Physics Basics

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD
I & II Sem
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
For the measurement of length usually meter scales are used with an accuracy
upto millimeters. To measure length say 1/100th of a centimeter (or) 1/100th of a
millimeter, it is not possible to measure accurately using meter scale. Hence the
following instruments are used for more accuracy.
1. Vernier Calipers (Accuracy upto 1/100th of cm)
2. Screw gauge (Accuracy upto 1/100th of mm)
1. VERNIER CALIPERS
Design of the Instrument
It consists of two scales viz, main scale and vernier scale. The main scale is a
long steel bar graduated in inches on the top and in centimeters on the bottom. 10 main
scale divisions are equal to 1cm. The vernier scale has 10 divisions which are equal to
9 main scales divisions. There are two metal jaws A & B. A is fixed and B is movable
which can be fixed at any position using the screw(s) as shown in figure A-1.
Fig. 1. Vernier Caliper

The projections P1 and P2 of the jaws in the upward direction is used to measure
the internal diameter of the calorimeter, cylinder, etc.
Least Count
Least count of vernier calipers is defined as the smallest length that can be
accurately measured and is equal to the difference between the main scale division
(MSD) and the vernier scale division (VSD).
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Derivation
No Zero Error
To find the zero error of the vernier calipers, the two
jaws A and B brought in contact with each other. If the zero
of the vernier scale coincides with the zero of the main
scale then there is no zero error (Fig. A-2). Hence there is
no need to apply zero correction.
Positive Zero Error
If the zero of the vernier scale lies on the right side the zero of the main scale,
then the instrument has an error called positive zero error (Fig. A-3). This error should
be subtracted from the final reading. Thus, the zero correction is negative.
Example
If the 4th vernier division coincides with any of the mani scale division, then zero
error = Vernier Scale coincidence x Least count
= VSC x LC
= 4 x 0.01 = 0.04 cm
Zero Correction
= - 0.04 cm
Negative Zero Error

If the zero the vernier lies on the left side of the zero
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of main scale, then the instrument is said to have an error called negative zero error (fig.
A-4). This error should be added to the final reading. Thus, the zero correction is
positive.
Example
If the 6th division of the vernier coincides with any of the main scale division, then
Zero Error
count
= - (no. of vernier scale divisions Vernier scale coincidence) x Least

= - (10-6) x 0.01 cm
= - 4 x 0.01 = - 0.04 cm
Zero Correction
= 0.04 cm
To find the length of the specimen

The specimen whose length (or) outer diameter is to be determined is held
between the two jaws. The position of zero of the vernier on the main scale gives the
main scale reading (MSR). The vernier division which coincides with any one of the
main scale division gives the vernier scale coincidence
(VSC), then
Observed reading (OR)
= MSR+ (VSC X LC) in cms
Actual (or) correct Reading = OR Zero Correcti0n in cms

Example
OR = 1.2 + (3 x 0.01) cm
(Zero Error = Nil)
CR = 1.23 cm
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2. SCREW GAUGE
Fig. 2
It consists of two scales namely pitch scale and head scale. Pitch scale is a
millimeter scale engraved on the cylinder (C), which is rigidly attached with the frame (f).
The head scale carrier 100 equal divisions. The specimen can be held in-between the
two edges A (fixed) and B (movable) shown in fig. B-1.
Derivation of Least count
LC
Pitch =
Pitch/No. of head scale divisions

Distance moved on the pitch scale / No. of head scale rotations
To find pitch the head is given say, two rotations and the distance moved by the head
on the pitch scale is noted
Pitch =
2mm/2 = 1 mm
Number of head scale division = 100

LC
1/100 mm
LC
0.01 mm
To find zero error

To find zero error the stud A and the tip B are kept in contact. If
the zero of the head scale coincides with zero of the pitch scale on
the reference line, the instrument is said to have no zero error.
Positive zero error
If the zero of the head scale lies below the reference line of the pitch scale, the
zero error is positive and the correction in negative.
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Example
If the 5th division of the head scale coincides with the
reference line of the pitch scale then
Zero error
Zero Correction
head scale coincidence x Least count
2 x 0.01 mm
0.02 mm
-0.02 mm
Negative zero error

If the zero of the head scale lies above the reference line of the pitch scale the
zero error is negative and the correction is positive.
Example
If the 95th division of the head scale coincides with reference line of
the pitch scale then,
Zero error
- (100 head scale coincidence) x least count
- (100 96) x 0.01 mm
- 0.04 mm
Zero correction
0.04 mm
To find the diameter of the given wire

The wire is gripped gently between the faces A and B. The number of pitch scale
divisions just in front of the head scale gives the pitch scale reading. The division on the
head scale that coincides with the reference line gives the head scale coincidence. The
readings are noted and are tabulated.
Example
Suppose if the PSR =
5mm
H.S.C
35 div.
HSR
HSC x L.C.
Observed reading
PSR + HSR = 5 + 0.35 = 5.35 mm
= 35 x0.01 = 0.35 mm
If the zero error is 0.04 mm, then the zero correction is 0.04 mm,
Correct reading
ORZC
(5.35-0.04) mm
5.31 mm
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C. TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
Travelling Microscope consists of an ordinary compound microscope which
slides along a graduated vertical pillar, attached to horizontal base resting on the
leveling screws. The main scales divisions along with vernier scale divisions are marked
on the horizontal base and the vertical pillar as shown in fig.
The microscope can be moved up and down in the vertical pillar and can be
moved in to and fro direction
over the horizontal base.
Thus the microscope can be
moved both in the vertical
and horizontal directions.
Two fine adjustment screws
are
provided
for
the
horizontal
and
vertical
movements respectively.
The image of the
object can be focused by
adjusting the side screw (S)
attached to the microscope.
The eye piece of the
microscope is provided with
a cross wire.
The main scale is
divided into millimeter and
half a millimeter. Therefore
the value of one main scale
division (MSD) is 0.5 mm.
The vernier scale of the
travelling microscope is
divided into 50 divisions
which are equivalent to 49
main scale divisions.
Least count Derivation
LC
MSD 1 VSD
1
Fig. 3 Travelling Microscope
20 MSD
1 cm
1 MSD
1/20 cm
49 MSD
Here 50 VSD

1 VSD
49/50 MSD (or) 49/50 (1/20) cm
1 VSD
49/1000 cm
LC
(1/20 49/1000) cm
1/1000 cm
0.001 cm
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D. MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES
Spectrometer Design of the instrument
Spectrometer consists of collimator (c) telescope (T), prism table (p) and vernier
table as shown fig D- 1. The collimator consists of a convex lens fixed at one end and a
slit of adjustable width on the other end.
The telescope consists of an objective (O) at one end and an eye piece fixed with
the cross wires on the other end. The prism table consists of two circular disc connected
by three leveling screws. The vernier tables has two verniers VA and VB each having
main scale and vernier scale. Here one main scale division is equal to half a degree.
Each vernier scale has 30 divisions, which is equal to 29 main scale divisions.
Fig. 4 Spectrometer
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Initial adjustments
(i)
Eye piece adjustment: The eye piece (E) is adjusted until the cross wires are
clearly seen when viewed through the telescope.
(ii)
Distant object method: A clear, well defined inverted and diminished image of a
distance object is seen by adjusting the telescope.
(iii) Slit adjustment: The slit is made narrow with the help of the screw, provided
aside of the slit .
(iv) Collimator adjustment: The telescope is brought on line with the collimator. The
slit is illuminated by a source of light. If the image of the slit appears
blurred, then the screw of the collimator is adjusted until a clear image
is seen when viewed through the telescope. Now the rays of light
emerging from the collimator will be rendered parallel.
(v)
Prism table adjustment: The spirit level is placed on the prism table, parallel to
the line joining any two leveling screws. The air bubble in the spirit
level is brought to the centre by adjusting the two screws. It is then
placed in a perpendicular direction and the air bubble is brought at the
centre by adjusting the third screw. Now the prism table will be
horizontal.
(vi) Spectrometer base: The base of the spectrometer is adjusted to the horizontal
with the help of the three leveling screws.
Least count
LC
1 MSD 1 VSD
1 MSD
degree
30 VSD
29 MSD
1 VSD
29/30 MSD
1 VSD
29/30 x degree
1 VSD
29/60 degree
LC
(1/2-29/60) degree
(30-29)/60 degree
1/60 degree
Since 60
1/60
LC
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Measurement
Before doing any experiment using spectrometer, the above mentioned initial
adjustments have to be made. While performing the experiment, the main scale and
vernier scale readings are noted from both the verniers in VA and VB in degree and
minutes.
2010-2011
Fig.5. Different order of spectrum
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Date:
1. a. PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINAION USING

