The Writing on the (Facebook) Wall: The Use of Social Networking Sites in Hiring Decisions

Author(s): Victoria R. Brown and E. Daly Vaughn

Source: Journal of Business and Psychology, Vol. 26, No. 2, Bridging the Gap Between the
Science and Practice of Psychology in Organizations: State of the Practice Reflections (June
2011), pp. 219-225
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41474871
Accessed: 27-04-2015 05:22 UTC
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JBusPsychol
(2011) 26:219-225
10869-0
11-9221-x
DOI 10.1007/s

The

Writing

Networking

on
Sites

the

Wall:

(Facebook)

in Hiring

The

Use

of Social

Decisions

VictoriaR. Brown E. Daly Vaughn

4 May2011
online:
Published
Science+Business
Springer
Media,LLC 2011
an increasein
Abstract The popularmediahas reported
sites(SNSs) suchas Facebook
theuse ofsocialnetworking
by hiringmanagersand human resourceprofessionals
about job
to findmore detailedinformation
attempting
the
Within
literature,
cursory
peer-reviewed
applicants.
thatothers'judgments
empiricalevidenceexistsindicating
of an individualbased on
or attributes
of characteristics
obtained from SNSs may be accurate.
information
this
predictormethodprovidesa potentially
Although
on predictor
of applicantinformation
source
promising
withpotentiallimit is also fraught
of interest,
constructs
itationsand legal challenges.The level of publiclyavailis highlyunstandardized
able dataobtainablebyemployers
as someapplicantswillchoosenotto use
acrossapplicants,
SNSs at all whilethosechoosingto use SNSs customize
thedegreeto whichinformation
theyshareis madepublic
to thoseoutsideof theirnetwork.It is also unclearhow
decision makers are currentlyutilizingthe available
Potentialdiscrimination
information.
may resultthrough
employer'saccess to publiclyavailable pictures,videos,
that
or othersharedinformation
information,
biographical
to
ofapplicantmembership
oftenallowseasyidentification
class. For thepracticeto progressin a positive
a protected
evidenceforthe validityand job-relevanceof
direction,
obtainedfromSNSs needs to be established.
information
also need to
and practitioners
researchers
Organizational
promoteawareness and attemptto create safeguards
E. D. Vaughn
V. R. Brown
Auburn
AL,
Auburn,
ofPsychology,
University,
Department
USA
V. R. Brown
(3)
1400N.
Roosevelt
ofPsychology,
University,
Department
USA
IL
60173,
Roosevelt
Blvd,Schaumburg,
e-mail:
victoriarbrown@gmail.com

negativeoutcomesrelatedtomisuseof
againstthepotential
SNSs by employers.

Keywords Personnelselection Legal issues Social

sites Social media Discrimination

networking
Prescreening
Accordingto recentreportsin the popular media, an
increasingnumberof hiringmanagersare utilizingsocial
sites (SNSs) such as Facebook (http://www.
networking
and
facebook.com),
MySpace (http://www.myspace.com),
to aide in screeningand
Twitter(http://www.twitter.com)
selectingapplicants(e.g.,Clark2006; Grasz2009). A 2009
foundthat45% of
surveyconductedbyCareerBuilder.com
over 2600 hiringmanagersreportedsearchingSNSs to
learn about job candidates,an increasefromthe 22%
in 2008 (Grasz2009). Despitethegrowinguse of
reported
this screeningmethod,a search of relevantdatabases
(PsycINFO, Business Source Primer)indicatesthat no
outletsinvestiexistsin peer-reviewed
researchcurrently
gatingthepracticaland legal consequencesforemployers
ofthismethod.
thispracticeorassessingthevalidity
utilizing
ofsite
hasexaminedthesocialimplications
Instead,research
al.
et
2007)
formation;
Goodings
identity
(e.g.,
membership
users
shared
content
of
the
andthefactors
by
influencing type
Karl
and
Peluchette
2010).
(e.g.,
Given the expandingpercentageof employersusing
SNSs to gatherdataon applicants(cf.,Grasz2009 and Du
2007), it is reasonableto expect this practiceto affect
varioushumanresourcedecisions,includinghiring,trainThe focusof thecurrent
and termination.
ing,promotion,
articlewas to addressthe use of SNSs withinthehiring
process.The objectivesare: (a) to createawarenessof the
potentialnegativeoutcomesrelatedto misuseof SNSs by
Springer

