Transient Processes in Tribology

G. Dalmaz et al. (Editors)

9 2004 Elsevier B.V. All fights reserved

85

N u m e r i c a l s t u d y o f the w e a r f l o w s in a p l a n e c o n t a c t
A. Saulot, I. Iordanoff, C. Safon and Y. Berthier
Laboratoire de M6canique des Contacts et des Solides, INSA de Lyon, B~.t Jean d'Alembert, 20 avenue Albert
Einstein, 69621 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
This article presents the development of a 3d computer code, using discrete elements, for the study of solid
third body flows. The selected configuration is plane shearing. A given quantity of third body is placed between
two parallel planes subjected to normal pressure and tangential shearing. One studies the way in which the third
body leaves the contact during simulation (wear flow). The influence of the rheology of the third body is then
studied, in particular its adhesion. Wear flow mechanisms are radically different with weak and strong adhesion.
Different wear scenarios are then demonstrated following the results obtained in another study on source flows.
1.

INTRODUCTION

In solid friction, the 3r~ body [1-2], interface

between the two first bodies in contact, consists of
screens and detached first body particles: These
particles interact with the environment (physicochemical reactions, particle contribution from
outside). There is a large variety of contact
conditions which will create a large variety of third
bodies. These can be comparable to:
quasi-solid continuous materials subjected
to laws of elasto-plastic behaviour[ 3 ],
continuous quasi-fluid materials [4-7],
- and to materials of more complex rheology.
These can have a great heterogeneity and
geometrical anisotropy (spangles, plates, rollers).
The small quantity of 3rd body volume recovered in
experiments and its extreme reactivity in external
conditions often makes difficult the experimental
determination of a theological law. A continuum
mechanics model based on the three laws,
conservation of mass, conservation of momentum
and the theological law, is therefore difficult to
develop. So a numerical approach can be used for the
investigation of this theology. A particle dynamic
model [8-9] makes it possible to account for the
discrete aspect of the solid 3 rd body. Up to now,
studies were related primarily to modelling the
internal flow of the third body Qi [10-11]. These
studies, although they made it possible to progress
with the comprehension of rheology, only take into
account the internal flow (in the contact). The

First body 1
Qs
........

Qi
F!rs..

Q~

Qw

......................... .......

Figure 1. The Tribological Circuit

phenomena of solid friction and wear depend on two

other essential flows:
1. source flow Qs, which characterises the
way in which the first body surfaces in contact are
degraded,
2. wear flow Qw, which characterises the
particles lost by the contact. All these flows, which
characterise the tribological circuit [ 12], are
schematised in figure 1. Models of particle dynamics
were developed to study the coupling between the
internal flow and the source flow of the 3 rd body
[13]. The majority of the models treating third body
flow by particle dynamics are 2 dimensional models.
In order to study wear flow, a 3 dimensional model
was developed. In fact, the transverse matter flow
(perpendicular to the direction of the motion) is often
the principal wear flow. This article initially presents
the model which makes it possible to measure the
wear flow for a simplified contact geometry (plane
contact). The choice of dimensions of the domain
studied is a key element in this type of simulation. It
must be sufficiently large to represent the reality of

86
the contact but sufficiently small to allow reasonable
simulation times. This choice will thus be presented
in detail. Lastly, the influence of the third body
rheology (characterised in this study by its adhesion)
to the side-flows, is presented. An abrupt transition
between a quasi solid behaviour to a quasi fluid
behaviour is highlighted. The influence of the third
body thickness over the contact width is also
presented. This type of study allows a new
interpretation of the transient phenomenon of wear.
2.

