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    Astronomy - Standard Handbook of Telescope Making PDF

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    OHIO COUNTY Pupuig LIS LIBRA WHEELING v4 Ona SERVICE CENTER S11 CTION STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR Telescope Making N. E, HOWARD per 13 1978 By the Author Supdard Handbook for Telescope Makig Conish © 199 by Thoms Y. Crowell Company Th het reve ptf ok my be rarer oo for ‘icp by a revene, tout the poraiion ofthe pubs rary of Conress Cate Card Mo. 8012508 Morufacmre the Unltd Sates of Amerie 45678910 Preface “The procures desctibed nthe Stndard Handbook for Telescope Making tre bosed on my work of many years with teen-age boys bing and thing tkscoes Thi espronce has taught me tht eorstrctng an e3- {ite wheseope dors not depend ona knowodge of higher mathematics oF fon advanced mechanical aning 1 have not stayed to deeply int tch- ial nor 00 the ofer Rand, io oversimpliation. Mathers fas been reduced to 8 minimum and techoieal ts have ben svoed where pose. "A the tame tne, however, any esng of wadional requirements could, incerta respaes, ead to more, rater than feet, ificais in con Socting a pod telescope, I have, therefore, set sgorous standards in Some places, Por example, thee has been 99 lscning of standards in fhe reguvements forthe opel pat, for tht would evitably real in poor performance ofthe telescope asa whole. Bch chapter incl several methods of accomplishing the same rst Some methods are more expensive or demand more sill than otbers ‘Choose the one tat mis Boh he pocketbook and the tol inthe work sop. ‘ome of the techniques reprsearocnt advances in the tehscope- make’ ats many ae tredamd-tre methods wad by amateurs eer since ‘ili Elson publahed hs clase work, The Amateurs Telescope, sme Sty yrs ago. The Standard Handbook for Telescope Matin pees the mow sie and mnt prctsl tccique consent wih the BNET ‘ofesoral standards ‘Of the many people who have fal a hand in the preparation of this boo, mith st fo acknowledge my eat debt to Allan Mackitou fr Fading the anuscit and for his many belpul tigesions and ome iia sl Rosine tins. any nos of fact pice rem, tny ae my sle reson ‘ity. Gre hanks te Ost Wolsmar Nev fore mse and smany othe drawing nd to Rene Clas, Jey Bowden, andthe Mil Brook School Ph Sere, who dal phaoape 2 eterie ae Inowdge. The Bok would ot hve ben wena li ad tt ‘on forthe hep and encouragement of Edvard Paling, ead of {he Milrosk Schon for Boys making pie fing nd sequent espaion fh aonony pega Mont important ae the mare {San 150 boys who ave taken parti sig the pest fare yeas ‘Typical of uch toy re Tedd Wen and Jeey Schone, preety te stent hea ofthe prosram. And Sal, bet by no means shanks to my wl, Barbra for her many har of patent werk ping and Cement manu Mittrook Scoot for Boys Matoreok, N.Y. NE Howann 162200 Contents (On Telescopes in General ‘What Kind of Telescope Stall We Bull? ‘The Amateurs Telscope Some Telescope Histo) ASunmary 22 The Mirrors General Procedores aad Equipment Depth of Cure ine Grinding Paling euine ‘Alniting ae Mae “The Workshop The Minor Rough Grinding "The Fundamestal Sokes ‘Types of Stokes The Elet of Stokes String to Grind ‘The Template Using the Temptte ‘Testing for Dep of Curve with Light Rayx 4. The stiror: Fae Grinding "The Fie-Gending Process “The Final Stage of Fine Grinding 26 2% 2 s 3s 35 2 “The Principe ofthe Foucault Test "The Simplied Foucaul Tester “The Macklnonh Tester ‘The Hot Wie Light Soar sing the Fowcaat Ter for Focal Length 6. Mich Laps an Posing mh Pich Lap Making te Pick Lap Molded Paterts for Pich Laps ‘The Nate of Posing Polishing Objectives and Tecbagues vik Posing Methods ‘The Pine Lap 71. More About Polishing Using the Foucul Test to Locate Miro Defects ‘ther Test for Minor Deets CCoreting MicorIregulariies nal Polshing with Washed Rouge {8 The Minor Testing forthe Paraboloid Figures of Revoution “Test forthe Parola Mathematics of Miror Making ‘The Raykigh Standard ‘The Parola Shows “The Coader Seen ‘Testing mith the Conder Srsen ‘Testing the Over Al igure ‘The Everest Tot Meth 9, Paaboting the Mire Working Conditions Interpretation of Text Observations CCoreting the Hypebolid CCoreting the Oblate Spheoid Parboliing Methods Accuracy i Parboliing Maror Coatings 10, The Diagnst Patng the Diagonal ‘Types of Diagonal 56 o a 66 13. 