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JBusPsychol
(2011) 26:219-225

220
(b) todiscussvalidationandlegalissuesrelated
employers,
to using this predictormethod,and (c) to discuss the
and directions
for
fororganizations
practicalimplications
futureresearchassociatedwith using SNSs for hiring/
decisions.
screening
Definingand DescribingSocial NetworkingSites
Social networking
sites allow usersto createweb-based
can interact.
SNSs "allow indiprofileswhereindividuals
viduals to (1) constructa public or semi-publicprofile
withina boundedsystem,
a listof otherusers
(2) articulate
withwhomtheysharea connection,and (3) view and
traverse
theirlistof connections
and thosemadeby others
within
thesystem"(BoydandEllison2007,p. 3). A typical
profilemay contain images, videos, and biographical
information
aboutthe individual.Theremay be a forum
whereotheruserscan writepublic or privatemessages.
Many sitesallow usersto post real-timeupdatesof their
or actions.The profileownerhas controlover
thoughts
mostof theinformation
and can adjustthepripresented,
to managehow muchof thatinformation
is
vacysettings
madepublic.Generally,
thefriends,
andcolleagues
family,
withina user's"network"aregivenmoreaccess to profile
information
thanthegeneralpublic.
In recentyears,thepopularity
ofSNSs has increased
rapFounded
in
Facebook
is nowthelargest
2004,
idly.
February
SNS intheworld(Holahan2008).Usagestatistics
on
reported
thewebsiteatthetimeofthiswriting
indicatethatFacebook
supportsover 500 millionactiveusers(definedas users
thepast30 days;Facebook,Inc.,
viewingthewebsitewithin
As thelinebetweenpublicandprivatelife
2011,February).
becomesmoreblurred,
arebeginning
to examine
employers
availableinformation
on the internet
fromSNSs such as
Facebookthatmaynotbe accessiblefrom
a rsum
reviewing
orconducting
an interview.
This screeningprocedureaffordsseveral benefitsto
Social networking
sites providea readily
organizations.
available public forumto research candidates while
minimalcost,allowingeven smallbusinessesto
incurring
in
on SNSs may
engage such practices.The information
further
evidence
relatedto the veracityof inforprovide
mationpresented
on an applicant'srsum(e.g.,education
and workexperience).In addition,potentialemployers
thatwouldallow
mayhave access to detailedinformation
themto drawconclusionsor make inferences
about the
thatmightnot be as
applicant'scharacteror personality
obtainedthrough
traditional
means.
easilyor economically
Such information
increase
or
decrease
the
likelihood
may
thata candidateis consideredforfurther
review.
In the 2009 CareerBuilder
survey,35% of employers
reportednot hiring an applicant due to detrimental

information
foundon a SNS (Grasz 2009). Reasons for
out
screening rangedfromapplicantspostingprovocative
or information,
or inappropriate
photographs
displaying
information
associskills,conveying
poorcommunication
atedwithalcoholor illegaldruguse,revealinginformation
thatfalsifiesqualifications
listedin a rsum,and posting
contentdisparaging
previousworkassociates.The survey
also revealedthatapplicants'profilesmayenhancetheir
chances of being hiredor selectedforconsideration
by
evidenceoftheirlistedqualifications,
providing
supportive
a profileindicativeof beinga good fitwiththe
portraying
and
and positivecommuemployer, displayingcreativity
nicationskills.In fact,professional
SNSs suchas Linkedln
are tailoredto provideusers
(http://www.LinkedIn.com)
to market
themselves
forcareeropportunities
opportunities
fromprevious
(e.g., a usercan receiverecommendations
and colleagueswhichwillthenbe displayedon
employers
the user's profile).Despite the promisingpotentialthat
SNSs mayhaveforemployers,
unfettered
use of
reviewing
this screeningmethodpresentsseverallegal and ethical
considerations
thatmustbe addressed.
Risks AssociatedwithMisuse of SNSs by Employers
Several opportunities
foremployermisusemustbe consideredby organizations
whencreatingpoliciesregarding
SNSs in thescreening/hiring
searching
process.Employers
who choose to use SNSs as an informal
methodof prehave manyissuesto condictingapplicantemployability
sider.CurrentriskswithinformalSNS searchesinclude
ofinvasionofapplicant
lackofclearly
perceptions
privacy,
identifiable
theoreticalconstructs
used in the screening
process,and theabsenceof datato supportthattheinformationused in screeningis job relevant.Anothercontroversialissue surrounding
theuse of SNSs is thevariability
intypeandamountofinformation
publiclyavailableacross
an applicantpool. This inevitablerealityprevents
a comstandardized
collection
of
information
pletely
predictor
acrossall applicants.In additionto theseconcerns,applicants' sharedinformation
mightbe distortedby social
desirabilityor high levels of self-monitoring.
Finally,
mustconsidertheroleofcontextin considering
employers
of applicants.
employability
Information
on theinternet
is publiclysearchable,
andin
itselfdoes notconstitute
an invasionof applicantprivacy.
It is each applicant'sresponsibility
to maintaintheirown
and
monitor
information
thatis publicly
privacysettings
viewable.However,employersmustensurethatthepolicies enacted by human resourceprofessionalsdo not
invokea breachin applicantprivacy.In Juneof 2009, the
cityof Bozeman,Montanarequiredall applicantsto provide usernamesand passwordsfor"any and all, current

