankel, 1995).
Comparison of these results with the different Cali-
fornian red wines showed that the Rhodanian wines
made from syrah and grenache gave values of relative
inhibition of human LDL oxidation identical to those of
cabernet–sauvignon but less than those of petite syrah
(80%) or merlot (74%). In contrast, the syrah wines
produced with short extractions gave a low mean value
of relative inhibition (16%) which is nevertheless 4 times
higher than that obtained for Californian white wines
(4.4%). It was deduced from this that each phenolic
compound of wine could play a role in the protection
against LDL oxidation.
In Brunet, Blade, Salvado, and Arola (2002) it was
also investigate that blood transport and identification
of principal plasma proteins in humans and rats bind to
monomeric catechin and procyanidins in red wine ex
vivo. After human and rat plasma and serum incubated
with (+)-catechin and procyanidins from grape seed, the
origin of red wine catechins, proteins were separated by
SDS–PAGE and native–PAGE to determine which
proteins bound to these compounds. The principal
protein that bound to (+)-catechin in each species was
sequenced. SDS–PAGE showed that (+)-catechin and
procyanidins mainly bound to a protein of about
80 kDa in rats and 35 kDa in humans. Their sequencing
indicated that these proteins were apo A-I in humans
and transferrin in rats. The fact that red wine procy-
anidins bind to both proteins suggests that they may
have a role in reverse cholesterol transport and in the
oxidizing action of iron.
An evaluation of the effect of supplementation with
procyanidins from Vitis vinifera on markers of oxidative
stress was realizes for 10 healthy volunteers received a
daily dose of 110 mg of procyanidins for 30 days in
Simonetti, Ciappellano, Gardana, Bramati, and Pietta
(2002) study. Fasting venous blood samples were taken
before and at the end of the supplementation period and
after 7 days of wash-out. The total antioxidant activity
and the plasma concentrations of a-tocopherol were not
modified. Conversely, the levels of a-tocopherol in red
blood cell membranes increased significantly from
1.8  0.1 to 2.8  0.2 mg/g. Similarly, the lymphocyte
oxidized DNA [8-oxo-7,8-dihydro-20 -deoxyguanosine/
20 -deoxyguanosine ratio] was reduced from 7.23  2.47
to 2.34  0.51, and the red blood cell membrane fatty
acid composition shifted to a higher level of polyun-
saturated fatty acids. On the basis of these results, it may
be suggested that dietary procyanidins exert their anti-
oxidant protection in vivo by sparing liposoluble vita-
min E and reducing DNA oxidative damage.
Moreover, Giovannelli, Testa, De Filippo, Cheynier,
Clifford, and Dolara (2000) reported in their study the
effect of an oral treatment with complex polyphenols
and tannins from red wine and tea on DNA oxidative
damage in the rat colon mucosa. Isolated colonocytes
were prepared from the colon mucosa of rats treated for
10 days with either wine complex polyphenols (57.2 mg/
kg/day) or thearubigin (40 mg/kg/day) by oral gavage.
Colonocyte oxidative DNA damage was analysed at the
single cell level using a modification of the comet assay
technique. The results show that wine complex po-
lyphenols and tannins induce a significant decrease
()62% for pyrimidine and )57% for purine oxidation) in
basal DNA oxidative damage in colon mucosal cells
without affecting the basal level of single-strand breaks.
On the other hand, tea polyphenols, namely a crude
extract of thearubigin, did not affect either strand breaks
or pyrimidine oxidation in colon mucosal cells. These
experiments are the first demonstration that dietary
polyphenols can modulate in vivo oxidative damage in
the gastrointestinal tract of rodents. These data support
the hypothesis that dietary polyphenols might have both
a protective and a therapeutic potential in oxidative
damage-related pathologies.
All the properties and studies reported support the
present hypotheses for explaining the reduced risk of
mortality from coronary artery disease in moderate and
regular consumers of wine (in particular red wine).
Although metabolism of polyphenols compounds
remains elusive, enteric absorption occurs sufficiently to
reduce plasma indices of oxidant status. The propensity
of a flavonoid to inhibit free-radical-mediated events is
governed by its chemical structure. Since these com-
pounds are based on the flavan nucleus, the number,
positions and types of substitutions influence radical
scavenging and chelating activity. The diversity and
multiple mechanisms of flavonoid action, together with
the numerous methods of initiation, detection and
measurement of oxidative processes in vitro and in vivo
offer plausible explanations for existing discrepancies in
structure–activity relationships. Despite some inconsis-
 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245 239