18 Conteats Diagonal Mathematics Testing Ges for Mates CCotting the Gass Shaping te Dsgooa! ts MMe tps General Notes on Fyepecet Types of Fyeicoes What Eyepieces to Have Making the Eyepiece 12, The Telescope Tae and “The Telescope Tobe ‘The Mirror Cell The Spider and Digan “The Eyepiece Holder Figs Holder 13, The Mounting for he Tekscope "The Altzimath Mount ‘The Equatorial Mounting “The Pola Ani. Making Simple‘German Type of Pipe Mounting Making Ball-barng German Moonting Finders Making a Simple Finder Balancing the Tube Adjstments and Addins "Adjsting the Telescope CColizating the Optical Train ining Up the Detntion Axis ‘Ajting the Polar Axis Seting Cnces 18. The Observatory Protecting the Optics ‘lcning Opts Sutoces ua 18 133 216 219 Permanent Mountings Simple Housings Sling Root Obervatces Domed Obsrvatory uring the Otervtory 16, Celestia Photography ‘Sl Photography Contato with Sil Photography Guido Camera Pootogrphy Photography a the Foal Pane Photouaphy by Eyepiece Projeton Eyepise Projection Plus Camera Leas General Notes on Photography 17, Otier Telescopes ‘Long-Foews Newtonian Rector Short-Focos Newtonian Retestor Larger Mirrors The Cassegrainian CCatalopie Systems Refractre A Summary Ghosary Append 20 0 28 256 256 257 258 270 270 a 2 295 28 260 281 2e2 28 mi On Telescopes in General Fw rzopce can look through th eyepiee of «id telescope ihoutimmetissy wanting to cw one. Unfortunately really Be tle Scope, even in hee day when so many of them ate onthe mike, 8 laxity many of ws cannot for. The aleative—buling oe st homes ually dmied beeaue ofthe reputed complexities iicales in the building of a precne optical insrment, Yet the this that angone of oninay sills and apts can produce telescope of breath-taking ‘quai. The only gealieations you ned te perseverance, patence, and & tilingses wo follow directions. Ifyou have thine cbuaceriice (or cat Sire them), you can ull an istumeat which wll ompare In pee formance with the be profesional ‘dele ‘andy incidentally, you il, Inne a great deal of fon ding i There are ity thowsand people inthe United States who have ateay found ths to be tr. ‘Ava hobby, telescope making Is mot expensive, Relatively few dolce wil podice one which when pointed ats planet or «stant archer, Wl eport what it ses jst as aceurstely and Tih a commercial ‘roduc coxing many tines as heh. Most smateure bd thei fest tl ‘copes for economy and then, mc to thie surprise i temeles at ‘York on anotber, chen though the fst may have surpassed tet fondest fxpectatons. The fascination of contracting presentment ret Simple ejuipment and inexpensive baie mite isa tong on. Those who scum oti fcnation Deore the mont urd tec ters (known as T.N's Telescope Nes). For tne people the compledon 2 ‘Standard Handbook for Telescope Making ‘one tksope marks ony rething spel eo the bepaning of large ‘more ambitious projec. "What, actualy, ae the characestes of «sucessful wlseope bude? “The fist an! mont important an even dipstion and a wilagtess © spend time enough 6 do ove prt of the ab gh before rshing ont te ‘ext Maal dexterity i bell But ne vital A ite formation about tool and their we i abo beg bt this ean be picked Up as you g> ‘lng In the sae way te tcope ber wl alo acute what echnical Inumledge he ness its or ane Is nesetay to bop with, In shor, he ‘bse human reguenets are those which most of have anyway, and itis ment cersily aot acenary to be a mechanical penis or 4 wird at stoma "The cont wl be perhaps $80 for a modest instrument and $100 for a more ambitious one, but te moncy yrs out gradually and i therefore Hs Seely missed than it had to be spent all at once. Even this amownt ean ‘be vodued ifthe bepiter prt of «group that ean parchase materials in larger quantiles with comequen svngsTelesoye making it gradual process whete each prt comptd Before you go 010 the ext one. "Tree leny of ime to tink aboot what rust e noire, whether the ox tomon the st must be purchased or canbe made. Bec of hy the bigs can often be stretched to the pola where th actual lar ouay ‘comes pleasingly soul, ‘Prewumably eich seadee would lke to bud telescope bat isa lite nervous about bepning. This