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JBusPsychol
(2011) 26:219-225

221

personalorbusinessWeb sites,Web pagesormemberships (Davison et al. 2009, April).Withoutcontext,it could be

chatrooms,social clubs or forums, assumed that she consumedtoo much alcohol. As the
on anyInternet-based
to include,butnotlimitedto: Facebook,Google,Yahoo, panelistsdiscussed,thereare otherplausibleexplanations
YouTube.com,MySpace,etc." (Ricker2009). The cityof forthephotograph
(e.g.,jokinglycreatingthephotograph
a
Bozemaninitiallydefendedthispracticeby statingthatit withfriends;
being victimof a practicaljoke afterfalling
was similarto othermethodsof background
investigation. asleep; asleep on the floor as a resultof a medical
However,in lightof nationwideheadlinesdecryingthe condition).
accuEven underthe assumptionthatthe photograph
The Bozeman
discontinued.
practiceit was immediately
case illustratesthe importanceof consideringprivacy ratelyportraysan excessivelyinebriatedindividual;the
issueswhenimplementing
employermay stillbe puttingthemselvesat legal riskby
practicesforusingSNSs as a
methodof investigating
usingthisevidenceas a basis forscreeningout an appliapplicants.
of
thephotograph
In additionto invasionof applicantprivacy,employers cant.Imaginethatin additionto finding
a
on
the
bathroom
the
to theconstructs
floor, hiringmanager
mustgive conceptualconsideration
applicant
they
screens.Other discoversseveral picturesuploaded by friendsof the
areassessingwhenconducting
employment
whatinfor- applicantwhichindicateheavyorexcessiveuse ofalcohol.
thanpreliminary
surveyresults,it is uncertain
are usingin theirdecisionmakingpro- The employerthendeterminesthatthe applicantis no
mationemployers
and indicatesevidenceof
becausethejob-relevanceof the longersuitableforconsideration
cess. This is problematic
theapplicant
as thereasonforremoving
cannotbe ascer- excessivedrinking
indicatedby thisinformation
constructs
et al. (2009,
Davison
discussed
As
from
consideration.
of
the
use
on
tained.Accordingto popularmediareports
by
in
accordance
a
violation
considered
be
SNSs inmakingselectiondecisions(c.f.Grasz2009),some April) thismay
utilizedmaynotbe directly
of theinformation
job related. withtheAmericanswithDisabilitiesAct (ADA 1990) as
Act of
thereis no legalbasis subsequently
forjob-relevance,
Without
by theADA Amendment
augmented
arguments
to make screeningdecisionsof applicantsbased on data 2008 (ADAAA). In accordancewiththeADA, a qualified
garneredfroma SNS profile.In addition,the lack of personwitha disabilityis one whom can performthe
of thejob withor withoutreasonable
fromprofileto profilewill make estab- essentialfunctions
standardization
Alcoholism
accommodation.