D E S C R I P T I O N OF THE 3D M O D E L

2.1. The domain

The rubbing contact (figures 2a and 2b) was
modelled as:
1. The two first bodies, which are defined
here by two walls, are rectangular and made up of
spheres. These first bodies are regarded as not
deformable and not degradable.
2. The solid third body is defined in a
discrete way by a set of spherical particles. The radii
of these particles have a normal distribution around
an average size in order to avoid crystallisation
effects. This third body is confined between the two
first bodies.
3. Mechanism effects are represented by the
boundary conditions: both effort and link conditions

on the first bodies. The higher wall can only move

along the Y axis and it undergoes a vertical force
whose value is fixed throughout all the simulation.
This force tends to bring the higher and lower walls
closer and thus to compress the third body. The
lower wall can only move along the X axis and has a
fixed horizontal speed. This displacement tends to
shear the third body. The other degrees of freedom of
the walls are fixed.

2.2. Periodic Boundary Conditions

Two cases arise.
One can simulate infinite domains in the
flow direction and in the transverse direction of the
flow. In this case a double periodic boundary
condition according to the axes X and Y is imposed.
Any particle leaving at one end of the domain is
reinjected at its strictly opposite end with the same
properties (figure 3a).
One can simulate an infinite domain in the
direction of the flow but finite in the transverse
direction. In this case, a simple periodic boundary
condition is imposed according to the X axis. Any
particle tending to leave the domain following the Y
axis is left free to escape from the domain and will
not enter the contact any more. This case makes it
possible to simulate the side wear flow of the solid
third body (figure3b)

Figure 2.3D (a) and 2D (b) domains

87

Figure 3. Domain with double boundary conditions (a) and with free boundary conditions one side (b).
represents the penetration of two spheres of stiffness
3.

C H O I C E OF T H E D I M E N S I O N L E S S
PARAMETERS

K subjected to an adhesion % Thus Pn and 7n will

3.1. Choice of the scales

It is very difficult, if not impossible, to quantitatively
measure the forces of interaction between two third
body particles. The choice for the size of an
elementary particle of the 3 rd body is also a delicate
problem. The present studies are thus primarily
qualitative. One thus chooses to work with
coordinates without dimensions; this makes it
possible to compare the simulation parameters better.
The length scale is considered equal to the average
radius R, the mass scale is considered equal to the
average mass of a sphere M and the time scale equal
to the time characteristic of oscillation of the system
mass-elementary spring formed by two particles of

be considered lower than 0.01.

One wishes to study a problem of grain flow and not
a problem of vibration. The time characteristic of the
flow is the time taken by a grain of the lower wall to
The time
traverse a grain radius:Tc = R / V .
characteristic of the vibration is Tv =
dimensionless

3.2. Consequences on the parameter choice

One supposes in simulations that the penetration
between two spheres does not alter their geometry.
The maximum penetration will be taken as 0.01. The
pressure without dimension applied to the higher
PR
wall is Pn = ~
and represents the penetration of
K
two spheres of stiffness K subjected to a pressure P.

Dimensionless adhesion [13] is Yn =

Y
RK

and

The

speed

of

the

lower

wall

is

Vn = R

. This represents the ratio Tv/Tc which

must be small compared to 1" Vn will be taken lower

than 0.01.
4.

mass M and contact stiffness K: I ~ -

.
K

D E S C R I P T I O N OF T H E S I M U L A T E D
DOMAIN

4.1. Obtaining the initial domain.

The first stage consists in generating a set of
particles between two walls representing the first
bodies. These particles are placed on an artificial
grid and are not in contact initially. In order to
obtain
a
homogeneous
domain
without
characteristics due to the initial generation of the
domain, a first compaction simulation is carried out.
This simulation is carried out without side-flow

88

Figure 4. Initial domain and compacted domain.

