Introduction

The concept of boundary layer was first introduced by a German engineer, Prandtl in 1904.
According to Prandtl theory, when a real fluid flows past a stationary solid boundary, the
flow will be divided into two regions.
i)
A thin layer adjoining the solid boundary where the viscous force and rotation cannot
be neglected.
ii)
An outer region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected. The flow
behaviour is similar to the upstream flow.

Boundary layer definitions and characteristics

Consider a flow over a flat plate aligned in the direction of the flow as shown in Fig. 1.1

Figure 1.1 Flow over a flat horizontal surface

The flow region can be divided into two layers

0 y inner layer/ boundary layer flow where the viscous force effect is significant.
i)
Due to no-slip condition at the boundary surface, the first layer of fluid undergoes retardation.
This retarded layer causes further retardation for the adjacent layer, thereby developing a thin
region where the flow velocity increases from zero at the solid boundary and approaches the
velocity of the main stream.

Figure 1.2 Distortion of fluid particles in boundary layer flow

Due to the present of velocity gradient inside the boundary layer region, the fluid particle
begins to distort as at the top of particle has a larger speed than its bottom. This force causes
the fluid particle begins to rotate as it enters the boundary layer region (See Fig. 1.2).
Therefore, this layer of fluid is also known as rotational flow.
ii)

y Outer flow region where the viscous force is very small and can be neglected.

There is no velocity gradient in this layer and the fluid particle will not rotate as it enters the
outer region of flow. Therefore, the flow is also known as irrotational flow.
As shown by Fig. 1.2, the boundary layer conditions are that the fluid sticks to the solid
boundary
u v 0 on y 0

(1.1)

And at the outside of the boundary layer, the flow velocity is equal to the free stream
velocity, that is
u U

on y

(1.2)

The following boundary condition is also true for boundary layer flow
u
0 when y
y

(1.3)

indicates that the velocity distribution is uniform in y-direction outside the boundary layer.

Boundary layer thickness,

The boundary layer thickness is defined as the vertical distance from a flat plate to a point
where the flow velocity reaches 99 per cent of the velocity of the free stream.
Another definition of boundary layer are the
Boundary layer displacement thickness, *
Boundary layer momentum thickness,

Boundary layer displacement thickness, *

Consider two types of fluid flow past a stationary horizontal plate with velocity U as shown
in Fig. 1.3. Since there is no viscosity for the case of ideal fluid (Fig. 1.3a), a uniform
velocity profile is developed above the solid wall. However, the velocity gradient is
developed in the boundary layer region for the case of real fluid with the presence of
viscosity and no-slip at the wall (Fig. 1.3b).

Figure 1.3 Flow over a horizontal solid surface for the case of (a) Ideal fluid (b) Real fluid.

The velocity deficits through the element strip of cross section b-b is U u . Then the
reduction of mass flow rate is obtained as
U u bdy

(1.4)

where b is the plate width. The total mass reduction due to the presence of viscosity
compared to the case of ideal fluid

U u bdy

(1.5)

However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance * at section a-a to give mass
reduction of Ub * , then the deficit of flowrates for the both cases will be identical if

U u bdy Ub

(1.6)

and

* 1
0

u
dy
U

(1.7)

Here, * is known as the boundary layer displacement thickness.

The displacement thickness represents the vertical distance that the solid boundary must be
displaced upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass flowrate as the real fluid.

Figure 1.4 boundary layer displacement thickness

Boundary layer momentum thickness,

Another definition of boundary layer thickness, the boundary layer momentum thickness ,
is often used to predict the drag force on the object surface.
By referring to Fig. 1.3, again the velocity deficit through the element strip of cross section bb contributes to deficit in momentum flux as
uU u bdy

(1.8)

Thus, the total momentum reductions

uU u bdy

(1.9)

However, if we displace the plate upward by a distance at section a-a to give momentum
reduction of U 2b , then the momentum deficit for the both cases will be identical if

uU u bdy U

(1.10)

and

U 1 U dy

(1.11)

Here, is known as the boundary layer displacement thickness.

The momentum thickness represents the vertical distance that the solid boundary must be
displaced upward so that the ideal fluid has the same mass momentum as the real fluid.

Question:
1.
If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be
given by first order polynomial u a by , where a and b are constant, determine
a)
The ratio of displacement thickness to boundary layer thickness
b)
The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness

2.
Show that, if the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is
assumed to be given by second order polynomial, the velocity distribution can be expressed
as follow
u
y y
2
U

3.
By assuming that the velocity gradient in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is in
the form of second order polynomial, calculate
a)
The displacement thickness
b)
The momentum thickness

4.