DIODE LASER
Aim
To determine the size of the given particle using the laser source.
Apparatus requited
A laser source, laser grating, given particle, screen, scale, optical fibre, numerical
aperture measurement Jig. etc.
Formula
Explanation of symbols
Symbol
Explanation
Wavelength of the laser source
Order of spectrum
Unit
A
Unit
Ym
Distance of mth order from Zeroth order
metre
D1
Distance between the particle and the screen
metre
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To fine the size of the given particle
Wavelength of the given laser source = A
Ym
S.No.
Unit
LHS
RHS
Mean
Ym
X102
m
X102
m
X102
m
Order (m)
No.
Y2m
D21
Y2m +
D21
X10-4m2
X10-4m2
X10-2m
Metre
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
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Theory
A device for producing spectra by diffraction is known as diffraction grating. While
producing diffraction spectra using the particle, the size of the particle should be
comparably equal to the wavelength of the source. The diffracted wave undergoes
constructive and destructive interference effect. The intensities of the spectra depend
up to the diffraction angle. By measuring the diffraction angle interms of orders of
spectra. The wavelength of the given laser source and the size of the particle can be
determined.
Procedure
To find the size of the given particle
Now the laser grating is removed and the size of the particle of be found is
introduced. The laser source is switched ON and the light is made offal on the particle.
The screen is moved back and forth until the clear image of the spectrum is seen and
the distance between the screen and the particle (D1) is noted. Due to diffraction of
laser light by the particle, different orders of spectrum are obtained as shown in fig. 3
The positions Y1, Y2, Y3 of the spots belonging to the first order, second order,
third order etc. on either side of the central maximum are noted in similar way as noted
above. Them by using the given formula the size of the particle can be determined.
Result:
The size of the given particle = .. meter.
VIVA VOCE
1. Define the term Diffraction, with its conditions.
2. What is meant by grating element?
3. Is the diffraction possible if laser light is replaced by ordinary light for the same
particle? Explain.
4. What happens to the order of spectrum, if the distance between the particle and
the screen is increased?
5. Will the laser undergo diffraction through ordinary grating? Explain.
6. What will happen to the order of spectrum if the size of the particle is decreased?
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Fig.6.
Fig. 7.
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1. b. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER USING

GRATING
Aim
To determine Wavelength of the given laser source, using a laser grating.
Apparatus requited
A laser source, laser grating, screen, scale, optical fibre, numerical aperture
measurement Jig. etc.
Formula
Symbol
Explanation
Wavelength of the laser source
Order of spectrum
Unit
A
Unit
Ym
Distance of mth order from Zeroth order
metre
D1
Distance between the particle and the screen
metre
Number of rulings in the grating
Lines/metre
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(i) To find the wavelength of the laser source

Number of rulings in the grating =
S.No.
Unit
Ym
Order
(m)
LHS
No.
X10-2m
Y2m
D21
Y2m +
D21
RHS
Mean
Ym
X10-2m
X10-2m
X10-4m2
X10-4m2
X10-2m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
(ii) To find the Angle of Divergence () using Laser source

S.No.
Distance between laser

and screen (X 10-2 m )
Radius of circular
image (X 10-2 m )
d1 =
r1=
d2=
r2=
Angle of divergence
= r2-r1/d2-d1 (degree)
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Theory
A device for producing spectra by diffraction is known as diffraction grating. While
producing diffraction spectra using the particle, the size of the particle should be
comparably equal to the wavelength of the source. The diffracted wave undergoes
constructive and destructive interference effect. The intensities of the spectra depend
upto the diffraction angle. By measuring the diffraction angle interms of orders of
spectra. The wavelength of the given laser source and the size of the particle can be
determined.
Procedure
(i)
To find wavelength of the laser source
The laser source and the laser grating are mounted on separate stands as shown
in fig. 1 fixed distance (D) is kept between the laser grating and the screen. The laser
source is switched ON and the beam of laser is allowed to fall on the laser grating. The
diffracted beams are collected on the screen. The diffracted beams are in the form of
spots as shown in fig. 2.
In the figure 2, the intensity of the irradiance is found to decrease, from zeroth
order to higher orders, i.e. the first order is brighter than the second order and so on.
The positions Y1, Y2, Y3 of the spots belonging to the first order, second order, third
order etc., on either side of the central maximum are marked on the screen and is
noted.
The experiment is repeated for various values of D and the positions of the spots
are noted. Then by using the given formula the wavelength of the source can be
calculated and the mean is taken.
(ii)
To find the angle of a divergence ()
Angle of divergence given the angular spread of the laser beam. A simple
diagrammatic explanation of finding the angle of divergence show in fig. 3.
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Result
(a)
The wavelength of the given laser source = A
(b)
Angle of Divergence of the Laser beam= .. Degrees.
VIVA VOCE
1. Define the term Diffraction, with its conditions.
2. What is meant by grating element?
3. Is the diffraction possible if laser light is replaced by ordinary light for the same
particle? Explain.
4. What happens to the order of spectrum, if the distance between the particle and
the screen is increased?
5. Will the laser undergo diffraction through ordinary grating? Explain.
6. What will happen to the order of spectrum if the size of the particle is decreased?
7. What is meant by Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle?
8. What is the principle used in the propagation of light through optical fibres?
9. What are the parts of an optical fibre?
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Fig. 8.
Fig. 9. Experimental setup for Numerical Aperture
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Date:
1. c. DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

OF OPTICAL FIBRE
Aim
To measure the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the given optical
fibre.
Apparatus requited
A laser source, screen, scale, optical fibre, numerical aperture measurement Jig.
etc.
Formula
Numerical aperture of the given optical fibre NA = r/r2 + d2
Acceptance angle max = sin-1 (NA) degrees
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Distance between the tip of the optical fibre and the aperture
of the Numerical Aperture (NA) Jig.
metre
Radius of the circular opening in NA jig
metre
Theory
Numerical Aperture (NA) and Acceptance Angle : It is the light collecting
efficiency of the fibre and is the measure of the maximum amount of light that can be
accepted by the fibre. Using Snells law mathematically we can say
NA = sin max = n12-n22
Where n1 = refractive Index of core, n2 = refractive index of cladding
max = Acceptance angle of the fibre = sin-1(Numerical aperture)
i.e. max = sin-1 (NA)
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Measurement of Numerical aperture

Length of
S.No.
the given
fibre
Unit
meter
Distance between NA
Jig opening and the
fibre (d)
Radius of the circular

opening in Numerical
aperture Jig (r)
X10-3m
X10-2m
Numerical
aperture=
r/r2 + d2
(No Unit)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Acceptance angle ()
max = sin-1 (NA)
max = . degrees
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Procedure
Measurement of Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle
A known length of fibre is taken. One end of the fibre is connected to the laser
source and the other end is connected to the numerical aperture (NA) Jig as shown in
fib. 2. The source is switched ON. The opening in the NA jig is completely opened so
that a circular red patch of laser light is observed on the screen. Now the opening in the
NA Jig is slowly closed with the knob provided, so that at a particular points the circular
light patch in the screen just cuts. The radius of the circular opening (r) of NA Jig at
which the circular patch of light just cuts is measured.
The distance between the NA jig opening and the fibre can be measured directly
with the help of the calibration in NA jig. Bu substituting the values in the given formula
the numerical aperture can be calculated.
The same procedure can be adopted for various distances between the fibre and
the opening of NA jig. The same procedure can be adopted for various length of fibre
cable.
By finding the mean of numerical aperture (NA) and substituting it in the given
formula the acceptance angle can be determined.
Result
(i) The Numerical aperture of the given optical fibre = . (No unit)
(ii) The acceptance angle of the given optical fibre = Degrees
VIVA VOCE
1. What is meant by Numerical aperture and Acceptance angle?
2. What is the principle used in the propagation of light through optical fibres?
3. What are the parts of an optical fibre?
4. What is the type of the laser beam used in the experiment?
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Fig. 10. Air Wedge
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Date:
2. AIR WEDGE - DETERMINATION OF THICKNESS OF