and with the velocity and pressure conditions which
will be preserved throughout simulation. The
adhesion of the 3 rd body is taken equal to zero in this
first part. This makes it possible to obtain the most
homogeneous granular material possible. The initial
and final domains relating to this simulation are
shown in figure 4. The second simulation, without
side-flows, is then carried out. This time, the
adhesion of the third body is fixed at the value
required for by the study of side-flows. The internal
configuration of the 3 rd body then adapts to its new
rheology. Figure 5 compares the morphology of a
not very cohesive 3 rd body and that of a very

cohesive 3rd body. Initially, the grains are coloured

in columns in order to visualise shearing. For a not
very
cohesive
third
body,
the
velocity
accommodation occurs over the entire thickness. For
a very cohesive third body, shear is localised at the
interface and a small part of the thickness undergoes
a weak deformation. This domain is taken as the
initial domain for the study of the wear flow.
Another simulation, including the side flow, is then
carried out. One studies the way in which the
domain empties these particles through the side
walls. One thus measures the flow of wear until the
particles have almost all left the domain.

Figure 5. Initial domain and sheared domain after a time t=5000 for two different values of adhesion.

89
4.2. Measure of the wear flow.
The number of particles which cross the side walls is

Nw t is

measured throughout the simulation. If

the

number of particles which left the domain at the

moment T, the wear flux (flow per unit area) is:

domain. The results for a length of 60 and 100 are

similar. On the other hand, especially for a weak
adhesion, the flux corresponding to a length of 30 is
different. In this case, the domain is too small. One
will take, for the rest of this study a length of L=60.

Fw t -(Nwt+~ -Nwt)~At.At )
where

A l represents

the surface of the side section of

the domain. When one studies the evolution of the

wear flux with time, one divides the time by the time
for emptying the domain defined by

tv = ( N t ' T n d t w
/

' " re,,d

Tend is the time of end

NwT is the number of
end
simulation and N t is the total

of the simulation,
grains

lost during

number of grains in

the contact at the beginning of simulation.

4.3. Choice of the domain length.
Throughout the simulation, periodic boundary
conditions are applied at x - 0
and x - L This
makes it possible to simulate an infinitely long
domain along the X axis. It is however necessary to
choose a sufficiently large length L in order to
prevent a local phenomenon from being amplified.
Table 1 shows the value of the side-flux average for
three different lengths of the domain and for two
values of the adhesion coefficient 7. The results
obtained should not depend on the length of the

side flux with 7=0.001

"10+4
side flux with 7=0.004
9 10+4

L=IO0
1.19

1.09

1.019

1.05

4.4. Use of symmetry.

The problem studied has a symmetry plane xz in
y=0, in the middle of the domain width. One can
suppose that the grains located in y=0 do not
undergo any movement along the axis y and that the
flow through the side surface located in y--l/2 is
equal to the flow through the side surface located in
y=l/2. We shall thus simulate only half of the domain
located between y=0 and y=l/2. For this, in y-0, one
places a fictitious plane. Any grain penetrating this
plane will undergo a force directed along the y axis,
equivalent to the force which will generate a grain
symmetrically placed on the other side of the plane.
Figure 6 shows the evolution of the flux according to
time with and without the symmetry assumption and
for two values of the adhesion coefficient. The
curves are similar.

-4

'--i -'~:

4 -,

iull domai;-'

-~ - --

::

'

halph symetrical domain i)

0"4;~'~
' : [ ......t "-"--: .................. i ................. : . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.2~ ~j/ "'

L=60
1.21

Table 1. Influence of the domain length on the leak

flux.

x 10 -4
1.4!

L=30
2.06

3" 5~"
'-L~,. . . . . . . .
i

i
3) .................

....
i

Fuil-a6maln . . . . . . .
Half symetrical domain )(

, : ...........

~---z-~?---?-~)

-4 .................. : .................. -4
i

O0

0.2

0.4
t/tv

0.6

(a) y=O.004

0.8

O.N~- ............................0:2 ~

'

0.4
t/tv

0.6

(b) y=o.oo 1

Figure 6. Comparison of wear flux for a full domain and a symmetrical half domain.

0.8

90
With this symmetry assumption, the calculational
domain is half as large. This explains the greatest
variations of flux observed. Certain local effects can
indeed be amplified. Nevertheless, the results are
very close and the use of half the domain results in a
significant time reduction.
5.