book is writen especial for you. We shall {> Toewatd ln our projet sep by step, explaining eveything a caefly 4 posible and atempung to anticipate your questions. Let’ the, tah "othe fest question o al WHAT KIND OF TELESCOPE SHALL WE SUID? ‘These are thee general types of tekacoper: refractor, rflctos, and «combination of he two, Enh ie ised onthe same pial, which Is ‘o gather light trom an‘bjet, bead the lght to point called the fos, ff whieh an image ofthe orginal object Ix produced, and mpi this image ntl ican be seen by the human eye. Tat prt ofthe teleeope hich gathers and focuses ght to reproduce the orginal image sealed the objet; the part which magnifies the image isthe eye. Inthe refatingtekscope, the objeine i a ens placed a the front of the tube. Ligh pisses trough the Tens and nso doing is beat inward ‘um it ames toa fvus a the fren of the tube. The eyepiece picks the image at tis point. Tn principe this is very simple, forall you need to do to produce much 3 tlxzope to grind and polit piece of gan on ‘oth sides unl Becomes lens, place i in one end of tube, use soter lens Toran epic, and sat observing the beaver ne > Ont, ¥ ‘Bt you woul be dhoppned lathe cel, or the image woul be tiered end would hae tages of color surrounding The ely thats eng ee ct ot Dents etary Het enevealy ba ko bcs {Cap eh poner clon, You eoald crest hf by ng lens for Jour bec ach hing dfn curvature and made of iret vd of gi But ths conpheats your tsk enorme ne Sonat nd fur sass of sad two. Ths 3 frm {Si ore roo who hat fad casderabl expense apg Bas trl would dncrgigly fica orm beger, Furry se ide pes ough th mt they mst be ade of hus fxg cdi, Clan hsp orp So we decide oto bald eco fist ad lnk sd ore ap 9p The facing wp, asad of pig Ut rp rough a pe of sda, bends hs by eben fen the sas ols conv ioe Tis ‘Sees tat you oe gn oly on acs fg, whch yo now oe rine sonic w sieeve Sebo HOt pes roo th gn you ede woe short cy or opel tein The tue plc, however Ai tt en ut th afore fa of pt et nthe ey othe incoming yess ou fn some way erie asda ot Uecker eer ce ores ching thi for you can interpre 8 sal fat miro or ig nthe Poth ofthe rete cone of ik and tah heey othe wef ‘eta aca othe Tir etfs fhe ning gh btn row 0 fe of row somequence. Sich en arrangement th snp St ent ind of scope ul ent on neal Ta ack of camplstins doe ot mean, however, ht sine ‘nef go comny ne. Te ret ace ln he wo the Bach Hal tscpe a Mi. Paomar and he 120s t ick Otero tery, ae bth lt pe hte te poles who mad tas kira pants and te bape ins basement workshop bath we te ssn as echrighs and nto Tear seve eet fore ef te refectng thscope bu al ince the pining of moe ah one opts Chto thew the Cane ‘rina oye, shout wich pe wt tae mae w ye ‘Combinstion escopes which go unde he toting mane of extaop- tre stom, ine an equal impinge angen Like tector they hve 4 mfr wh ac ete a thy alo hate 4 comeing lene plc a he on ad th oe. Te et avenge ist they are cormptand ea fo me The ogee we nen cet th fxs ne rao he mes gad ed pals seer ep ‘eh pT hin ge ‘all onmerl moses now ing pus he plotopegie gana Soh a the Stich Sc wed opicment ie wont of the ae Cetra lope. The Shit wesc nt adap vil Works serie drain ofthe pth of ght i tcp The peice is placed the ineresion of he a attough a modifeton ofthe Schmit desi, the Maksutos, may be ed eth visually and photographically. We mention afew of these other tle ‘Soper becuse, afer having completed some of the simpler f=, YOu ‘il be looking round fr new words vo congue THE AMATEURS TELESCOPE The simplest and mos! eflcne ehecope we cam make, the, I te reir” At we have next i omits of thre main elements: a concave Sirona gna at meron, sd an ejepce Each mest all far spectestions, wile the emaindr of te fanrumen eres Sy a 8 suppt a0 they may do thie work wel. Thre are Many ‘ats mounting cease thre are pope who make them, et Ist very lack of spc form that mks fhe costation of te ter tetescoe parts noch fn, na ierent way a the tore preie opal parts Here isan oppor fo th imagination and ing of the TSacope maker to om wd as we shall see when we come tthe caper itu comm ounces now with the eet If here ome par ee * nee , ‘ofthe tescoye which most be as neal peect at we ean make the concave mior, whieh ofen eal the primary. It here