A THIN WIRE
Aim
To determine the thickness of a given thin wire (or) thin sheet of paper by forming
interference fringes due to an air-wedge.
Apparatus requited
Traveling microscope, two optically plane glass plates, given wire (or) thin paper, sodium
vapour lamp etc.
Formula
Thickness of the given wire (or) thin sheet of paper is given by
t = l / 2
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Distance between edge of contact and the wire (or) paper
metre
Wavelength of the monochromatic source of light (5893

A)
metre
Mean fringe width
metre
Theory
Two plane glass plates are inclined at an angle by introducing thin materials. (e.g.. hair),
forming a wedge shaped air film. This film is illuminated by sodium light, interference occurs
between the two rays, one reflected from the front surface and the other obtained by internal
reflection at the back surface. Since in the case of a wedge shaped film, thickness of the
material remains constant only in direction parallel to the thin edge of the wedge, straight line
fringes parallel to the edge of the wedge are obtained.
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Fig. 11.
(i) To find the band width ()
LC = 0.001 cm
TR = MSR + (VSE X LC)

Microscope reading
Order of the
fringes
MSR
VSC
TR
Width of 15
fringes
X10-2m
(Div)
X10-2m
X10-2m
Fringes
width ()
X10-2m
n
n+5
n+10
n+15
n+20
n+25
n+30
n+35
n+40
n+45
n+50
Mean = . X 10-2
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Procedure
Two optically plane glass plates are placed one over the other and tied by means
of a rubber band at one end. The given material of wire (or) paper is introduced on the
other end, so that an airwedge is formed between the plates as shown in fig.1. This set
up is placed on the horizontal bed plate of the traveling microscope.
Light from the sodium vapour lamp (S) is rendered parallel by means of a
condensing lens (L). The parallel beam of light is incident on a plane glass plate (G)
inclined at an angle of 45 and gets reflected. The reflected light is incident normally on
the glass plates in contact Pc. Interference taken place between the light reflected from
the top and bottom surfaces of the glass plates and is viewed through the traveling
microscope (M). Hence large number of equally spaced dark and bright fringes are
formed which are parallel to the edge of contact (fig. 2).
The microscope is adjusted so that the bright (or) dark fringe near the edge of
contact is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire and this is taken as the nth
fringe. The reading from the horizontal scale of the traveling microscope is noted. The
microscope is moved across the fringes using the horizontal traverse screw and the
readings are taken when the vertical cross wire coincides with every successive 5
fringes (5, 10, 15.). The width of every 15 fringes is calculated and the width of one
fringe is calculated. The mean of this gives the fringe width ().
The cross wire is fixed at the inner edge of the rubber band and the reading from
the microscope is noted. Similarly reading from the microscope is noted keeping the
cross wire at the edge of the material. The difference between these two values gives
the value of l. Substituting and l in the given formula, the thickness of the given
material can be determined.
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(ii) To find the distance between the edge of contact and the material of wire
(or) paper.
LC = 0.001 cm
TR = MSR + (VSCxLC)
Microscope reading
Position of the
Microscope
l = R1~R2
MSR
VSC
TR
x 10-2m
(Div)
x 10-2m
At the edge of
contact
(R1)
At the edge of
material of wire
(or) paper
(R2)
x 10-2m
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Result
The thickness of the given material = .. meter.
VIVA VOCE
1. What is the principle behind the formation of fringes in Air wedge?
2. What is meant by an Air Wedge and explain how it can be formed?
3. What is meant by fringe width?
4. What is the theory of formation of thin films? Give examples.
5. What is the use of inserting 45 angled glass plate?
6. Why do we get straight line fringes in an airwedge?
7. Explain the reason for color formation in soap bubbles, when white light falls on
it.
8. What happens to the fringe width, if the thickness of the material is increased?
9. What is the condition for the formation of bright fringes?
10. Why do we get bright and dark fringes alternatively?
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Fig.12 Ultrasonic Interferometer
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Expt. No.:
Date:
3. DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY OF SOUND AND

COMPRESSIBILITY OF THE LIQUID - ULTRASONIC
INTERFEROMETER
Aim
(i) To determine the velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid using Ultrasonic
Interferometer.
(ii) To determine the compressibility of the given liquid.
Apparatus requited
Ultrasonic Interferometer, measuring cell, frequency generator, given liquid, etc.
Formula
(i)Velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid v = nl ms-1
Where, Wavelength
=2d / x meter (or) A
(ii)Compressibility of the given liquid
K = 1 / v2
m2 / N
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Frequency of the generator which

excites the crystal
Hertz
Wavelength of the Ultrasonic
metre
Density of the given liquid
Kg/m2
Distance moved by the micrometer

screw
metre
Number of oscillations
Unit
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Fig. 13 Distance moved by the reflector Vs Crystal current
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Theory
An Ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct to determine the velocity of Ultrasonic
waves in liquid with a high degree of accuracy. Here the high frequency generator generate
variable frequency, which excited the Quartz Crystal placed at the bottom of the measuring cell
(Fig. 12). The excited Quartz Crystal generates Ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid. The
liquid will now serve as an acoustical grating element. Hence when Ultrasonic waves passes
through the rulings of grating, successive maxima and minima occurs, satisfying the condition
for diffraction.
Initial adjustments: In high frequency generator two knobs are provided for initial
adjustments. One is marked with Adj (set and the other with Gain (Sensitivity). With knob
marked Adj the position of the needle on the ammeter is adjusted and with the knob marked
Gain, the sensitivity of the instrument can be increased for greater deflection, if desired.
Procedure
The measuring cell is connected to the output terminal of the high frequency generator
through a shielded cable. The cell is filled with the experimental liquid before switching ON the
generator is switched ON, the Ultrasonic waves move normal form the Quartz Crystal till the are
reflected back by the movable reflector plate. Hence, standing waves are formed in the liquid inbetween the reflector plate and the quartz Crystal.
The distance between the reflector and crystal is varied using the micrometer screw
such that the anode current of the generator increases to a maximum and then decreases to a
minimum and again increases to a maximum in the anode current is equal to half the wave
length of the Ultrasonic waves in the liquid (Fig. 13.). Therefore, by nothing the initial and final
position of the micrometer screw for one complete oscillation (maxima minima- maxima) the
distance moved by the reflector can be determined.
To minimize the error, the distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw in noted for x
number of oscillations (successive maxima), by noting the initial and final reading in the
micrometer screw and is tabulated. From the total distance (d) moved by the micrometer screw
and the number of oscillations(x), the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be determined using
the formula = 2d/x. From the value of and by nothing the frequency of the generator (n), the
velocity of the Ultrasonic waves can be calculated using the given formula.
After determining the velocity of the Ultrasonic waves in liquids. The compressibility of
the liquid is calculated using the given formula.
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Result
(i)The velocity of Ultrasonic waves in the given liquid
=. ms-1
(ii)Compressibility of the given liquid
= . m2N-1
VIVA VOCE
1. What is meant by Compressibility?
2. Explain the terms stress and strain.
3. What is the frequency range of Ultrasonics?
4. What is mean by acoustical grating?
5. Explain the principle of determining the compressibility of liquids.
6. What is meant by node and Antinode?
7. What do you understand by the term Over tones?
8. Is Ultrasonic wave, an Electromagnetic wave? Explain.
9. What are the various liquids that can be used for finding the compressibility using
Ultrasonic interferometer?
10. What type crystal is thrown into vibrations in the case of Ultrasonic interferometer?
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WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
43
Right (R2)
Left (R1)
Diffracted ray
readings
VSC
TR
MSR
VSC
TR
VA
VB
2 = R1-R2
VA
VB
Mean = 2/2
Mean
degrees divisions degrees degrees divisions degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees
MSR
Vernier B (VB)
Lines / m
N=
sin /n
Total Reading = MSR + (VSCXLC)
= 5893 A
Vernier A (VA)
Order of the spectrum (n) =
LC = 1
(i) To find the number of lines per metre on the grating (N)
2010-2011
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I & II Sem
Expt. No.:
Date:
4. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF MERCURY