(or alcohol dependence)is
lishingjob-relevantcriteriaacross candidatesincredibly
the
ADAAA; however, an
difficult.
currentlycovered under
to an applicantwhoseuse
due to thecustom- employer
in availableinformation
maydenyemployment
Variability
or conduct
thestan- of alcohol adverselyaffectsjob performance
izabilityof users'privacysettingsalso threatens
dardizeduse of SNSs in thehiringprocess.This lack of (EEOC 2008). Supposethisapplicantis alcoholdependent
of the and, since being photographed
consumingalcohol, has
in turnlikelyhampersthereliability
standardization
andhas no
treatment
abuse
a
substance
when
that may be used
program
making undergone
predictorinformation
A
use.
of
continued
hiringmanagermayunknowselectiondecisions.In a typicalhiringcontext,managers record
levels of information inglydiscriminate
will be gainingaccess to different
bydenyingaccess oftheapplicantin the
(Davison
hiringprocesson thebasisof a covereddisability
amonga pool ofapplicants.Some applicantsmightnotuse
al.
et
for
2009,
SNSs or may select verystringent
April).
privacysettings
notin theirnetwork.
individuals
Managersmightthenbe at
consideration
riskof providingpreferential
early in the
hiringprocessbased in parton applicants'personalpref- EstablishingValidity
or generaluse of SNSs.
erencesforprivacysettings
issuessurrounding
one of themostproblematic
about Currently,
to peruseinformation
electing
Hiringmanagers
thefundamental theuse of SNSs in selectionor screeningis thedearthof
candidatesare also at riskof committing
of using
the appropriateness
error(Harveyet al. 1981; Ross 1977), which validityevidencesupporting
attribution
the
information.
to
method
this
emphasized
be
to
Despite
construed
is
occurswheninformation
gather
representative
selectionsystemvalidation
offollowing
of the personin questionregardlessof context.While criticalimportance
in
accurate
guidelines(e.g., AERA 1999;
researchindicatesthatSNS profilesmay be an
procedures professional
the
no
SIOP
EEOC
1978;
2003), researchhas investigated
of theowner(Back et al. 2010; Goslinget al.
reflection
information
the
of
validity
or impressionsconveyed contentor criterion-related
2008), negative information
eviwell-documented
Without
connot
be
employers.
by
the
gathered
may
profile
through applicant'spersonal
drawn
dence forvalidity,theconclusions
by managerson
resultina
andcouldtherefore
sideredinthepropercontext,
be tenuousat best and
hastyrejectiondecision.A recentconferencepanel dis- the basis of profilesearchesmay
resultin undocumented
discriminatory
cussion exemplifiedthis potentialmisuse by providing mightfurthermore
the
weaknesses
the
with
Consistent
actions.
surrounding
floor
a
bathroom
on
female
a
of
asleep
photographs
) Springer