If the velocity distribution in laminar boundary layer over flat plate is assumed to be

given by

u
y
sin
, determine
U
2

a)
b)

The ratio of momentum thickness to displacement thickness

The ratio of momentum thickness to boundary layer thickness

5.

The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given by

u y

U

Calculate the displacement thickness and momentum thickness.

6.
The velocity distribution in the boundary layer over the surface of highway was
observed to be
u y

U

0.22

The free stream velocity is 20m/s and boundary layer thickness of 5cm at a certain section.
Calculate the displacement thickness and momentum thickness at the section under
consideration.

Expression for * and using various types of velocity profiles in the boundary layer is
tabulated in Tab. 1.1
Tab. 1.1 * and for various types of velocity profiles in the boundary layer
Types of velocity
distribution
Linear profile ,

Boundary layer
displacement thickness, *

u y

Parabolic profile,
2

u
y
y
2
U

Cubic profile,
u 3 y 1 y

U 2 2

u
y
Turbulent profile,
U

6
2

15

39

280

Sin-Cos profile,
u
y
sin

U
2

Boundary layer momentum

thickness,

2 1

2

72

Blassius Boundary Layer Solution

In 1908, H. Blassius, one of Prandtl student proposed simplified equations for the boundary
layer flow by assuming that
v u

(1.12)

x
y

(1.13)

Therefore, the fluid flow equations reduce to

u

u
u
1 p
2u
v

2
x
y
x
y

(1.14)

From the Bernoulli equation, we know that

1 p

U
x

(1.15)

Then, the equation in the boundary layer becomes

u

u
u
U
2u
v
U
2
x
y
x
y

(1.16)

For the flow specifically over the flat surface, we can assume uniform horizontal velocity and
therefore U x 0 , thus

u
u
2u
v
2
x
y
y

(1.17)

Here we introduce the equation of stream function as follow

u

,v
y
x

(1.18)

Substitute back into the above equation gives

2 2
3

y xy x y 2
y 3

(1.19)

Blassius then introduced the dimensionless similarity variable U x 1 2 y and the stream
function xU 1 2 f , where f is an unknown function.
By using the rules of differentiation, we obtain as the following
1

1 U 2

f f
x 2 x

Uf
y
2
1
Uf
xy
2x

(1.20)

U 2
U f
2
y
x

3
y 3

U2
f
x
2

where f f , f 2 f , f 3 f

Substituting all the differentiation terms into Eq. (1.19) leads to

f

1
ff 0
2

(1.21)

Eq. (1.21) can be solved numerically by taking the boundary conditions as follow
f 0 0
f 0
0

f
0 when

The solution (Blassius solution) is tabulated as follow

(1.22)

Table 1.2 The Blassius solution

yU x 1 2

0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2

f u U

0
0.1328
0.2647
0.3938
0.5168
0.6298
0.7290
0.8115
0.8767

3.6
4.0
4.4
4.8
5.0
5.2
5.6
6.0

0.9233
0.9555
0.9759
0.9878
0.9916
0.9943
0.9975
0.9990
1.0000

From the solution, it is found that u U 0.99 when 5 , thus, from the similarity variables
1

U 2
5
x

(1.23)

or

5x
Re1x 2

where Re x U x

(1.24)

Using some manipulations of algebra, the displacement and momentum thickness can be
expressed as
*

1.721x

(1.25)

Re1x 2

and

0.664 x

(1.26)

Re1x 2

The wall shear stress is then determined by taking u y y 0 and give

w 0.332U 3 2

(1.27)

Von-Karmann Momentum Integral Equation

One of the main drawbacks of the Blassius solution is the limitation to the laminar flow over
a flat surface only. In reality, most of the flowsare turbulent. Therefore, the demand to
replace the Blassius solution with other equation which can predict the turbulent boundary
layer flow leads to a great work done by Von-Karmann in 1921. Von Karmann formulated a
general equation from the conservation of momentum theory which can predict the boundary

layer flow covers from laminar to turbulent regions. His equation contributes advancementin
the prediction of drag caused by shear forces on a body.
To see the formulation, consider a uniform flow past a flat plate and the fixed control volume
as shown in Fig. 1.5