tent lines of evidence, several structure–activity rela- Quince

tionships are well established in vitro. Multiple hydroxyl Pomegranate

groups confer upon the molecule substantial antioxi- Plum

dant, chelating and prooxidant activity. Methoxy Pineapple

Pear Conferencia
groups introduce unfavorable steric effects and increase Pear Blanquilla
lipophilicity and membrane partitioning. A double bond Peach

and carbonyl function in the heterocycle or polymeri- Medlar

zation of the nuclear structure increases activity by Kiwi

Table Grape white

affording a more stable flavonoid radical through con-
Table Grape red
jugation and electron delocalization (Heim, Tagliaferro, Custard apple
& Bobilya, 2002). For Miller and Ruiz Larrea (2002), Early fig

flavonoids as a group have been referred to as ‘‘semi- Chestnut

essential’’ dietary component due to their ability to Strawberry tree fruit

Strawberry
protect vitamins C and E from oxidation in the growing
Redcurrant
plant, during food storage, cooking, digestion and ab- Raspberry
sorption, and in the circulation and body tissues. Cherry

However, Flavonoids also show non antioxidant bio- Blueberry

logical effects such as enzyme inhibition and electron/ Blackberry

Banana
proton exchange. These authors indicated that high
Apricot
potency flavonoid supplementation could be potentially Apple Red Delicious

toxic, pro-oxidant or mutagenic. Also, the evidence Apple Reinette

suggests that individuals should rely on dietary sources Apple Granny Smith

of these substances trough a plant-based diet rather than Apple Golden

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
supplementation. Further investigation of the metabo-
lism of these phytochemicals is justified to extend Fig. 2. Catechins in fruits (content mg/100 g fresh weight).
structure–activity relationships to preventive and ther-
apeutic nutritional strategies.
Chikpea

Wheat Flour

Chocolate
4. Catechin and procyanidin levels in foods and beverages Bee polen

Broad bean

Detailed quantitative information on the procyanidin White bean

profiles present in many food products is lacking. The Pinto bean

Lentil
compositional data are important for the initial under- French bean

standing of which foods contribute most to the dietary Tomato

intake of procyanidins and may be used to compile a Pepper green

database necessary to infer epidemiological relation-
ships to health and disease. In an analytical study by
Hammerstone, Lazarus, and Schmitz (2000), the
procyanidin content of red wine, chocolate, cranberry
juice and four varieties of apples has been determined.
On average, chocolate and apples contained the largest
procyanidin content per serving (164.7 and 147.1 mg,
respectively) compared with red wine and cranberry
juice (22.0 and 31.9 mg, respectively). However, the
procyanidin content varied greatly between apple sam-
ples (12.3–252.4 mg/serving) with the highest amounts
on average observed for the Red Delicious (207.7 mg/
serving) and Granny Smith (183.3 mg/serving) varieties
and the lowest amounts in the Golden Delicious (92.5
mg/serving) and McIntosh (105.0 mg/serving) varieties.
In an important study by De Pascual-Teresa, Santos-
Buelga, and Rivas-Gonzalo (2000) (Fig. 2 for fruits and
Fig. 3 for vegetables and other products), an HPLC
method, using detection after postcolumn derivatization
with p-dimethylaminocynnamaldehyde (DMACA), was
Pepper red
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Fig. 3. Catechins levels in vegetables and other products (content
mg/100 g fresh weight).
developed for the quantitative analysis of individual
flavanols in food. This method was applied to flavanol
determination in 56 different kinds of Spanish food
products, including fruit, vegetables, legumes, beverages
(cider, coffee, beer, tea and wine) and chocolate. The
determined compounds corresponded to the catechins
and proanthocyanidin dimers and trimers usually pres-
ent in food and, therefore, they were representative of the
flavanols of low degree of polymerization consumed with
the diet. Similar flavanol profiles were found in the dif-
ferent samples of a similar type of product, even though
important variations could exist in the concentrations of
total and individual flavanols among them. This was
attributed to factors such as sample origin, stage of
ripeness, post-harvesting conservation and processing.
240 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245