SPECTRUM - SPECTROMETER GRATING
Aim
To determine the wavelength of the mercury (Hg) spectrum by standardizing the plane
transmission grating.
Apparatus requited
Spectrometer, plane transmission grating, mercury vapour lamp, sodium vapour lamp, spirit level
etc.
Formula
(i)The number of lines drawn on the grating per meter is given by
N = sin /n lines /meter

(ii)The wavelength of the prominent lines of the mercury spectrum is given by
= sin
/ Nn A
Symbol
Explanation
Order of spectrum
Wavelength of the Sodium vapour lamp (5293
Angle of diffraction
Unit
Unit
Meter (or)
A
Degree
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46

Fig. 1 Position of the Grating
to Get Reflected Ray
I & II Sem
Fig. 2 Spectrometer Grating First
order Diffraction
Procedure
(i) Adjustment of grating for normal incidence
Preliminary adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The grating (G) is
mounted on the grating table with its ruled surface facing the collimator. The slit is
Illuminated by a source of light (either sodium (or) mercury vapour lamp) and is made to
coincide with the vertical cross wire. (The vernier scales are adjusted to read 0 and
180 for the direct ray . The telescope is rotated through an angle 90 and is fixed. The
grating table is adjusted until the image coincides with the vertical cross wire. Both the
grating table and the telescope is fixed at this position (fig. 1). Now rotate the vernier
table through 45in the same direction in which the telescope has been previously
rotated. The light from the collimator incidents normally (perpendicularly on the grating.
The telescope is released and is brought on line with the direct image of the slit. Now
the grating is said to b in the normal incidence position (fig. 2).
(ii) Standardization of grating (To find the number of lines drawn in the grating
per meter)
The slit is illuminated by sodium vapour lamp. The telescope is released to get
the diffracted image of the first order on the left side of the central direct image. The
readings are tabulated from the two verniers VA and VB. Similarly readings are taken for
the right side of the central direct image (fig. 2). The difference between the two
readings gives 2, where is the angle of first order diffraction. The number of lines per
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2010-2011
meter (N) of the grating is calculated using the given formula. The experiment is
repeated for the second order and the readings are tabulated.
(iii) Determination of wavelength of the mercury spectrum
The sodium vapour lamp is replaced by mercury vapour lamp. The diffracted images
of the first order are seen on either side of the central direct image (fig.2). As before
the readings are tabulated by coinciding the vertical cross wire with the prominent
lines namely violet, blue, blueish green, green, yellow, red of the mercury spectrum.
The difference between the readings give 2q, from this q can be found. The
wavelength of each spectral line is calculated using the given formula.
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Result
(i)
Number of lines drawn in the grating per meter = .. Lines/ meter.
(ii)
Wavelength of various spectral lines of the mercury spectrum are
V = .. A
B = .. A
BG = .. A
G = .. A
Y = .. A
R = .. A
VIVA - VOCE
1. How many rulings are there in the grating element given?

2. What is the condition for diffraction?
3. What is the difference between reflection and scattering?
4. What do you understand by the term least count?
5. What is the difference between transmission and reflection grating?
6. Why the skies appear red during sunset?
7. What is meant by dispersion?
8. Define wave packet.
9. What is the use of collimator and telescope?
10. How the astronomical telescopes differ from ordinary telescope?
WORK SHEET
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I & II Sem
(i) To find (d/dt)2
1 = ..C
2 = ..C
Temperature
Time Taken
S.No
C
2+5
2+4
2+3
2+ 2
2 + 1
2- 1
2-2
2-3
10
2-4
11
2-5
Expt. No.:
Kelvin
Sec.
Date:
53
2010-2011
5 . DETERMINATION OF THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY OF A BAD CONDUCTOR - LEES
DISC METHOD.
Aim
To determine the thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using Lees disc
apparatus.
Apparatus requited
Lees disc apparatus, two thermometers, bad conductor, stop watch, steam
boiler, vernier caliper, screw gauge, biscuit balance etc.
Formula
(i)Thermal conductivity of the given band conductor
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Mass of the metallic disc
Specific heat capcity of the material of the disc
J/Kg/K
Rate of cooling at steady temperature 2
Kelvin
Steady temperature of the steam chamber
Kelvin
Steady temperature of the metallic disc
Kelvin
Radius of the metallic disc
metre
Thickness of the metallic disc
metre
Thickness of the bad conductor
metre
(d/dt)2
Kg
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I & II Sem
(ii) To find the diameter of the metallic disc

ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-2m
LC = 0.01 cm
S.No.
Main Scale
Reading
(MSR)
Vernier Scale
Coincidence (VSC)
Observed Reading
OR=MSR+(VSCXLC)
Correct Reading
CR = ORZC
Unit
X 10-2m
Div.
X 10-2m
X 10-2m
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean = .. x 10-2m
Description
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Lees disc apparatus consists of a brass metal disc (D) suspended horizontally
by three strings form a stand. A hollow steam chamber (S) with inlet and outlet for
steam is placed above. The given band conductor is placed between them. Two
thermometers T1 T2 are inserted to measure the temperatures of S and D respectively.
Procedure
The experimental arrangement is as shown in fig . Steam is allowed to pass through
the steam chamber. The temperature indicated by two thermometers start rising. After
30 minutes a steady state is reached (i.e) the temperature of the lower disc will no
longer rises. At this stage, steady temperatures 1 and 2 are recorded from the
thermometers T1 and T2.
Now the cardboard is removed and the lower disc is heated directly by keeping it
in contact with the steam chamber. When the temperature of the lower disc attains a
value of about 10C more than its steady state temperature, the chamber is removed
and the lower disc is allowed to cool down on its own accord.
When the temperature of the disc reaches 5C above the steady temperature
(2) of the disc. i.e., (2+5C), a stop watch is started and the time is noted for every
1C fall of temperature until the metallic disc attains temperature (2-5C).
The thickness and radius of the metallic disc is found using screw gauge and
vernier caliper respectively. The thickness of the bad conductor is found using screw
gauge. The mass of the metallic disc is found by using biscuit balance. The readings
are tabulated in the tabular column.
Graph
A graph is drawn by taking time along the x-axis and the temperature along yaxis (fig. 2) Cooling curve is drawn. From the cooling curve d/dt is calculated by
drawing a triangle by taking 0.5C above and 0.5C below the steady temperature 2
Substituting this d/dt in the given formula, thermal conductivity of the card board can
be calculated.
(iii) To find the thickness of the metallic disc

0.01 mm
LC
ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-3m
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S.No.
Pitch Scale
Reading (PSR)
Head Scale
Coincidence (HSC)
Observed Reading
OR=PSR+(HSCXLC)
Correct Reading
CR = ORZC
Unit
X 10-3m
Div.
X 10-3m
X 10-3m
1
2
3
4
5
Mean = .. x 10-3m
(i) To find the thickness of the Bad Conductor
LC = 0.01 mm
ZE = .
ZC = . x
10-3m
S.No.
Pitch Scale
Reading (PSR)
Head Scale
Coincidence (HSC)
Observed Reading
OR=PSR+(HSCXLC)
Correct Reading
CR = ORZC
Unit
X 10-3m
Div.
X 10-3m
X 10-3m
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean = .. x 10-3m
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Result
Thermal Conductivity of given Bad Conductor = . W/m/k
VIVA - VOCE
1. What do you understand by the term conduction, convection and radiation?