Figure 1.5 Control volume for the derivation of Von Karmann momentum integral equation
We apply the horizontal component of the momentum equation gives

uV ndA uV ndA

(1.28)

or

U U dA u 2 dA

(1.29)

U bh b u 2 dy
2

(1.30)

Since there is no cross flow through streamline, the mass flow rate must be equal through
section (1) and (2)

Ubh ubdy

(1.31)

which can be modified as

U 2bh b Uudy

(1.32)

Substitute into Eq. (1.30)

Fx b Uudy b u 2 dy
0

(1.33)

or

Fx b u U u dy

(1.34)

We can see that Eq. (1.34) can be written in terms of the momentum thickness as follow

bU 2

(1.35)

However, we know that the change of momentum contributes to the development of drag
force on the solid surface such as

w dA b

surface

w dx

surface

(1.36)

This gives

b w dx bU 2

(1.37)

Differentiating both sides gives

b w bU 2

d
dx

(1.38)

Now, we obtained the Von-Karmann momentum integral equation for the boundary layer
flow over a flat plate
w U 2

d
dx

(1.39)

Figure 1.6 Wall shear stress

Referring to Fig. 1.6, the drag force on the solid surface can be determined by considering the
drag force on the small area dA as
dFD wbdx

(1.40)

Then the total drag force on one side of plate with length L

FD dFD wbdx
0

(1.41)

It is also often convenient to use the dimensionless local friction coefficient c f and friction
drag coefficient c D which are
cf

and

w
1
U 2
2

(1.42)

cD

FD
1
U 2 A
2

where A: total area (for this case, A=bl)

(1.43)

Respectively.
The Blassius solution for these two coefficients is
cf

0.664
Re1x 2

(1.44)

1.328
Re1L 2

(1.45)

and
cD

where ReL UL

Next we demonstrate the derivation of the equations of boundary layer thickness, boundary
layer displacement thickness, boundary layer momentum thickness, local friction coefficient
and total drag coefficient based on the following velocity distributions using the Vonkarmann momentum integral equation;
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

Linear velocity distribution

Second order polynomial
Third order polynomial
Sin-Cos profile

Case 1: Linear velocity profile,

w U 2

Since

U 2

d
u
and w
dx
y

u
y

y 0

u y

(1.46)
y 0

therefore

d
U

dx

From the previous calculation, we know that

U 2 d
6

dx

(1.47)

, therefore
6

(1.48)

or
d

6
dx
U

We integrate both sides and gives

(1.49)

2
2

6
xC
U

(1.50)

At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
12x
U
12xx

Ux
12 x 2

Ux

(1.51)

12 x 2
Re x

Then we obtained the following

3.464 x

(1.52)

Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
*

1.732 x

(1.53)

Re x

0.5773x

(1.54)

Re x

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

w

0.2887

U
x

Re x

(1.55)

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

w

cf

1
U 2
2
U
0.2887
Re x
x

1
U 2
2
0.5774
0.5774

Ux

Re x

(1.56)

Re x
Re x

0.5774
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

cD

FD
1
U 2 A
2

where

(1.57)

FD

wbdx

0.2887

U Ux
0.2887
bdx
x

Re x bdx

0.2887 U

(1.58a)

1
2 bdx

x 2
U

FD b 0.2887 U

1 2

(1.58b)

U 1 2
b 0.5774 U
L b 0.5774U Re L

Therefore
cD

b 0.5774 U Re L
1
U 2bL
2

1.1548

UL

Re L 1.1548

Re L
Re L

(1.59)

1.1548
Re L
2

Case 2: Second order polynomial

w U 2

Since

U 2

u
y

d
u
and w
dx
y

y 0

2U

u
y
y
2
U

(1.60)
y 0

therefore

d
U
2
dx

From the previous calculation, we know that

2 U 2 d
U
2
15 dx

(1.61)
2
, therefore
15

(1.62)

or
d

15
dx
U

(1.63)

we integrate both sides and gives

2
2

15
xC
U

At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0

(1.64)

30x
U
30xx

Ux
30 x 2

Ux

(1.65)

30 x 2
Re x

Then we obtained the following

5.48 x

(1.66)

Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
*

1.826 x
Re x

2 0.730 x

15
Re x

(1.67)
(1.68)

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

w 2

U
U
0.365
Re x

(1.69)

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

w

cf

1
U 2
2
U
0.365
Re x
x

1
U 2
2
0.730
0.730

Ux

Re x

(1.70)