that the "ys of light which wil form the image are tellcied back tothe point Weve they can Be examined bythe eypie I each ray i to be tated tke to mitin is proper postion i the image pan, thn cach pert Sth mer must be norm with resect tal ther parts For tis fessor we shall give whst may sem The a deproportonste amount of Space wo the subjce of making te miro, Bot fs we mus decide what the general speciation ofthe miro te tobe since they will determine te denson of the tkescope ol Inthe tt poe, the micror most be large enough to collet at much ph 2 posible yet small enough so tit tay be ground plished, and round wih the capbliier ofthe worket. A mior 12 inches ‘ameter calle 9 times as mich light as one inches in dameter end therefore predaces am image 9 tics as bight, other ings bing eae [Bui is many more than 9 mes as hard to make Since we dont Wat to set ours an impossible task, we shall chooe am inermoiat si ff 8 inches, Enowing that even a ths gure we shall nd up ith te scope of stoning capabilites. Ie has been the practic for begins, to chose Grinch mir for thee niles, pony because fe ‘omverien ze 10 work with Yet the och mio is nly ite mote incl grind and polish, andthe exes tobe making i mo thas ‘compensated for by the fac that thas alone a ch ace, All ote things bing equal, i the atea ofthe miror ofthe releting aeons ‘hich dees rel vals in em of resving power or the abity fo produce dtl in images. Tis the reason why telescopes have bette Progressive larger though de yeas, fay cuimisting It the 11Lot Monster t Me Patomee “The miror must allo have fecal length commensurate wih it di ames. The foal length snply the distance from the miso surface tothe place where rected ght comes to fin o the aye comme {t point A long focal ength produces grater magneton, depending pum the exepice wie, but it also produces a dimmer imag Also, the longer the focal length longer the tbe mst be. Now ite tbe i ‘oo lon, two dindvantiges result must be bull and supported yey ‘cone ors vibrations Wil nui he ood quali ofthe mon md ‘vey inch of length makes this harder to do. Sssonly, Jog tbe ety “ovhward tows. In» Newtonian refletor sch as eae builing the Oe Piece ic lace at the front of the tube the tobe sto lang th eypine wil be ery Hard 1 reach when the telacope in a. erica forion ‘Shor focal ngs aso have dnadvantaps, the tot important of which is that a deep curve must be ground in the mitror. Foe masons which wll pea ater tis an bea sours of eet dial, ‘So we compromise on a fora length of about 56 inches, which wit put ‘the eyepiece in a convenient pesition for most people. A Sé-inch focal Sema forte inch miro is convriemt ot only a fara the length of {he bef concerned, But ako from the opal characerisic it pres Ine hecope. To understand why, we Bring nate familar 0 camera ‘woes the amr ocr. Thx snp the focal length vided Sythe damecce and is exposed athena f/4. I thi coe, the focal ratio 56/4, of 7, and we rer C0 the tkcope at an inch £/7 Ticats with fel ratios oer than Gor geste han 9 begin to develop Cert unfortunate characters, both in the wo of the instrament and fake dais of manufacture, ut not only are tone with fora aos of Tor 8 exclent genrapurpon ntroments hey are alo the easiest 19 ‘ashe Therefor, our choice f 56 inches forte foal length ofthe mor {urns ou fo bea Sood one frm ll espoins ‘Once the micro diameter and fea rato have been decided pa, we turn oe tention to the oer aspects of the llscope. We dscus ach ‘tthe in some dell in ster chapters, but nthe mentine we wantonly {emeralds of wht lis ahead, o me reat them ly hee Tair the mior hse been ground to curve i surface plod, and refined tothe desis goircy, mist Be meted ia a eo which Will Sopport it adequately. The oll is then mounted atthe end fs tbe which te al et buy cr make ouetves acorns the tate four Haan. [At the other end the to, ata distance commensurate with the focal Tenth ofthe mor, « dagonal mir it mounted on «spler support Stcche ares the tie to suppor the dingo securs. You may wonder Shy this dingnal cst shu of part of the image Each past of the Primary mirorcoatbues to the image 0 the elect of the agonal is Eniy to cat down onthe amount of igh which passes I and thus alot Gy the tightness of the Image and oti composition. ‘Th