W E A R F L O W STUDY

5.1 Input Data.

The applied boundary conditions are the same for all
simulations:
-5
Pn = 5.10
Vn = 5 . 1 0

significant when the third body thickness decreases.

In the case of a quasi-solid (y = 0.005), two distinct
phases are observed. During the first phase, the wear
flux is very low. The thickness of the third body
disturbed by the flux is smaller than the total
thickness of the domain. So, as the thickness of the
domain decreases, it becomes of the same order of
magnitude as the disturbed thickness. One then
observes an abrupt increase in the wear flux which is
then of the same order of magnitude as the wear flux
for a quasi fluid third body.

0,00035

-3

If one takes R=I0 ~m, P = 7800 kg.m -3 and

K=2.101~ * R, this corresponds to a contact pressure
of 10 MPa and a speed of 12 ms -I for the lower wall.
The coefficient of dissipation of energy c~ [13] is
fixed at 0.07.
The coefficient of adhesion y varies from 0 to 0.006.
The length L of the domain will be taken as 60.
The width I is taken as 100.
The starting thickness is about 30. This thickness
must be small compared to the width of the domain.
However this thickness must be a minimum of some
grain diameters in order to avoid the effects of
trapping. Simulations are therefore stopped when the
thickness becomes smaller than 10.
5.2 Influence of the third body rheology.
One studies the variation of the average wear flux on
all simulations as a function of the third body
adhesion (figure 7). This flux decreases when the
coefficient of adhesion increases. When adhesion
increases, the third body passes from a quasi fluid
behaviour to a quasi solid behaviour [11]. The
thickness of the third body which takes part in the
flow decreases very strongly as is shown in the two
images in figure 5. In the quasi fluid case, the
particles will be ejected from the entire thickness. In
the quasi solid case, the ejected particles come
primarily from a fine shear layer. If one analyses the
evolution of the flow per unit area during the
simulation, one notices two very different types of
evolution (figures 8 and 9). In the case of the quasifluid (y = 0), the flux decreases in the course of time,
with the thickness of the third body layer; the effect
of adhesion to the walls, which decreases the side
speed of the first layers of particles, becomes

0,0003
0,00025
X

0,0002
m

9 0,00015
E
0,0001
0,00O05
0
0,001

0,002

0,003

0,004

0,005

0,006

adhesion coeficient

Figure 7. Variation of average wear flux versus

adhesion.

-4

4.5ix 10

4t
3.5i-

--,-

gama=O
gama=O 005
|

"

3 ~

w 2.5, - . . . . .

1.5 . . . . . . . .

, t..........

..4 . . . . . . . . . .

-J

T. . . . . . . .

r . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

',

0.2

0.4

.,..,-

~. . . . . . . .

,, - v - , . . . . , . ,

............. -: .......
0.6

L_'I
0.8

Figure 8. Evolution o( wear flux with time

91

-4

x 10.4
3.5r- - -

6x 10

-E,,', gama=O.O05 1
gama=O.

4i

. . . . .

4-

.........

1.

"

'

'

2.5

. . . . .

--1=5o

~,

- b - -'<

I=100 I

-:',

I
I
i
;

2 ,

T. . . . . . . . . . .

-f

,.s

. . . . . . .

"-\-

- +;

. . .. . . ... .

016-....

15

20

25

30

L~j~~

' _~_'
~-" -"~'~.&,Z~,
2~;- - - -,' . . . . . .

0.5(~

02

04

thicness of the domain

Figure 9. Evolution of wear flux with the domain

thickness H.