Total flavanol contents varied from nondetectable in
most of the vegetables to 184 mg/100 g found in a sample
of broad bean. Other products contain: 7 mg/100 g
chocolate and pinto bean, 3 mg/100 g for lentil. Sub-
stantial amounts were also found in some fruits, such as
plum 49 mg/100 g and apples from 10 to 43 mg/100 g, as
well as in tea 25–43 mg/100 mL and red wine. Strawberry
and others berries contains between 5 and 20 mg/100 g,
peach 8 mg/100 g and cherry 13 mg/100 g. Epicatechin
was the most abundant flavanol, followed by catechin
and procyanidin B2. In general, catechins were found
in all the flavanol-containing products, but the presence
of gallocatechins was only relevant in pomegranate,
broad bean, lentil, grape, wine, beer and tea, and most of
the berries. Galloyled flavanols were only detected in
strawberry, medlar, grape and tea.
Grapes used for winemaking contains levels of cate-
chins reported by Bourzeix et al. in 1986 (Table 1). The
average of total catechins was found of 377 mg/kg Fresh
weight with a variability between 94 (carignane) to 1165
mg/kg F.W (pinot-noir). The catechins average reparti-
tion in grapes was 65% in the seeds, 20% in stems and
14% in skins. Analytical studies on flavonoids in wine
revealed that this beverage contains high levels and that
the different wine-making techniques varieties and area
of production are important factors (Archier, Cohen, &
Roggero, 1992; Bourzeix, Weyland, & Heredia, 1986;
Waterhouse & Teissedre, 1997). In a more recent study
of Carando and Teissedre (1999), the catechins and
procyanidins content of wines (n ¼ 160) from all French
regions made from diverse varieties and using varied
vinification techniques – i.e., an analysis reflecting the
great diversity of French wines was achieved with au-
thentic standards extracted and certified by Teissedre
et al. (1996) with HPLC analytical conditions used by
Lamuela-Raventos and Waterhouse (1994). The results
obtained (Table 2) were used to evaluate the catechin
and procyanidin intake from regular, moderate wine
consumption.
Red wines had generally much higher levels of
phenolics than white wines. This difference is the result
of different wine-making techniques. The catechins in
grapes, present mainly in the pips, diffuse into the must
during the course of maceration. The maceration phase
constitutes a fundamental difference in the vinification
of red and white wine. It is essential for the production

Table 1
Catechins levels in grapes
Varieties Catechins (mg/kg) % in Stems % in Seeds % in Skins % in Pulp
Alicante-bouschet 551 15 64 10 11
Cabernet-sauvignon 344 10 83 7 T
Carignane 94 27 54 19 T
Cinsault 154 47 37 9 T
White grenache 144 17 51 32 T
Grenache-noir 173 25 64 11 T
Merlot 601 9 81 11 T
Mourvedre 171 25 58 17 T
Pinot-noir 1165 4 94 2 T
Colobel (hybride) 862 8 79 7 6
Average 377 20 65 14 1
T, traces.