diagonal Initror i sal one, carly pound t petty Mat sue, ad an fe either made or purchisod sine te cos rlthely smal liber wey. Some tkscope maler wea ight-ange prim in place of he diagonal. The fina ein of the asembly i an adler tube forthe eyepiece, and cot cone the eyeiee He All thoveoptial part ae cartlly aligned, fd the most iportat part of the job som been dove. IL hat re fungi to mount the telescope tbe on a rs and wshahable Sopp. “These adpetves se ernphaszed, for a god optal system demands © ‘mounting strong sought spor without vation of sty ind “Ther re two yes of mounting, each With many vaatons, tbe slain andthe eto. The st permits motion a altade (ected ‘ote) and ima horizon) Hence ts ame. The best example ‘libs type of mounting ise casera one tp; can move both up and ‘down and Leal. The stars donot move in sralht lines a they cross the heavens; they foo curve paths, Fr ths reason both depees of motion must be wed in an altszimeth mounting ifthe telescope isto follow a star acros the 2 eehepae ou srlr ie ee a cs acme * Stonderd Handbook for Telescope Making a tte chapter, he tkescope neds to Be moved in only one rection 10 follow asa aros the Renvens Tht rmendous hep inguin te telescope for photographic pry, although it most Be admitted that it Ike fllowing a rapily moving objet nach a8 jt plane mich more Ait But since you ae presumably balding eeoape fr etonomis furposs, the equtori mountings gretly 49 be preferred ver the bse This hasbeen a necessary ri description ofthe amaterstskescops ‘The dts are given in ate chapters. Nothing hasbeen sak hee out Islscope timing noc at den, sotag cil, clock or symronout hot dives, photorapic accesories, orth ike. Those, to, art te Gincomed nt "The eens of cur projected telacope inlole the folowing 1, til be simple Nemonian rset. 2. It ave an ine ior whos foc eygth wil be approsintely ‘6lches. In ether wor wil bean 8nch 17 3 In onder wo beep the costa lo’ as posible, we shall make ll the rts cursive, with the possible exepion ofthe eyepiece nd agonal mor. ll ave am egustorial mountag. ‘We shal have two facd purposes ding the ent operation: to eat opal parts as ely pafect as we ean make them, and 10 rovde 4 mounting whose stress wil perm our opis to do {hei jo without etetecence SOME TELESCOPE HISTORY Now that we have sone en of what Lind of telaope we with to ld, tiny be imtsting Took tack trough the years to ce ow tlescopes developed We think of the progres of maer astronomy a being de 40 the ‘avestin ofthe telecope, and to large measure ti ete, But much of the Basie information about th heaens od eon gated an alae logue long before theft telescope made te ppsarncs, Man bas avays sted the sary and speultd about heroin nd ture, and ding the sucep ofthe cease his pled up a mass of knowledge without benefit of optical id for hs cbserving eye. The pants and thei apparent ations, he wanderers of space eae comes, the prope and pate of the star, the moos, te earth el in relation toe eghbor a space, All ate as much prt of record history ak man hms. Some of this tformation was uncasnly accra, Eratostenes, orm 1700 yes before Columbus, not only demonstrated that the arth a ‘oe but messed is cerca with x precision that asounding ‘On Telatopes in General ° “This remarkable man also estimated the sizeof the son and the moon and stork ot thie aprosimae distances fom ws. On the ete side a te Trin the Maora of New Zealand Knew aboot the rings of Sam and Spiers moons, and passed this information down through the centuries ‘prt thir lgends. Yet tee no mention of anythin ike a secon in ther story How they kaew hs is one of the unsolved mysteries of tity foe Boogst ll us i physicaly impossible for the Raman eye {Gdacem anything fino Satur’ ings Like many great inventions, the telescope came into being through 3 upp acide Sot knoe of ts inventor that historians are not ve8 eran of the cotet spel of his name Tan Liperiey wae spectacle maker who lived in Middebur, Hol. lund. At some Une during the year 1608, Jen's chikren, who had parently been playing wih some of his es valuable spetack lenses, me iba i 0 i they had ound way to bing stan church Steps clone tht hy could ce Br nesting unde he spice. Like ny fathers, Jan prbsbly tld thom somewhat testy be