2. What is meant by thermal conductivity?
3. Name any four bad conductors?
4. What do you understand by the term steady state?
5. What is meant by Rate of Cooling?
6. What is the use of cooling the slab and noting the time?
7. What happen to the thermal conductivity if the thickness of the given bad
conductor is increased?
8. Is the diameter of the bad conductor should match diameter of the disc (D) and
the steam chamber (S)? Why?
9. Will there be any change in thermal conductivity if the area of cross section of
bad conductor is decreased: Justify.
10. State some of the applications of bad conductors.
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59
Fig. 1 Non Uniform Bending
2010-2011
Model Graph
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I & II Sem
To find M/y
LC = 0.001 cm
S.No
Unit
Distance
between
Knife
edges (l)
-2
X 10 m
TR = MSR +(VSCXLC)
Microscope Reading
Load
Increasing Load
Decreasing Load
Depress
ion (y)
Mean
(M)
MSR
-3
X 10 Kg
W+50
W+100
W+150
W+200
W+250
X 10-2
m
VSC
TR
MSR
Div
X 102
m
X 10-2
m
VSC
TR
Div
X 10-2
m
M/y
X 10-1
-2
X 10 m
-2
X 10 m
Kg m-1
Mean =
Expt. No.:
Date:
7. DETERNINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS OF

THE MATERIAL NON UNIFORM BENDING
Aim
To determine the youngs modulus of the given material of the beam by Non
Uniform bending.
Apparatus requited
A long uniform beam usually a meter scale, travelling microscope, pin, weight
hanger with slotted weights, vernier calipers, Screw gauge, knife edges etc.,
Formula
The Youngs Modulus of the given material of the beam
By Calculation method
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Y= gl3 /4bd3 M/y Nm-2

By Graphical method
Y= gl3 /4bd3 1/k Nm-2
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Acceleration due to gravity
m/s2
Distance between Knife edge
meter
Breadth of the beam
meter
Thickness of the beam
meter
Depression produced for M kg of load
meter
Load applied
Slope 1/k from graph
Kg
Kg m-1
By Graphical method to find h/M

AXIS
W-(W+50)
W-(W+100)
W-(W+150)
W-(W+200)
W-(W+250)
X (M)
Y ( h)
(i) To find Breadth (b) of the beam using vernier calipers
LC = 0.01 cm
ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-2m
S.No.
Main Scale
Reading (MSR)
Vernier Scale
Coincidence (VSC)
Observed Reading
OR=MSR+(VSCXLC)
Correct Reading CR
= ORZC
Unit
X 10-2m
Div.
X 10-2m
X 10-2m
1
2
3
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I & II Sem
4
5
Mean
= .. x 10-2m
To find the thickness (d) of the beam using screw gauge.

LC = 0.01 mm
ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-3m
S.No.
Pitch Scale
Reading (PSR)
Head Scale
Coincidence (HSC)
Observed Reading
OR=PSR+(HSCXLC)
Correct Reading CR
= ORZC
Unit
X 10-3m
Div.
X 10-3m
X 10-3m
1
2
3
4
5
Meand = .. x 10-3m
Procedure
The given beam is placed on the two knife edges (A and B) at a distance say 70 cm or
80 cm. A weight hanger is suspended at the centre( C) of the beam and a pin is fixed vertically
on the frame of the hanger as shown in figure. Taking the weight hanger alone as the dead
load the tip o the pin is focused by the microscope, and is adjusted in such a way that the tip
of the pin just touches the horizontal cross wire. The reading on the vertical scale is noted.
Now the weight is added in steps of 50 grams. Each time the tip of the pin is made to touch
the horizontal cross wire and the readings are noted from the vertical scale of the microscope.
The procedure is followed until the maximum load is reached. The same procedure is
repeated by unloading the weight in steps of same 50 grams and the readings are tabulated in
the tabular column. From the readings the mean of (M/y) is calculated. The thickness and the
breadth of the beam are measured using screw gauge and vernier calipers respectively and
are tabulated. By substituting the values in the given formula. The youngs modulus of the
material of the beam can be calculated.
Graph
A Graph is drawn taking load (M) along

x axis and depression y along y axis as shown in figure. The slope of the graph gives
the value K = y/M. Substituting the value of the slope in the given formula, the Youngs
modulus can be calculated.
Result
The Youngs modulus of the given material of the beam
By calculation
Y = . Nm-2
By Graph
Y = . Nm-2
VIVA - VOCE
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1. What is meant by non uniform bending?

2. Define neutral axis.
3. Name any two methods used to determine the youngs modulus of the beam.
4. Define elasticity.
5. Will there be any change in youngs modulus of the material, if its thickness is
increased? Justify.
6. What are the basic assumptions made from the theory of bending?
7. Why iron girders used in buildings are made in the form of I section?
8. What is the use of keeping an optimum of 0.7 to 0.8 meter distance between the
knife edges?
9. Define elastic limit.
10. What is meant by elastic constants?
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CALCULATIONS:
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MODEL GRAPH
66
Expt. No.:
I & II Sem
Date:
8. DETERMINATION OF BAND GAP OF A

SEMICONDUCTOR MATERIAL
Aim
To determine the band gap energy of a semiconductor by studying the variation
of reverse saturation current of a point contact diode at any temperature.
Apparatus requited
Point contact diode, heating arrangement to heat the diode, ammeter, voltmeter,
thermometer etc.
Formula
(i)Band Gap Energy
Eg= 0.198 x Slope eV
Where
Slope = log Is/(1000/T)
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Symbol
Explanation
Is
Saturation Current
Absolute Temperature
Unit
A
Kelvin
Theory
For a semiconductor diode at 0 K the valence band is completely filled and the
conduction band is completely filled and the conduction band is empty and it behaves
as an insulator. If the temperature in increased, some of the valence electrons gains
thermal energy greater than the forbidden band gap energy(Eg) and it moves to
conduction band, which constitutes some current to flow through the semiconductor
diode.
(i)
Measurement of current for various temperatures

Power supply = .. Volts
S.No.
Unit
Temperature in
centigrade
C
Temperature in
Kelvin
K
1000/T
Is
Log Is
K-1
X 10-6 Amp
Amp
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
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I & II Sem
16
17
18
19
20
Band Gap energy

Eg= 0.198 x (log Is/ (1000/T)) eV
Slope = log Is/ (1000/T)
Eg= 0.198 x Slope eV
Eg = eV
Procedure
The circuit is given as shown in figure 1. The point contact diode and the
thermometer are immersed in a water (or) oil bath, in such a way that the thermometer
is kept nearby the diode. The power supply is kept constant (say 3 volts). The heating
mantle is switched ON and the oil bath is heated up to 70C. Now the heating mantle
is switched OFF and the oil bath is allowed to cool slowly. For every one degree fall of
temperature the microammeter reading (Is) is noted.
A graph is plotted taking 1000/T along X axis and log Is along negative Y axis,
(Since Is is in the order of micro-amperes, log Is value will come in negative). A
straight line is obtained as shown in model graph (figure 2). By finding the slope of the
straight line, the band gap energy can be calculated using the given formula. The
same procedure can be repeated for various constant power supplies (4volts, 5 volts)
Result
The band gap energy of the given diode is = .. eV
VIVA - VOCE
1. What is meant by conduction band and valence band?

2. Explain the term Band gap?
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3. What are the types of semiconductors?