Table 2
Mean concentrations of catechins in french wines
Compound Mean concentration (mg/L)
Red wines, n ¼ 95a White wines, n ¼ 57a Ros
e wines, n ¼ 8a
(+)-Catechin 114.5 (32.8–209.8)b 9.8 (4.4–13.6) 10.6 (4.7 –13.3)
())-Epicatechin 75.5 (22.1–130.4) 5.3 (2.7–8.5) 6.5 (2.7–9.5)
Procyanidin dimer B1 119.6 (21.4–215.6) NF NF
Procyanidin dimer B2 47.4 (18.3–93) NF NF
Procyanidin dimer B3 25.4 (7.8–39.1) NF NF
Procyanidin dimer B4 81.9 (20.2–107.2) NF NF
Procyanidin trimer C1 26.3 (8.6–38.5) NF NF
Procyanidin trimer C2 67.1 (26.7–79.3) NF NF
Total catechins 557.7 15.1 17.1
NF, not found.
a
Number of wines.
b
Minimum to maximum level.
 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Coffee Soluble Tea Black Tea Wine red Wine rosé
Cacao Green
Fig. 4. Catechins levels in beverages (content mg/100 mL).
of red wine and is deliberately avoided for the produc-
tion of white, where rapid pressing separates the liquid
phase from the solid matter.
Thus, the red wines studied had high overall levels of
catechins (sum of monomers, procyanidin dimers and
trimers analysed) – 557.9 mg/L, but there were consid-
erable differences between the red wines. Levels in the
white and ros
e wines were lower: 15.2 and 17.1 mg/L,
respectively.
All the compounds studied were present in each of
the 95 red wines analysed. For the monomers, the mean
concentration (sum of (+)-catechin and ())-epicatechin)
was 190.2 mg/L. The quantity of procyanidin dimers
(sum of B1, B2, B3 and B4) was 274.3 mg/L and that of
procyanidin trimers (sum of C1 and C2) was 93.4 mg/L.
The white wines (n ¼ 57) and ros
e wines (n ¼ 8) showed
low concentrations of monomers (15.1 and 17.1 mg/L,
respectively). The mean contents of catechin monomers,
procyanidin dimers and trimers and for each compound
is also indicated in Table 2.
The presence of dimers and trimers in the white and
ros
e wines could not be determined through direct in-
jection in HPLC since the levels of these compounds
were at the limit of detection by UV. In Fig. 4 we
compare the levels of catechins and procyanidins from
different kinds of beverages with results obtained by De
Pascual-Teresa et al. (2000) and Carando and Teissedre
(1999) and it appears clearly that major sources are: red
wine (55.7 mg/100 mL), green tea (42 mg/100 mL) and
black tea ( 25 mg/100 mL). Beer, coffee and white wine
indicated the lowest levels.
5. Estimation of catechin and procyanidin intake in
moderate wine consumers in France
Over the last few years, the consumption of wine in
France has fallen considerably. In 1986, the mean con-
241
sumption was 305 mL/person/day (Darret, Couzy,
Antoine, Magliola, & Mareschi, 1986). This level fell
sharply to 180 mL/person/day in 1995 (Boulet, Laporte,
Aigrin, & Lalanne, 1995). An estimation of the intake of
catechins and procyanidins was calculated from these
latest consumption figures and our own analytical results
on the catechin (monomers, dimers, trimers) content of
160 wines. Although the levels of these compounds vary
considerably from one wine to another, the regular
consumption of the different products available to the
consumer tends toward a mean value which we consid-
ered to be close to that calculated for the 160 wines.
For this reason, this estimation can only be consid-
Wine Beer ered for regular consumption of different wines over a
white
sufficiently long period of time (which remains to be
determined statistically). The consumption of 180 mL of
red wine for which the mean catechin and procyanidin
concentration is 557.9 mg/L gives a mean daily intake of
100.4 mg of these compounds. This reasoning applied to
each type of wine (red, white and ros
e) for regular
(daily), moderate (180 mL) consumption gives estima-
tions of catechin and procyanidin intake of 100.4 mg for
red wines, 2.7 mg for white wines and 3.1 mg for ros
e
wines. These results are in agreement with other results
obtained by Teissedre and Landrault (2000) in function
of red varieties wineswith an average of catechin and
procyanidin daily intake of 50 mg/person for syrah to
130 mg for egiodola.
6. Fate of catechins and procyanidins in the plasma after
foods and beverages consumption
Although epidemiological studies note a correlation
between the reduction of risk of coronary artery disease
and the regular, moderate consumption of wine, no