0.6

0.8

t/tV

F i g u r e lO. E v o l u t i o n o f w e a r f l u x f o r 3 d i f f e r e n t
w i d t h s o f the d o m a i n . 3,=0.001

5.3 Influence of the l/H ratio.

The goal of this part is to study the influence of the
l/H ratio on the wear flux. For a not very cohesive
third body (figure 10, ), = 0.001), the wear flux
decreases when the width l of the contact increases.
The preceding paragraph showed that the flux
decreased when the thickness of the third body
decreased, one finds a traditional result for a fluid:
the side-flux decreases when the l/H ratio increases.
For a cohesive third body (figure I l, ~, = 0.004), the
wear flux can decrease very strongly with the
contact width. In fact, for a low width (1=50), the
disturbed thickness is of the same order of
magnitude as the initial thickness of third body and
the wear flux is significant. For a larger width
(1=200), the disturbed thickness is lower and
becomes small compared to the initial thickness. The
wear flux is then almost nil. In this case, the wear
flux strongly decreases with the width of the contact,
because the disturbed thickness decreases. On the
other hand, one cannot obtain an evolution of the
flux according to the l/H ratio because it has been
seen that the flux of wear could increase abruptly
when H decreases (Figure 9).
5.4 Flow Balance.
In the simulations carried out in this study, the
volume of 3 rd body in the contact is imposed at the
beginning of the simulation. In reality, the 3 rd body
comes primarily from the degradation of the 1st body
(source flow). A 2D study carried out

1.5

x 10 .4
I
I

--

I
A
1-

v~

'1

"

'

/7,7

1=200
1=100
1=50

, t]i ~ , f \ - b ; ' ,
II . . . . .

Vt 2

05 !

-~d

_ _

. . . .

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

t/Iv

Figure 11. Evolution of wear flux for 3 different

widths of the domain. ),=0.004
in parallel [14] allowed a simplified study of this
source flow. In particular it showed that:
I. The thickness of third body formed is
low when the adhesion of the third body is weak.
This equilibrium thickness is quickly reached.
2. The thickness of third body formed is
much more significant for high adhesion. This
thickness stabilises much more slowly.
Taking into account these two properties, one can
propose the following scenarios on the balance of the
various flow:
I. Weak adhesion: The thickness of third
body is quickly obtained and remains low. The wear
flow is moderate if the H/l ratio is sufficiently small.
The source flow is activated to preserve a sufficient
thickness of the third body in the contact.

92
2. Strong adhesion: The thickness of the
third body is very high and quickly reached. The
wear flow is then very low. After a significant
surface degradation, the source flow should be
activated a little by the wear flow.
3. Average adhesion: The source flow can
create a thickness of third body which will be of the
same order of magnitude as the thickness disturbed
by the wear flow. The wear flow is then rather
significant. It is thus likely to activate a significant
source flow. This situation is likely to be more
penalizing for surfaces in contact. These scenarios
remain to be confirmed by a 3d model which
includes source flows. Nevertheless, these scenarios
make it possible to explain certain tendencies
observed in experiments [15].
5.5

Synthesis.

- the rheology of the third body influences the wear

flux through the lateral surface of the contact. The
wear flux is lower for a cohesive third body. When
the thickness of the third body is larger than the
thickness disturbed by the flow, the wear flux is
almost nil.
- the geometry of the contact influences the wear
flux. This flux decreases when the l/H ratio increases
for a not very cohesive third body. The flux
decreases when I increases for a cohesive third body.

6. CONCLUSION
A 3d particle dynamics model has been developed.
It allows the study of the side wear-flows in a
configuration of plane contact. The domain studied
has an infinite size in the flow direction. In this
direction, the calculation domain is limited by
periodic boundaries. A set of particles, representing
the third body, is confined between two planes with a
pressure P. One imposes a speed V on the lower wall
and one studies the way in which the domain is
emptied of its particles. One thus studies the
evolution of the wear flow. Radically different
behaviour from a not very cohesive to a very
cohesive third body were highlighted. In a general
way, cohesion decreases the wear flow. Former work
[ 14] showed, on the other hand, that a cohesive third
body activated the source flow more. The contact
wear is a balance between the source flow and the
wear flow. A complete study, integrating the source
flow in the model presented, will allow a complete
analysis of the flow balance.

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