4. What do you understand by the term Fermi Level?
5. What is the band gap energy for germanium and silicon?
6. What is the effect of temperature over a semiconductor?
7. What is the principle used in finding the band gap energy of a semiconductor?
8. What is the use of keeping the diode inside the oil bath?
9. Shall the oil bath be replaced by water bath? State the reason.
10. What is the biasing of the semiconductor diode in the band gap experiment?
WORK SHEET
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CALCULATIONS:
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Circuit diagram
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Fig (a) Carey Fosters Bridge
Fig. (b) Bridge Equivalent
Expt. No.:
Date:
73
2010-2011
9. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC RESISTANCE OF

GIVEN COIL OF WIRE CAREY FOSTERS BRIDGE
Aim
To determination of the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the coil.
Apparatus requited
Bridge wire resistance coil, Battery, 4 & 2 dial resistance boxes, copper strips,
galvanometer, High resistance, key, Jockey, etc.,
Formula
Resistance per unit length of the bridge wire
Specific resistance or resistivity = SA/l ohm meter

Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Resistance per unit length of the bridge wire
Ohm /
Meter
Resistance introduced in the variable box R
Ohm
The balancing lengths
Meter
Resistance of the coil (to be determined)
Ohm
Length of the coil
Meter
Area of the cross section of the coil
Meter2
R
l1, l2
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To determine the resistance per unit length of the bridge wire.

Balancing Length
S.No.
Fractional
Resistance R
ohm
l1 m
l2m
= R/ (l2-l1)
ohm/ meter.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean
=..
Procedure
Carey Fosters bridge is more useful for comparing two nearly equal resistance
or to determine unknown resistance. It is the modified form of the meter bridge and
works on the principle of Wheatstones bridge.
Since the end resistances are eliminated, the unknown resistances can be
determined very accurately.
It consists of a uniform resistance wire AB, of one meter long. Normally the wire
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2010-2011
is made from managing which has zero temperature coefficient of resistance. The
ends of the wire are soldered to two thick L-Shaped cooper strips of negligible
resistance. There are three more copper strips which are fixed on the wooden board
between the first two L-shaped strips so as to form four gaps 1, 2, 3 and as shown in
figure (a). The copper strips are provided with binding screws for electrical connection.
Two known equal standard resistances P & Q are connected in gaps 2 and 3
respectively and a variable resistance box R and the given unknown resistance S are
connected in gaps 1 and 4 respectively. Battery with a key and a galvanometer with a
safety high resistance and jockey are connected as shown in figure. Contact can be
made at any point on the bridge wire by means of jockey. A meter scale is fixed on the
board parallel to the length of the wire son as to take readings directly.
Experiment to determine the resistance of the given coil
of wire:
Having introduced a value R in the resistance box, the circuit is
closed and the balancing point J on the bridge wire where there is no deflection in the
galvanometer is determined. The balancing length l1, is measured from the point A.
The experiment is repeated by interchanging R and S and the balancing length l2 is
noted. The experiment is repeated by varying the known resistance R and in each
case l1 and l2 are measured.
Determination of :
To determine the resistance per unit length of the bridge
wire, the resistance S is replaced by a thick copper strip (i.e. S = 0) and the balancing
length l1 is determined using fractional resistance in R.
Now by interchanging R and copper strip (S = 0, the
balancing length l2 is determined.
0 = R+ (l1-l2)
= R/ (l2-l1) ohm / meter.
To find the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the coil

Balancing Length
S.No.
Resistance R
ohm
l1 m
l2m
S= = R+ (l1-l2)
Ohm
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I & II Sem
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Mean S =. Ohm
Now the unknown resistance is inserted in the bridge circuit instead of copper stip.
The bridge will have the maximum sensitivity when S = R and hence the error in
measuring the value of S is also minimum in that condition. So after inserting the
unknown resistance in the bridge arm, the jockey is pressed at the 50th cm of the bridge
wire and the value of R is varied. The value of R at which there is null deflecting in the
galvanometer is noted. This will give the approximate resistance of the unknown
resistance. Let it be X ohm. Now the value of R is varied is steps of 0.2 ohm between
(X+1) ohm to (X-1) ohm and correspondingly the balancing lengths l1 and l2 are
determined and tabulated in the table no.2.
Mean of the last column in the tabular column number 1 indicated the resistance
of the bridge wire per unit length (p) and that value is substituted in equatin in the
tabular column number 2. The mean of the last column in the tabular column number 2
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gives the value of the unknown resistance of the given coil of wire.
Special cases:
(i)Determination of the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the coil:
Specific resistance or resistivity = SA/l ohm meter where S is the resistance of
coil, and A and l are the area of cross section and the length of the wire in the coil
respectively. Using a screw gauge, the radius of the wire can be determined. Hence the
area of cross section a = r2 can be determined. Using the above formula the resistivity
of the material of the coil wire can be determined.
Result
1. Resistance per unit length of the bridge wire = . Ohm / Meter
2. Specific resistance of resistivity of the material of the coil = .. Ohm - Meter
VIVA - VOCE
1. State the Principle of wheatstones Bridge
2. What do you mean by the term balancing length?
2-Metre&caley.pdf
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
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Fig. 1. coefficient of viscosity - poiseuilles flow method
(i) Measurement of time for liquid flow

h0 = .. x 10-2 metre
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Time
Height
Height
Pressure
note
Time for
of
Burette
of final
head
S.No.
while
Range flow of 5 initial
reading
reading h=(h1+h2/2)crossing
cc liquid reading
h2
h0
level
h1
Unit
cc
X102
m
0-5
5-10
10
10-15
15
15-20
20
20-25
25
25-30
30
30-35
35
35-40
40
40-45
10
45
45-50
11
50
Seconds
seconds X10-2m
X10-2m
X10-2m
ht
X102
m
Mean ht = X10-2m -sec

Expt. No.:
Date:
10. DETERMINATION OF VISCOSITY OF LIQUID

- POISEUILLES METHOD
Aim
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid by poiseuilles flow
method.
Apparatus requited
A graduated burette, rubber tube, capillary tube, pinch cork, etc.,
Formula
Coefficient of viscosity = gr (ht/v)/8l (Nsm-2)
Symbol
g
Explanation
Unit
m/s2
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Density of the liquid
Kg/m3
Radius of the capillary tube
metre
Volume of the liquid collected
metre3
(h1+h2/2) - ho
metre
h1
Height from table to initial level of

water in the burette
metre
h2
Height from table to final level of water

in the burette
metre
ho
Height from table to mid portion of

capillary tube
metre
Time taken for the liquid flow
Length of the capillary tube
Second
metre
Fig. 2 Radius of Capillary Tube
To find the radius of the bore of the capillary tube

LC = 0.001 cm
TR = MSR+ (VSCXLC)
Position
Left V1
Microscope Reading
MSR
VSC
TR
X10
2
m
Div
X10-2m
Radius r =
R1~R2
X10-2m
r = V1~V2
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Right
V2
Top
H1
r = H1~H2
Bottom
H2
Procedure
The burette is held vertically on a retort stand. A capillary tube is attached to the
lower end of the burette using a rubber tube as shown in figure 1. The burette is filled
with the given liquid. The capillary tube is mad horizontal and the liquid is allowed to
flow freely through it. When the liquid comes to a known height (h1), which is the height
measured from the axis of the capillary tube, the stop watch is started. The stop watch
is stopped when the liquid comes to another level which is of height h2 from the axis of
the capillary tube. Then the driving height is given by h = (h1+h2/2). The driving height,
volume of the liquid and the rime taken for flow of liquid are noted in the tabular column.
The experiment is repeated for various known heights of the liquid and the
time taken is noted. The mean of (ht/V) is taken. The radius of the bore of the capillary
tube figure 2. Can be found by using a travelling microscope by mounting the capillary
tube over a stand. Substituting the above dates in the given formula, the coefficient of
viscosity can be calculated.
Result:
The coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid = .. meter.
VIVA VOCE
1. Define coefficient of viscosity
2. What is meant by capillary rise, give some practical applications?
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3. What will happen to the viscosity if the density of the liquid is increased?
4. Name any two highly viscous liquid.
5. Name any tow methods used to determine the viscosity.
6. What will happen to the viscosity of the liquid if the temperature of the liquid is
increased? Justify your answer.
7. Define stream line motion and turbulent motion.
8. State the relation between pressure and viscosity.
9. Define critical velocity.
10. What is meant by velocity gradient?
WORK SHEET
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CALCULATIONS:
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Fig. 1. Angle of Prism (A)
(i) To find the angle of Prism (A)