causal relationship has been demonstrated. The flavo-
noids from foods and beverages constitute a consider-
able LDL antioxidant and platelet anti-aggregant
potential, but it is difficult to know whether this po-
tential is slightly, partially or totally realised during
metabolism. It would appear necessary, therefore, to
supply irrefutable biochemical proof of the envisaged
protective mechanisms. Although compounds such as
(+)-catechin, ())-epicatechin, procyanidin dimers B1,
B2, B3, B4 and trimers C1, C2 inhibit LDL oxidation in
vitro (Teissedre et al., 1996), no account can be taken of
the large variability in the composition of blood plasma
in order to verify whether these compounds or their
metabolites can be sufficiently active in vivo to afford
protection, even though epidemiological studies suggest
that they do. Current research concerns the fate of these
compounds in human plasma after wine consumption.
The intestinal flora (which varies in function of the
environment of the population groups) is likely to
metabolise some of these compounds. The first step
242 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
consists of identifying the intact molecules and/or their
metabolites in the plasma. This analysis is very delicate
to carry out since these compounds have different sta-
bilities depending on the physical and biological condi-
tions. A method associates a simple, rapid phase of
plasma sample preparation with a highly sensitive de-
tection method: fluorescence (Carando, Teissedre, &
Cabanis, 1998). This method has enabled us to identify
(+)-catechin in plasma and to quantify it for several
persons having consumed wine with their meal with a
very large variability in plasma (+)-catechin concentra-
tions (260–810 ng/mL). It was found in Ruidavets, Te-
issedre, Carando, Ferrieres, and Cabanis (2000) that in
182 subjects consuming Mediterranean foodstuffs, the
highest concentration level of (+)-catechin in plasma
was observed when wine, fruit and vegetable were con-
sumed. Among these vegetal foodstuffs, red wine ap-
pears to be the most effective to produce this effect in a
sample of free-living population in the south of France.
If as, reported, antioxidant flavonoids, especially cate-
chin and procyanidins, have a significant protective
effect against CHD red wine and some fruits and vege-
tables, owing to their flavonoids, may provide the
highest protection among all the Mediterranean food-
stuffs which have been tested.
As it has been indicated early (Das & Griffiths, 1969),
the dependance of the bacteriological intestinal flora can
contribute to several possible metabolites from pheno-
lics that can be formed and absorbedas phenolics acids
(free or as sulfate or glucuronides conjugates) or lac-
tones derivatives.
Catechins monomers metabolisms studies from food
and beverages are in agreement. In Yang, Chen, Lee,
Balentine, Kuo, and Schantz (1998), human blood and
urina levels of catechins after decaffeinated green tea
solids intake in water: 1.5, 3 and 4.5 g by human subjects
were investigated and maximum plasma concentrations
of 326 ng/mL of epigallocatechin-3-gallate, 550 ng/mL
of epigallocatechin and 190 ng/mL of epicatechin ap-
pears at 1.4 and 2.4 h. An excretion of epigallocatechin
and epicatechin in urina of 90% of the total amount
excreted within 8 h was also found. In another study by
Pietta, Simonetti, Gardana, Brusamolino, Morazzoni,
and Bombardelli (1998) catechin after green tea intake
by humans volunteers were detemined with a maximum
plasma concentration of 2 lM. Urina at 6 or 48 h
contained catechin metabolites (total content 60 mg):
hydroxybenzoic acid, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid,
3,methoxy-4-hydroxyhippuric acid and 3,methoxy-4-
hydroxybenzoic acid.
To assess the blood concentration of catechins fol-
lowing green or black tea ingestion and the effect of
addition of milk to black tea, Van Het Hof, Kivits,
Weststrate, and Tijburg (1998) gave 12 volunteers (seven
females and five males) a single dose (3 g) of tea solids
from green tea, black tea and black tea with milk in a
randomized cross-over design with one-week intervals.
Blood samples were drawn before and up to 8 h after tea
consumption. The consumption of green tea (0.9 g total
catechins) or black tea (0.3 g total catechins) resulted in