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222

JBusPsychol
(2011) 26:219-225

use of unstructured
interviews
(see Guion1998),theuse of users reportthat the users have presentedthemselves
informaldecision makingmethodsnot supportedwith accuratelyon theirprofiles.This highrateof agreement
of usersto tailortheirimpresvalidityevidencein the hiringprocessmay increasethe maybe due to theinability
likelihoodof legal repercussions.
sionsto suita specificaudience,forcing
themto comproEvidenceforthecontentvalidityof information
gath- mise by presentingthe most stable aspects of their
ered using SNSs as a methodof screeningapplicants personality(Kramerand Winter2008). This findingis
shouldfirst
be established.
The authorsmakean important consistentwith previousresearchassertingthat people
in explicitlyrecognizingthatsearchingSNSs
distinction
to largeraudiences
presentthemselvesmore truthfully
what
Arthur
and
Villado
refer
to
as
a
provides
(2008)
(Schlenker1980). However,as is trueof rsums,biodata
ascertain inventories,
predictormethodby whichemployersindirectly
measures,and otherinformation
self-report
information
relatedto predictorconstructs.
The implica- providedduringthe hiringprocess,profileownersmay
tionof thisdistinction
is thatorganizations
mustconsider choose to presentinformation
in a socially desirable
what constructsare representedby the information manner.While studiesprovideencouraging
evidencethat
obtainedthrough
SNSs andwhether
thatinformation
isjobonline profilescan containaccuratereflections
of their
relevant
to establishvalidity.
matter
within
should
in
mind
the potentialto
users, managers
Subject
experts
keep
an organization
shouldcandidlydiscussthecurrent
use of manageimpressions
by users.
SNSs as a hiringmethod,
considerations
of what
Once information
on a SNS is tiedtojob-relevant
conincluding
information
is gatheredand underwhat circumstances. structs,a rubricfor assessing profilescould facilitate
thatcould be
unbiasedcollectionof information
across individuals,
as
Examplesof overtly
job relatedinformation
includepostedimagescreated well as documenting
theinformation
collectedin case of
gathered
byhiringpersonnel
futurelitigation.
Whilelack of standardization
bya graphicdesignapplicantor photographs
postedbyan
maymake
to
fill
a
In
such
the
creation
of such a rubricdifficult,
a criticalincident
applicantlooking
photographer
position.
cases, contentvalidationmightbe relativelystraightfor- approach may be useful in developingexemplarsfor
ward.Hiringmanagers
couldsupport
thelegaldefensibility managersto referto as indicators
of positiveand negative
relatedto the constructs
by directlylinkingthe information
of interest.
gatheredto tasksor profileinformation
listedina carefully
documented
competencies
information
has
job analysis. Once a formalizedrubricforgathering
However,Grasz(2009) surveyresultsindicatethatmuchof been created,organizations
could benefitfromevaluating
theinformation
thathiringmanagersreportusingmaynot thesystematic
use of SNSs as a screening
methodthrough
be explicitlyjob related.In these instances,it may be
concurrent
and predictivevaliditystudies.Providedthat
indicativeof a higher-order
construct
thatis job relevant, organizationscould demonstrate
incremental
validity,it
such as cognitiveability,personality,
forpractitioners
and researchers
to
professionalism, wouldstillbe prudent
written
communication
skills,orperson-organization
fit,to excogitatethe legal risks associated with conducting
namea few.A current
and detailedjob analysisproviding searches.
construct-task
linkagescould be used to supportthatthe
information
gatheredfroma SNS reflectsa knowledge,
neededto perform
skill,ability,or othercharacteristic
job
Legal Implications
tasks.
It is reasonableto questiontheaccuracyof information The information
availablethrough
SNSs introduces
a series
of higher of uniquelegal issues and challenges.Social networking
providedfromexaminingSNSs as a reflection
orderconstructs,
but initialresearchis promising.Back
sites easily allow the potentialfor individualbiases to
et al. (2010) indicatedthatassociationscan be found affect hiring and screeningdecisions. Previous field
betweenactualpersonality
and ratingsof personality
thattherateof applicantcallpro- researchhas demonstrated
videdby viewersof users'SNS profiles.
Back et al. found back differs
whensubmitted
rsumsprovideprototypical
thatratingsof all of theBig 5 dimensionsof personality Caucasian names versus
AfricanAmerican
prototypical
correlatedwithaggregatedindepen- names,withrsumslistedunderCaucasiannamesbeing
exceptNeuroticism
dentratingsof personality
50% more likelyto receivea callbackforan interview
by viewersof userprofiles(r's
rangedfrom.27 to .41 withExtraversionand Openness (Bertrandand Mullainathan2004). In effortsto predict
beingmoststrongly
related).Furthermore,
ratings
provided organizationalbehavior,behavioralscientistshave long
viewersof SNS userswerenotincremen- recognizedthe significanceof situationalstrengthin
by independent
tallyinfluenced
self- varying
by the users' idealizedpersonality
thecapacityofexpression
ofindividual
differences
image,indicatingthatSNS profilescan reveal accurate (Mischel 1968). Much like the hiringmanagerthatmay
of applicants'personality.
representations
Moreover,Gos- shufflethrougha stackof rsumsin a privatelocation,
linget al. (2008) foundthatclose acquaintancesof SNS
conductingonline searches of applicantsprovidesthe
Springer

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JBusPsychol
(2011) 26:219-225