Re x
Re x

0.730
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

cD

FD
1
U 2 A
2

where

(1.71)

FD

wbdx

0.365

U Ux
0.365
bdx
x

Re x bdx

0.365U

1
2 bdx

(1.72a)

x 2
U

FD b 0.365U

1 2

(1.72b)

U 1 2
b 0.730 U
L b 0.730U Re L

Therefore
cD

b 0.730U Re L
1
U 2bL
2

1.46

UL

Re L 1.46

Re L
Re L

(1.73)

1.46
Re L

Case 3: Third order polynomial

w U 2

Since

U 2

du
dy

d
u
and w
dx
y

y 0

u 3 y 1 y

U 2 2

(1.74)
y 0

3U
therefore
2

d 3 U

dx 2

From the previous calculation, we know that

39
d 3U
U 2

280
dx
2

(1.75)
39
, therefore
280

(1.76)

or
d

3
280 dx
420
U

dx
2
2
39 U
39 U

(1.77)

We integrate both sides and gives

2
2

420
xC
39 U

At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0

(1.78)

840
x
39 U
x
21.538
x
Ux
x2
21.538
Ux

(1.79)

21.538

x
Re x

Then we obtain the following

4.64 x

(1.80)

Re x

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
3 1.74 x

8
Re x

(1.81)

39 0.646 x

280
Re x

(1.82)

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

3U
U
0.323
2
x

(1.83)

Re x

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

w

cf

1
U 2
2
U
0.323
Re x
x

1
U 2
2

0.647

Re x

0.647

(1.84)

Re x

Ux
Re x

0.647
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD
1
U 2 A
2

cD

(1.85)

where
FD

wbdx

0.323

0.323

U Ux
bdx
x

Re x bdx
0.323U

1
2 bdx

(1.86a)

U x 2
FD b 0.323U

1 2

(1.87a)

U 1 2
b 0.646 U
L b 0.646U Re L

Therefore
cD

b 0.646U Re L
1
U 2bL
2

1.292

UL

Re L 1.292

Re L
Re L

(1.88)

1.292
Re L

Case 4: Velocity distribution :

w U 2

d
u
and w
dx
y

u
y
sin

U
2

(1.89)
y 0

Since
y
du
U cos

dy
2 2

(1.90)

and
du
dy

y 0

U
therefore
2

U
d
U 2
2
dx

(1.91)

2 1
From the previous calculation, we know that , therefore

U
2 1
2 d

U
dx
2
2

(1.92)

or
d

1
2
U
2 dx
U

dx

2
4

U 2

(1.93)

or
d 11.4975

dx
U

(1.94)

Integrating both sides, we get

2
2

11.4975

xC
U

(1.95)

At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0
2 22.995

x
x
Ux
x2
22.995
Ux
22.995

(1.96)

22.995

x
Re x

Then we obtain the following

4.795 x
Re x

(1.97)

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow

2
3.05 x

Re x

(1.98)

0.651x
4

2

Re x

(1.99)

* 1

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

w

U
U
0.328
Re x
2
x

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

(1.100)

cf

1
U 2
2
U
0.328
Re x
x

1
U 2
2
0.655

Re x

0.655

(1.101)

Re x

Ux
Re x

0.655
Re x

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

FD

cD

(1.102)

1
U 2 A
2

where
FD

wbdx

0.328

0.328

U Ux
bdx
x

Re x bdx

0.328U

1
2 bdx

(1.103a)

U x 2
FD b 0.328U

1 2

U 1 2
b 0.656 U
L b 0.656U Re L

(1.103b)

Therefore
cD

b 0.656U Re L
1
U 2bL
2

1.312

UL

Re L 1.312

Re L
Re L

(1.104)

1.312
Re L

As mentioned earlier, most of the flow is turbulent in nature. When the Reynolds number of
the surface exceed approximately Re 5 105 , the boundary layer transitions from laminar to
turbulent.