a rapid increase of catechin levels in blood with an av-
erage maximum change from baseline (CVM) of 0.46
lmol/L (13%) after ingestion of green tea and 0.10 lmol/
L (13%) in case of black tea. These maximum changes
were reached after (mean (SEM)) t ¼ 2:3 h (0.2) and
t ¼ 2:2 h (0.2) for green and black tea, respectively.
Blood levels rapidly declined with an elimination rate
(mean (CVM)) of t1=2 ¼ 4:8 h (5%) for green tea and
t1=2 ¼ 6:9 h (8%) for black tea. Addition of semi-
skimmed milk to black tea (100 mL in 600 mL ) did not
significantly affect the blood catechin levels (areas under
the curves (mean CVM)) of 0.53 h lmol/L (11%) vs 0.60
h lmol/L (9%) for black tea and black tea with milk,
respectively. Catechins from green tea and black tea
were rapidly absorbed and milk does not impair the
bioavailability of tea catechins.
Warden, Smith, Beecher, Balentine, and Clevidence
(2001) reported clinical data demonstrating that bio-
availability of the individual catechins and other poly-
phenolic components of tea are limited. This study
assessed the apparent bioavailability of the prominent
catechins from black tea in humans drinking tea
throughout the day. After 5 days of consuming a low
flavonoid diet, subjects drank a black tea preparation
containing 15.48, 36.54, 16.74 and 31.14 mg of ())-epi-
gallocatechin (EGC), ())-epicatechin (EC), ())-epigal-
locatechin gallate (EGCG) and ())-epicatechin gallate
(ECG), respectively, at four time points (0, 2, 4 and 6 h).
Blood, urine and fecal specimens were collected over a
24- to 72-h period and catechins were quantified by
HPLC with coularray detection. Plasma concentrations
of EGC, EC and EGCG increased significantly relative
to baseline (P < 0:05). Plasma EGC, EC and EGCG
peaked after 5 h, whereas ECG peaked at 24 h. Urinary
excretion of EGC and EC, which peaked at 5 h, was
increased relative to baseline amounts (P < 0:05) and
fecal excretion of all four catechins was increased rela-
tive to baseline (P < 0:05). Approximately 1.68% of in-
gested catechins were present in the plasma, urine and
feces, and the apparent bioavailability of the gallated
catechins was lower than the nongallated forms. Thus,
catechins were bioavailable. However, unless they are
rapidly metabolized or sequestered, the catechins ap-
peared to be absorbed in amounts that were small rel-
ative to intake.
(+)-Catechin metabolism following red wine intake
(120mL containing 34 mg of catechin/subject) was
studied by Donovan, Bell, and Waterhouse (1999). A
maximum plasma level of 80 nmol was found for cate-
chin at 1, 3 h, and 20 nmol for a metabolite: 30 -O-
methylcatechin. The levels were found independant of
ethanol presence but total catechin between individuals
 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
varied from 50 to 176 nmol. In the case of chocolate,
Wang et al. (2000) demonstrated that ())-epicatechin
was present in human plasma following a consumption
of 27, 53 or 80 g of chocolate (5.3 total procyanidin mg/
g) of which 1.3 mg was ())-epicatechin. A maximum
plasma average levels at 2 h for ())-epicatechin with:
133, 258 and 355 nmol/L were found for the respec-
tive doses of chocolate consumption for 20 subjects.
Dose-dependant increases in plasma epicatechin were
associated with increases in antioxidant capacity and
reduction in lipid oxidation.
Procyanidins metabolism is more controversial than
for catechins monomers. For example, Donovan,
Manach, Rios, Morand, Scalbert, and Remesy (2002)
gave procyanidin B3 (20 mg) and grape seed extracts
(200 or 400 mg) containing catechin, epicatechin and
procyanidins dimers B1, B2, B3 and B4 to rats in a
single meal and realized after 3, 9 and 24 h an analysis of
plasma and urine. Catechin and epicatechin were pres-
ent in free and conjugated forms in plasma (20 and 15
lmol/L) and urine (30–45% excreted). But procyanidins
were not detected in plasma and urine and were not
cleaved into bioavailable monomers. In another study
by Spencer, Schroeter, Shenoy, Srai, Debnam, and Rice-
Evans (2001), epicatechin was found to be a primary
bioavailable form of procyanidin dimers B2 and B5
(extracted from cocoa powder) after transfer across the
small intestine. Dimers B2 and B5 (1%) were transferred
to the serosal part of enterocytes. The perfusion of di-
mers resulted in 95.8% of unmetabolised/unconjugated