didht want 10 be bothered, and, again Ike many fathers, he flowed thm otto investiate He found that thy had lined up tro of his ese 2 foct ot apart in sch away tha hy were rand onthe steeple, To heed, he reaied the importance of what hese; and fom that day, specactes were Torored nthe acnaton of making various combinations ofthe ne dvi ‘Healy became so expert nthe at that be cowed his elo at making simple tlocopes wih the prodotion of a pir of workable bnoculas. ippetey’s "magi tubes” Became hcl famous ad, even though he sttmsed wo conceal his med of making tem (in thse days the pate laws were sll nthe frdetat futur), word of the grst nw invention spread sere Bbope “The incomparable Galleo Gale in far-of Hal, Istened wo descriptions of Lipperseys tbe and proceeded 1 make one for himself. In commen Sith the amateur tkscope makers of today he wasn't sated with Bis first atempe He made ler and loge tes, wing lenses of erent frases and powers unl he finaly achieved a tlesope shih had ‘ maoniestion of aout 30. Galieas tkscopes reveled features in the heavenly bodies which nobody ad eve suspected wore there. When he pointed them atthe epoon he was unable to bev that what he sa” was feally tue and was eren more asounde! atthe appearance of the plants. Here wae Venus ith ‘chunk bites from ber side, Jupiter surodnded by four lite dks which Eenstanly changed hie potion, and Suture looking sometimes ie hee Panes and sometines le a double taped sugar bon! (i given sn es tthe qaly of Gals telescopes; any amateur today ean bud beter oe “hese eavenly wonders caught the imagination of the wes inorder w Standard HepdBeok fer Telescope Making to tne hem, mon mas slecopes loner and of exer eter magne tion Ian Lpperbeys magic tuber grew wot ter Inventor Wook! mo hove recounand them. They ere huge, unginy contupons which produced dancing eghly colored images, tut the diconeries mas ith them were tremendous and the scvemecnth century became the Elden 4g of astronomy. Domingue Cassin developed forthe Observatory ‘Pars an “ar telescope” which consisted of Tens hang fom tows and fan eyepiece attached othe end of he log pole that ied the ln, With ths Tales device he deoverd the fn back lin that dvds the tne {of Satum—and which ssl eed Cassa dvsson—o well as four of Situs moors andthe dark bel ibe of Jupiter. The Dutchman Chron Huygene made a tworemed eyepiece forbs tlscpe and waht watched {he polar caps of Mars and the equatorial bulge on Jupiter, Johannes eve, 3 wealthy brevet turned stongmer, ull ilescope 130 et eng for his observatory in Dani. His map of the moon ar al famous fad he as the fst to wateh Meriny pss sero the face of the som Everywhere in Earope men were watching the sie, and in every ‘suonomizal workshop oter men were searching fo beter ways fo make tescopes The giant devices wl or bveving fe dtl othe mom nd planets cou be afrded only by observatories aod. wealthy mom “The orl was sil Joking for a teescope which might Nave wera te, for the small Galen telescopes wore far om perfect abn Ballon, ‘he English opin who finaly worked out the pisipleof the echromati Icolorree] Jens, in which to pees of alas of diferent indies of te fraction ate wed, was pt to abe on the scene unl 1785, sm this was ssi nthe 16009, {AS 0 often the casein seine discovery, the next step was an | looking fora man fo pat out and fut it ue. ‘The man wat otf sway. sac Newton, only twenty-one yours Of a, had aleay dered thatthe refacting teseope had to many nate delet to make it wef and foked around for some ater meant producing relly sharp Image ina telescope device. He found it im @ paper pushed by the astronomer Nios Zasch, ia which the Men of the refetingtckscope tr dewribed. The result of Newors work wat the prototype of he Ielesope ve have dbus cuter, and sec instruments sl bese his arm, the Newtonian reflector. Since the art of coming gas erase With etletve material was ot yet known, Newton pound his escape Ios and gigonas from a special meal aly, sil calle spelen Ie, The image forme! wa sharp and car but mot Yry bight since ‘speculum metal cnt at relesive a modem meal coatings Tn oder to gather more list and prec a brighter rg, men Began to increase the sie of the refcto,Ie tat of the erator elo eT Salina in such monstrous