Figure 1.7 Turbulent boundary layer

The velocity distribution for the turbulent boundary layer is given by the one-seventh power
law as follow
1

u y 7

U

However, the difficulty arises when determining the wall shear stress as it approaches infinity
as below
u
y

y 0

1 U
.
7 1 7 y6 7

Here, the correlation for shear stress is taken from experimental work as
14

w 0.0226 U 2

Now we will determine , c f and cD for the region of turbulent boundary layer.
From the previous calculation, we know that

7
, therefore
72

14

7
d

U 2
0.0226 U 2

72
dx
U

(1.76)

or
14

1 4 d 0.232

dx

(1.77)

We integrate both sides and gives

14

4 54

0.232
5
U

xC

At x 0, 0 and therefore C 0

(1.78)

14

5 4 0.291

14

x
0.291
Ux

(1.79)

14

0.291
Ux
0.291

54

x5 4
Re1x 4

Then we obtain the following

0.372 x
Re1x 5

(1.80)

The boundary layer displacement and momentum thickness are calculated as follow
*

0.047 x
Re1x 5

(1.81)

7 0.36 x

72 Re1x 5

(1.82)

The wall shear stress is then calculated as

14

w 0.0226 U 2
0.372 x
U

Re1x 5

14

15
2 Re x
0.0289 U
Ux

14

Re1x 5
0.0289 U
Re
x

14

1
0.0289 U
Re4 5
x

(1.83)

0.0289 U 2
Re1x 5

The local wall friction coefficient is calculated as

cf

w
1
U 2
2
14

0.0289 U
Re 4 5
x

1
2
U
2
2

14

1
0.0579 4 5
Re
x
0.0579

Re1x 5

The wall friction coefficient is calculated as

(1.84)

FD
1
U 2 A
2

cD

(1.85)

where
FD

wbdx

0.0289 U 2
bdx
Re1x 5
15

0.0289 U bdx
Ux

15

0.0289 U b
U
2

1
5 dx

(1.86a)

4
x5

FD 0.0289 U 2b

U 4 5

0
15

(1.87a)

15

0.036 U 2b
U

L4 5

Therefore
15

0.036 U 2b
U
cD
1
U 2bL
2
15

0.072
U

L4 5

1
1

0
.
072
UL
L1 5

15

(1.88)

0.072
Re1L 5

Now the formulated expression for , c f and cD for various velocity distribution in laminar
region and turbulent region are tabulated in Table 1.3

Table 1.3 Results for various assumed laminar and turbulent flow velocity profiles
Types of velocity
distribution
Blassius Solution
Linear profile ,

u y

Parabolic profile,
2

u
y
y
2
U

Cubic profile,
u 3 y 1 y

U 2 2

Sin-Cos profile,
u
y
sin

U
2
Turbulent profile,
u y

U

cf

cD

5x

0.664

1.328

Re x

Re x

Re x

3.46 x

0.58

1.15

Re x

Re x

Re L

5.48 x

0.730

1.46

Re x

Re x

Re L

4.64 x

0.647

1.292

Re x

Re x

Re L

4.795 x

0.655

1.312

Re x

Re x

Re L

0.372 x
Re1x 5

0.058
Re1x 5

0.072
Re1L 5

Question:
1. Consider a flow over a horizontal flat plate (1.25m x 2.5m)with velocity 3.0m/s.
Calculate
a. Boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge
b. Shear stress at the middle of the flat plate
c. Resultant drag force on both sides of the flat plate
3

-5

(Take = 850 kg/m , = 10 m /s)

2. A submarine can be assumed to have cylindrical shape with rounded nose. Assuming
its length to be 50m and diameter 5.0m. Determine the total power required to
overcome boundary friction if it cruises at 8m/s velocity in sea water.
3

-6

(Take = 1030 kg/m , = 10 m /s)

3. A barge with a rectangular bottom surface 30m long times 10m wide is traveling
down a river with a velocity of 0.6m/s. A laminar boundary layer exists up to a
5
Reynolds number equivalent to 5 x 10 and subsequently abrupt transition occurs to
turbulent boundary layer.
a. The maximum distance from the leading edge up to which laminar boundary
layer thickness persists and the boundary layer thickness at that point.
b. The total drag force on the flat bottom surface of the barge.
c. The power required to push the bottom surface through water at the given
3

-6

velocity. (Take = 998 kg/m , = 10 m /s)

4. Determine the total power required to pull the timber (diameter 0.4m and length 15m)
with velocity 0.8m/s. Only half of the timber on the water surface. Neglect the drag
force due to front surface.
Take C Dla min ar =

1.31
Re

, C Dturbulence =

0.074
5

, water = 1000 kg m 3 , v 1 10 6 m 2 s

Re

5. Calculate the ratio of drag force on the front half and rear half of the flat plate
(Length L and width b) in a uniform velocity, if the boundary layer is turbulent over
the whole plate.