epicatechin monomer on the serosal side and 3.2% of
methylated dimer was found. The methylation of dimer
was realized by catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT).
Another investigation concerns procyanidin dimer B2
absorption (extracted from cocoa powder) by Baba,
Oakabe, Natsume, and Terao (2002). An oral adminis-
tration of dimer B2: 50 mg/kg to Sprague–Dawley male
rats was realized with collection of bloods samples at 30
min, 1, 2, 3 and 5 h, and urine from 0 to 18 h. Specific
enzymes as sulfatase and b-glucuronidase were used to
treat plasma and urine prior to extraction analysis to
research catechins and procyanidins. The use of HPLC-
MS conducted to maximum peak levels of procyanidin
B2 (0.5 lM), epicatechin (0.2 lM) and 30 -O-methylepi-
catechin (0.15 lM) found at 30 min in plasma. Identi-
fication by HPLC-MS permited to detect procyanidin
B2 (83 nmol/L), epicatechin (free 12.5 nmol/L or con-
jugated 29.6 nmol/L) and 30 -O-methylepicatechin (free
12.8 nmol/L or conjugated 13.9 nmol/L) excreted in
urine within 18 h.
Recently Yamakoshi, Saito, Kataoka, and Tokutake
(2002) observed the effect of procyanidins on cataract
formation. The anti-cataract activity of grape seed
extract (GSE, which contains 38.5% procyanidins) in
hereditary cataractous rats (ICR/f rats) was tested. The
ICR/f rats were fed a standard diet containing 0 or
243
0.213% GSE [0.082% procyanidins in the diet (w/w)] for
27 days. The GSE significantly prevented and postponed
development of cataract formation by evaluation of slit
lamp observations of the rats eyes. Lens weight and
malondialdehyde concentration in the lens and plasma
cholesteryl ester hydroperoxide (ChE-OOH) level in-
duced by CuSO4 were significantly lower in the GSE
group compared with the control group. The rats were
also fed for 14 days either the diet containing 0.085%
procyanidin dimer to tetramer fraction (0.085% as the
procyanidins), the diet containing 0.090% procyanidin
pentamer to heptamer fraction (0.085% as the procy-
anidins), or the diet containing 0.093% procyanidin
oligomers more than decamer fraction (0.085% as the
procyanidins). The ChE-OOH levels in the procyanidin
pentamer to heptamer and procyanidin oligomers more
than decamer groups were significantly lower than in the
procyanidin dimer to tetramer group. These results
suggested that procyanidins and their antioxidative
metabolites prevented the progression of cataract for-
mation by their antioxidative action. The larger molec-
ular procyanidins in the GSE might contribute to this
anti-cataract activity.
7. Conclusions and prospects
This estimation of catechin and procyanidin intake
need to be investigate in function of nutrition type.
Furthermore, it would be desirable to extend this esti-
mation to the non-flavonoid components of foods and
beverages. However, it will also be very important in the
future to obtain data on the fate and bio-availability of
these compounds in the plasma. Catechins and procy-
anidins contribute to dietary intake of antioxidants. A
lot of various catechins and procyanidins can be found
in mediterranean diets. The richest products in catechins
and procyanidins are: red wine, teas, fruits (as plum,
apples, strawberry, cherry and others berries, peach),
beans and grains (particularly broad bean, lentil and
chocolate). Further research will focus on the identifi-
cation and quantification of new procyanidins (trimers,
tetramers, pentamers, etc.) and their potential antioxi-
dant activity in foods and beverages. The maximum
intake of catechins and procyanidins is observed with
red wine around 100 mg/day/person. Catechins mono-
mers: (+)-catechin and ())-epicatechin are absorbed
with formation of specific metabolites. Metabolism of
procyanidins is actually unclear and more research is
needed concerning this class of flavonoids. Are procy-
anidins directly absorbed, metabolised/conjugated or
cleaved in monomers? All catechins, procyanidins and
metabolites absorbed can contribute to increased anti-
oxidant capacity of plasma. Their cardioprotective ef-
fects stem from the ability to inhibit lipid peroxidation,
244 C. Auger et al. / Food Research International 37 (2004) 233–245
chelate redox-active metals and attenuate other pro-
cesses involving reactive oxygen species.
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