223

to moreforhiringmanagera 'weak' situationin contrast

mal selectionpracticessuch as administration
of a work
the managermay
sampletest.In theseweak situations,
moreeasilyexpressbiases based on any numberof protectedgroupstatusinformation
thatcan be amassedfrom
SNSs. Thisis particularly
truein organizations
thatstilldo
in
nothavea formalized
or
a
rubric
policy place
by which
to document
theinformation
gathered.
Employersare not currently
requiredto disclose what
information
on a SNS was used in makingscreening
decisions,which may allow managersto discriminate
an onlinesearchit is
againstcandidates.In fact,through
oftenpossibleforemployersto discreetly
(uninidentify
or otherwise)information
relatedto protected
tentionally
groupstatusas coveredby all majorfederalemployment
laws. This information
includesapplicants'
discrimination
race,color,religion,sex, nationalorigin(coveredunder
TitleVII oftheCivil RightsActof 1964); age (coveredby
in Employment
Act [ADEA] of
the Age Discrimination
with
the
and
status
(coveredby Americans
1967);
disability
DisabilitiesAct [ADA] of 1990). In supportof theavailaccessiblethrough
groupinformation
abilityof protected
foundthat
SNSs, a content
analysisof83 Facebookprofiles
were salientand elaboratedwithin
identities
ethno-racial
users' profiles(Grasmucket al. 2009). Furtherminority
this
information
more,
may be indicatedfroma profile
picturealone,whichis typicallyavailableto thepublicas
Otherinformapartof mostSNS defaultprivacysettings.
underfederallaw, such
tionthatis notcurrently
protected
as the applicant'ssexual orientation,
physicalattractivealso
be
accessible
and
habits,
ness,
bymeans
may
smoking
of a SNS profilesearchand has thepotentialto introduce
bias intotheselectionprocedure.

forspecificallytestingthe validityof the SNS screening

methodas uniquelyrelevantto a job, geographiclocation,
or industry.
While Back et al. (2010) have
organization,
a
first
toward
constructs
provided
step
mappingpersonality
to SNS profiles,futurestudiesshould explore whether
otherwell-established
ofjob performance,
such
predictors
can be accurately
as cognitiveabilityand self-efficacy,
predicted by managers after viewing SNS profiles.
Researchersshouldalso addresspersonalaspectsbeyond
thatmaybe inferred
froman evaluationof an
personality
individual'sSNS profile.For example,hiringmanagers
aboutan applicould presumeto knowotherinformation
as
an
values
or
how
theindividual
such
cant,
applicant's
studies
could use a
fit
with
an
Future
might
organization.
similarapproachto Back et al. (2010) in areaslikepersonfitand value congruence.
organization
and predictivevalidationstudiesusingthe
Concurrent
selection
employedin thetraditional
techniquescurrently
and screeningliteratureshould be conductedto see if
constructs
information
relatedto pertinent
gleanedfrom
value to the
incremental
applicants'SNSs could provide
to carryout this researchin
employer.It is important
a systematicfashion,withclearlydefinedand logically
variablesto aide in replicationand comoperationalized
to testforvaliditygeneralization.
across
contexts
parison
Validationassociatedwiththe methodwill undoubtedly
assessedusingthemethod
constructs
varybytheparticular
establishedthrough
and the level of standardization
companypolicies addressingproper use of SNSs for
employmentscreeningpurposes (Arthurand Villado
2008). Continuedresearchin thisarea will assist future
the
as thecourtsseek to determine
litigation
employment
of thisscreeningpractice.
meritandjob-relatedness
no decidedcourtcases to
Althoughthereare currently
offerdefinitive
legal guidanceto employersin theprivate
forResearch and Practice
Recommendations
sector,thereare certainstepsthatcompaniesmaytaketo
bettersafeguardagainstpotentialliabilityin a discriminaAs theuse of SNSs does notappearto be a passingfad, tion suit. Given the large numberof hiringmanagers
researchshould begin examininghow employersand alreadyaugmenting
employeescreeningwithSNS searthat organizationsestablish
it
is
recommended
well
as
ches,
applicantsmightharnessSNSs to theiradvantage,
and
as addressing
proceduresconcerningthe use of
surrounding explicitpolicies
legal and ethicalconsiderations
devices(Davisonet al. 2009,April).As
assessedby the SNSs as screening
thisemployment
practice.The constructs
mustbe specified,and research withany procedureused in the hiringprocess,policies
use of SNSs information
humanresource
theconstructs
shouldconsiderwhether
beingassessedby shouldbe developedbytheorganization's
in
uniform
fair
and
ensure
to
or
in
adverse
result
procedures
(HR)
department
impact disparate
hiringmanagers
utilize
to
choose
If
HR
SNSs.
intentional
treatment
professionals
discrimination)
(i.e.,
againstprotected evaluating
itis advisable
SNSs as a methodof researching
applicants,
classes. In addition,employersshould assess the job
that
for
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chologicalconstructs
and whatkindsof
class information
on protected
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embeddedwithinan organizational
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