LC = 1
Reflected
Total Reading (TR) = MSR + (VSCXLC)
VERNIER - A
VERNIER B
2A = R1~ R2
A
86

Image
I & II Sem
MSR
VSC
TR
MSR
VSC
TR
VA
VB
VA
VB
(deg)
(div)
(deg)
(deg)
(div)
(deg)
(deg)
(deg)
(deg)
(deg)
Face I
(Left)
(R1)
(R1)
Face 2
(Right)
(R2)
(R2)
Mean A =
Expt. No.:
Date:
11.SPECTROMETER - DISPERSIVE POWER OF

A PRISM
Aim
To determine the refractive index and hence the dispersive power of the given
prism using spectrometer.
Apparatus requited
Spectrometer, glass prism, sodium vapour lamp, spirit level etc.,
Formula
1. Refractive index of the given prism is
given by
2. Dispersive power of the prism in the
wavelength region of 1 and 2 is
= sin[(A+D)/2]/sin [A/2] (No unit)
= (1 - 2)/[( 1 + 2/2)-1]
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
Angle of the prism
degrees
Angle of minimum deviation
degrees
Refractive index of the prism for 1st

colour
metre
Refractive index of the prism for 2nd

colour
Metre3
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2010-2011
88
I & II Sem
Fig. 2 Angle of Minimum Deviation (D)
Procedure
To find the angle of Prism (A)
To initial adjustments of the spectrometer are made. The silt is illuminated by
yellow light from the sodium vapour lamp. The given prism is mounted on the prism
table such that light emerging from the collimator should be made to incident on both
the refracting faces of the prism as shown in figure 1.
The telescope is rotated (left or right) to catch the image of the slit reflected by
one of the refracting face of the prism. The telescope is fixed. By adjusting the
tangential screw, the image is made to coincide with the vertical cross wire. The main
scale and the vernier scale readings are noted from both the vernier A (VA) and
vernier B(VB). Similarly readings are taken for the image reflected by other refracting
face of the prism. The difference between the two readings gives 2A, where A is the
angle of prism.
To find the angle of minimum deviation (D) and
dispersive power
The prism is mounted such that light emerging
from the collimator is incident on one of the refracting face of the prism. The telescope
is slowly rotated to catch the refracted image of any one of the colour (say colour -1
(violet)) which emerges from other refracting face of the prism.
Now by viewing through the telescope the prism table
is slightly rotated in such a way that the violet image moves towards the direct ray and
at a particular position it retraces its original path. This position is called MINIMUM
DEVIATION POSITION (Figure 2). The prism table is fixed and hence now all the
colours in the adjusted to coincide with the image of each and every colour with the
vertical cross wire and the readings are noted. The prism is removed and the direct ray
reading is noted.
The difference between the direct ray and the refracted ray
readings for each and every colour gives the angle of minimum deviation (D) for that
respective colour.
Then, by substituting the values of D and A in the given
formula, the refractive indices () for each and every colour can be calculated.
Finally by choosing any one of the colour refractive index as
1 and the any other as 2 the dispersive power of the prism is calculated using the
given formula. Similarly for various values of 1 and 2 the dispersive powers are
calculated and the mean of all the dispersive powers is calculated.
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2010-2011
(ii)To find the angle of minimum deviation (D) and refractive index ()
LC = 1
TR = MSR+ (VSCXLC)
Angle of Prism (A) = ..
VERNIER B
VERNIER - A
Position
Direct
Ray
Violet I
D = R1~ R2
MSR
VSC
TR
MSR
VSC
TR
VA
VB
(deg)
(div)
(deg)
(deg)
(div)
(deg)
(deg)
(deg)
(R1)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
Yellow
I
(R2)
(R2)
Yellow II
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
(R2)
Blue
Blueish
Green
Green
Red
=
sin[(A+D)/2]/
sin [A/2]
(deg)
(R1)
(R2)
Violet - II
Mean
(D)
Result:
90
I & II Sem
(i)
Angle of the given prism (A)
= . degrees
(ii)
Angle of the minimum deviation (D)
= .. degrees
(iii)
The refractive index of the material

of the given prism ()
(iv)
Mean dispersive power of the prism
= ...(No unit)
= .. (No unit)
VIVA VOCE
1. What is meant by a spectrum?
2. Define dispersive power.
3. What are the initial adjustments to be made before using the spectrometer?
4. Define angle of prism.
5. What is meant by minimum deviation?
6. Define reflection, refraction and transmission of light.
7. Define refractive index of the prism.
8. Is sodium lamp a monochromatic source? Why?
9. What are the applications of a spectrometer?
10. What is meant by Least Count give its significance?
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
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2010-2011
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
92
I & II Sem
93
2010-2011
Fig.1. Uniform Bending
(i) To find M/h
LC = 0.001 cm
TR = MSR + (VSCXLC)
S.N
o
Unit
Distance
between
Knife
edges (l)
X 10-2 m
Load
(M)
X 10-3
Kg
W+50
W+100
W+150
W+200
W+250
Microscope Reading
Increasing Load
Decreasing Load
MSR
VSC
TR
MSR
VSC
TR
X 10-2
m
Div
X 10-2
m
X 10-2
m
Div
X 102
m
Mea
n
Elevat
ion (h)
X 10-2
m
X 10-2
m
M/h
X 10-1
Kg m-1
Mean =
Expt. No.:
Date:
94
I & II Sem
12. DETERNINATION OF YOUNGS MODULUS

OF THE MATERIAL UNIFORM BENDING
Aim
To determine the youngs modulus of the given material of the beam by Uniform
bending.
Apparatus requited
A long uniform beam usually a meter scale, travelling microscope, pin, weight
hanger with slotted weights, vernier calipers, Screw gauge, knife edges etc.,
Formula
The Youngs Modulus of the given material of the beam
By Calculation method E= 3Mgl2a /2bd3 h Nm-2
By Graphical method E= 3gl2 /4bd3 1/k Nm-2
Symbol
Explanation
Unit
m/s2
Distance between Knife edge
meter
Breadth of the beam
meter
Thickness of the beam
meter
Elevation of the midpoint of the beam above the knifeedge
meter
Load applied
Slope h/M from graph
Kg
m Kg -1
By Graphical method to find h/M

AXIS
W-(W+50)
W-(W+100)
W-(W+150)
W-(W+200)
W-(W+250)
X (M)
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2010-2011
Y ( h)
(i) To find Breadth (b) of the beam using vernier calipers
LC = 0.01 cm
ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-2m
S.No.
Main Scale
Reading (MSR)
Vernier Scale
Coincidence (VSC)
Observed Reading
OR=MSR+(VSCXLC)
Correct Reading CR
= ORZC
Unit
X 10-2m
Div.
X 10-2m
X 10-2m
1
2
3
4
5
Mean
= .. x 10-2m
To find the thickness (d) of the beam using screw gauge.