device atthe huge eferor of ‘Wiliam Hershel 4 fet in dimeter and 40 fest og, athe eves lars tleeope On Telescopes in Geoarol ” of Lord Rose of Parsonstown, Irland. This one was so big tht ma ld walk down itt Sé-foot tube without bending his esd sce te ‘nior mas 6 fect im diameter. The Guest for littering lastraments Sl goes ny although the uma i opteal devices too now t0 ave teen reached inthe Fora telescope, which dare the pretest nes of the pas Wile the Newionan efector was growing to it final stages, other lypes of tekscapes were being evolved. Even tore Newton. preted efor, the Scuish mathematician Janes Gregory hod worked cut an pica ssi whic, although Iie wed today, sill deserves meaton Tistead of wing plane mirror to tranlr rete yy oti the uke a Newton did, Gregory conosved the Mes of pacing a small encate Secondary mirror in rom of the pinsey mor im sach a nay thatthe felted ays were bounced back through a Bole im the primary. The Cicltyas tat special curves had tobe ground inte each one, «poral ‘lid inthe primary mor and an elgeid inthe aller ne, Nite Gregory aor his cmtemporaries wore able to progose such sraces be se of limitations inthe grinding srtsces, or laps, opon which iors tere then ground to cure, ity years ster miror-maker named Short ‘ceeded in producing the esd carves, andthe tlscpes which #e- Sued proved that Gregory's deen was a good one ‘A more succes ea was tat of Q. Casein, Freich seultor who a 1672 designed a reer similar to Grams excep that he secondary miror was ground to a convex hyperblodal gue snd the min, or primary, was to be a parabola. Thee curves were a dial o frm ss the ofthe Gregorian and fortwo entries ite ence was ‘ear of the design, When the eehnigues of micor making Became mote sdvancd, however, the Cassegaiian elescope ere Into Is own Tod itis. “popular” struments by oberatrs and amateurs ale It ‘ns several eel features. The secondary sero mot only nerees th !mapniction but also shortens the length a the tbe so thatthe secon 5s compact, easy wo tamport and telatvely simple to mount There ae several vais of curves which ean be wad forthe mirry each eae 'o produce than the ones designed by the inventor. Both he repo ad the Cassegranon telescopes have the name “compound” tached to em since they requie two carved surfaces wich Compleat ech ther ‘We stall have more to say abou the Cassaraiian afer becase it wel within the capabiines f te asta teesope maker Daring the years when the relector woe sing tos zenith as “the telescope —a_peviod which reached i climax withthe grat ‘Wiliam erschel—the refactor was wating for someone todo it the same service that Newton had don for the tector. Inthe eal 1800's sch = man appeared, His name wes Joseph von Fraunhofer, and his contibton to "he at of fleas making was athe led how t0 produce. erect a ‘Standard Hondbook for Telescope Making cal glass. Up this ine tha esa impensbe wo estas nto disks ny fiw wont inrodcing fay ond steals roughom he mot These defects were deadly fai sine they caused al at of wed eects Ine relator inaen The only way of going id of thes serait stat we lets fog al eng, hus pacing cmeniome abd Welly imtrumens. Fraunhofer changed al thy for his dks produced Is tsar dino and wie fei. The reo now bad a gr ings, “fe dametr of reactors now bepan t icra, and by the 1880s ‘Alvan Clark a American wat making he mips ems the word at her teen Those lemc relia eal over the wel Tey Inco och SS athe sDlnch a Yerkes the ch at Lek, te 3Dinch at FPoutova, and many thers. Unfortunately, th ie of objective es for orb ang lr Oey raat orig tre {place mounting brackets around thie ite. Their ov weit ey tecone Inger, invodeces datorton from sagging and bending nt rps, tate of ths detec, tat the AD Yerkes lens bail sy Dears ag0 has only twice Ben surpssd in ie, The Bans inthis eld {tay tee the Pars horizontal telescope and the Mach corectng leet forthe Sent wescope st M-Palonar, Calor Rebesors are not sabet to ths Hmitaion Beato they can be placed in cell which give tem an evelydstibued support: The nly fcr ‘hich prevent eet from trong ever mor hag theatre of (twat now sone pentcaly impose lo cata ss of oer Sins tht wil ot cack oc become throne dred dig he

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