LC = 0.01 mm
ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-3m
S.No.
Pitch Scale
Reading (PSR)
Head Scale
Coincidence (HSC)
Observed Reading
OR=PSR+(HSCXLC)
Correct Reading CR
= ORZC
Unit
X 10-3m
Div.
X 10-3m
X 10-3m
1
2
3
4
5
Meand = .. x 10-3m
Procedure
The given beam is supported on the two knife edges (A and B) in the same horizontal
level, equal lengths projecting beyond each knifeedge. The weight hanger are attached at
two points equally distant (a) beyond the knife-edges. A pin is fixed exactly at the mid-point of
the beam. A travelling microscope capable of vertical motion is arranged in front of the pin and
focused on its tip. The tip is made to coincide with the horizontal cross-wire.
Loads are added to both the hangers in steps of M (50 gms) and the microscope is
moved up so that the tip of the image of the pin just coincides with the horizontal cross-wire in
each case and the MSR, VSC readings are noted.
96
I & II Sem
The same procedure is repeated by unloading the weight in steps of same 50

grams and the readings are tabulated in the tabular column. From the readings the mean of
(M/h) is calculated. The thickness and the breadth of the beam are measured using screw
guage and vernier calipers respectively and are tabulated. By substituting the values in the
given formula the Youngs modulus of the material of the beam can be calculated.
Graph
A graph is drawn taking load (M) along x axis and elevation h along y axis as
shown in figure. 2. The slope of the graph gives the value K=h/M. Substituting the
values of the slope in the given formula, the Youngs modulus can be calculated.
Result
The Youngs modulus of the given material of the beam
(i)
By calculation
Y = . Nm-2
(ii)
By Graph
Y = . Nm-2
VIVA - VOCE
1. What is meant by uniform bending?
2. Define neutral axis.
3. Name any two methods used to determine the youngs modulus of the beam.
4. Define elasticity.
5. Will there be any change in youngs modulus of the material, if its thickness is
increased? Justify.
6. What are the basic assumptions made from the theory of bending?
7. Why iron girders used in buildings are made in the form of I section?
8. What is the use of keeping an optimum of 0.7 to 0.8 meter distance between the
knife edges?
9. Define elastic limit.
10. What is meant by elastic constants?
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
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2010-2011
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
98
I & II Sem
99
2010-2011
Fig. 1 Torsional Pendulum
(i)To find L/T2
S.No
Unit
Length of the
suspend wire
(L)
Time for 10 oscillations

Trail - 1
Trail - 2
X 10-2 m
sec
sec
T2
L/T2
Mean
Time period
T
sec
Sec
s2
Ms-2
1
2
3
4
5
Mean L/T2=..ms-2
Expt. No.:
Date:
13. TORSIONAL PENDULUM - DETERNINATION

OF RIGIDITY MODULUS
Aim
To determine the moment of inertia of the disc and rigidity modulus of the given
material of a wire by torsional oscillations.
Apparatus requited
Circular metal disc, suspended wire, biscuit balance, metre scale, stop watch,
screw gauge, vernier caliper, etc.,
Formula
Moment of inertia of the disc
I = MR2/2 Kg m2
Rigidity modulus of the material of the given wire n= 8IL/r4T2 Nm-2

100

Symbol
I & II Sem
Explanation
Unit
Mass of circular disc
Kg
Radius of the circular disc
meter
Radius of the given wire
meter
Length of the suspension wire
meter
Time period for various lengths
Second
(ii) To find diameter of the circular disc using vernier caliper

ZE = .
LC = 0.01 cm
ZC = . x 10-2m
S.No.
Main Scale
Reading (MSR)
Vernier Scale
Coincidence (VSC)
Observed Reading
OR=MSR+(VSCXLC)
Correct Reading CR
= ORZC
Unit
X 10-2m
Div.
X 10-2m
X 10-2m
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean = .. x 10-2m
Radius of the circular disc =.. x 10 m
-2
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2010-2011
(iii)To find the diameter of the suspension wire using screw gauge.
LC = 0.01 mm
ZE = .
ZC = . x 10-3m
S.No.
Pitch Scale
Reading (PSR)
Head Scale
Coincidence (HSC)
Observed Reading
OR=PSR+(HSCXLC)
Correct Reading CR
= ORZC
Unit
X 10-3m
Div.
X 10-3m
X 10-3m
1
2
3
4
5
6
Mean = .. x 10-3m
Radius of the suspension wire = .. x 10-3m
Theory
The circular disc is rotated in a horizontal plane so that a twist is given to the wire
which holds the disc. Hence the various elements of the wire undergo shearing
strains. The restoring couples, which tend to restore the unstrained conditions, are
called into action. Now when the disc is released it starts executing torsional
oscillations. The couple which acts on the disc produces in it an angular acceleration
which is proportional to the angular displacement ant is always directed towards its
mean position. Hence the motion of the disc is a simple harmonic motion.
Procedure
A uniform thin wire whose rigidity modulus has to be found is suspended from a
rigid support. The other end of the wire is attached to a circular disc using an
adjustable chuck. The length of the suspension wire (L) between the point of
suspension and the metal disc is the length of the torsional pendulum as shown in
figure 1.
Initially, the length of the pendulum is adjusted; say 50 cm.
Torsional oscillations are set up by giving a small twist to the disc. The time taken for
10 oscillations are found and hence time period, which is nothing but the time taken of
5 cm and periods of oscillations are found for each length. The readings are tabulated
in the tabular column and the mean of L/T2 is calculated.
The radius of the wire ( r) is found using screw gauge and the
radius of the disc ( R) is found using vernier calipers. The mass (M) of the metal disc
is found using the biscuit balance. Substituting the values, in the given formula the
102
I & II Sem
moment of inertia can be calculated.

Now by substituting the value of moment of inertia and L/T2
in the given formula rigidity modulus of the given wire can be calculated.
Graph
The value of L/T2 can also be found by drawing a graph taking L along xaxis and T2 along y-axis as shown in figure 2. The slope of the graph will give the
value of L/T2 . Substituting the graphical value of L/T2 in the given formula, the rigidity
modulus can be determined by graphical method.
Result
(i) The moment of inertia of the disc (I)
= .. Kgm2
(ii) The rigidity modulus of the suspension wire (n)

(a)
By calculation
= ... Nm-2
(b)
By Graph
= Nm-2
VIVA - VOCE
1. What is meant by torsional oscillations?

2. What do you understand by the term shearing strain?
3. What is meant by restoring couple?
4. What is meant by simple harmonic oscillation?
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2010-2011
5. Define angular acceleration and angular displacement.

6. If the radius of the disc is altered, what will happened to the rigidity modulus of
the wire. Explain.
7. What is the use of varying the length of suspension while doing the experiment?
8. Why the disc is circular? Are there any other shapes possible to find the moment
of inertia?
9. Explain rigidity modulus.
10. Will the moment of inertia of the disc vary with the material of the wire? If so
explain.
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
104
I & II Sem
WORK SHEET
CALCULATIONS:
105
2010-2011
106

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PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Fig. 1. Vernier Caliper

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Negative Zero Error

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

= - (no. of vernier scale divisions Vernier scale coincidence) x Least

To find the length of the specimen

= MSR+ (VSC X LC) in cms

Actual (or) correct Reading = OR Zero Correcti0n in cms

(Zero Error = Nil)

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Pitch/No. of head scale divisions

Number of head scale division = 100

To find zero error

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

head scale coincidence x Least count

Negative zero error

- (100 head scale coincidence) x least count

- (100 96) x 0.01 mm

To find the diameter of the given wire

PSR + HSR = 5 + 0.35 = 5.35 mm

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

49/50 MSD (or) 49/50 (1/20) cm

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Fig.5. Different order of spectrum

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

1. a. PARTICLE SIZE DETERMINAION USING

Wavelength of the laser source

Distance of mth order from Zeroth order

Distance between the particle and the screen

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

To fine the size of the given particle

Wavelength of the given laser source = A

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

1. b. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH OF LASER USING

Wavelength of the laser source

Distance of mth order from Zeroth order

Distance between the particle and the screen

Number of rulings in the grating

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

(i) To find the wavelength of the laser source

(ii) To find the Angle of Divergence () using Laser source

Distance between laser

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

To find wavelength of the laser source

To find the angle of a divergence ()

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

The wavelength of the given laser source = A

Angle of Divergence of the Laser beam= .. Degrees.

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Fig. 9. Experimental setup for Numerical Aperture

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

1. c. DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE

Radius of the circular opening in NA jig

PHYSICS PRACTICAL MANUAL CUM RECORD

Measurement of Numerical aperture