Unit I Introduction PDF

DESIGN OF
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
1. INTRODUCTION
1
IFETCE/EEE/M.SUJITH/III YEAR/VI SEM/EE 2355/DEM/PPT/VER 1.0
Major considerations in Electrical Machine Design Electrical Engineering Materials-Space factor - Choice of
Specific Electrical and Magnetic loadings -Thermal
considerations - Heat flow -Temperature rise - Rating of
machines -Standard specifications.
2
Major considerations in Electrical

Machine Design
DESIGN may
be defined as a creative physical

realization of theoretical concepts.
ENGINEERING DESIGN is the application of Science,
technology and inventions to produce various machines to
solve specified tasks with optimum economy and
efficiency.
Problem of design and manufacture of electric machinery
is to build, as economically as possible, a machine which
fulfils a certain set of specifications and guarantees.
3
The major considerations to evolve a good design are:

(i)
Cost .
(ii)
Durability.
(iii)
Compliance with performance criteria as laid down in

specifications.
4
Design Factors
Mechanical force required for movement in rotating

electrical machines can be produced both by electrostatic
and electromagnetic fields since both the fields store
energy.
In electrostatic machines, the energy density is limited by

the dielectric strength of the medium used.
In electromagnetic machines, magnetic effect is used for

production of force and there is no comparable restriction
in magnetic fields.
5
Voltages that can be developed and used by normal

means, the forces produced by electrostatic effects are
very weak.
A small current can produce large mechanical forces by

electromagnetic means and therefore all the modern
electrical machines are electromagnetic type.
6
DESIGN FLOW CHART

START
GIVEN
SPECIFICATION
CHOICE OF MATERIALS:
MAGNETIC, CONDUCTING,
INSULATING, etc.
ASSUMPTION OF BASIC QUANTITIES
SUCH AS, FLUX DENSITY, AMP.COND/m,
etc
DESIGN PROCESS: MAGNETIC CIRCUIT,

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT, MECHANICAL &
THERMAL DESIGN
MODIFY
ASSUMPTIONS
7
A
IFETCE/EEE/M.SUJITH/III YEAR/VI SEM/EE 2355/DEM/PPT/VER
1.0
A
PERFORMANCE
CALCULATION
B
COMPARE WITH GIVEN
SPECIFICATION
IS
SATISFACTORY?
NO
YES
PRINT DESIGN
SHEET
STOP
8
BASIC STRUCTURAL PARTS OF AN

ELECTROMAGNETIC ROTATING MACHINE
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT:
Provides the path for magnetic flux.
Consists of air gap, stator& rotor teeth, stator &rotor, cores(yokes)
cores (yokes).
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT:
Consists of stator &rotor windings.
DIELECTRIC CIRCUIT :
Consists of insulation
THERMAL CIRCUIT:
Considered with mode& media for dissipation of
heat.
MECHANICAL PARTS:
Frame, bearing and shaft.
9
Limitations in design
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
Saturation.
Temperature rise.
Insulation.
Efficiency.
Mechanical parts.
Commutation.
Power factor.
Consumer specifications
Standard specifications.
10
SATURATION:
The maximum allowable flux density is to be determined by the
Saturation level of the ferromagnetic material.
TEMPERATURE RISE:
Life of the machine depends on the type of insulating material
used.
Life of the insulating material in turn depends upon the
temperature rise of the machine .
Proper cooling and ventilation techniques are required to keep the
temperature rise within safe limits.
11
INSULATION:
The insulating material should withstand electrical,

mechanical and thermal stresses produced in the machine.
The size of the insulation is not only decided by the

maximum voltage stress but also by the mechanical stresses
produced.
Eg. For the same operating voltage thicker insulation has to

be used for large sized conductors than for smaller sized
ones.
12
EFFICIENCY:
Should be as high as possible to reduce the operating cost.
Magnetic and electric loadings used should be small and this

requires large amount of material.
So the capital cost of a machine designed foe high efficiency

is high while its running cost is low.
13
MECHANICAL PARTS:
Construction
of a machine
technological requirements.
should satisfy numerous
In I.M length of air gap is small in order to have high p.f.
In large machines, size of the shaft is decided by considering

the critical speed, which depends upon the deflection of the
shaft.
Type of bearings to be used depends on the inertia forces due

to unbalanced rotors and unbalanced magnetic pull, and the
type of construction whether the machine is mounted
vertically or horizontally.
14
COMMUTATION:
Commutation conditions limits the maximum output of the

machine.
POWER FACTOR:
Poor P.F results in larger values of current for the same power,
therefore larger conductor sizes have to be used.
Problem of P.F is particularly important in case if I.M.
Length of air gap is determined by P.F considerations.
Value of flux density depends on the power factor, hence P.F

becomes a limiting factor.
15
CONSUMERS SPECIFICATIONS:
Specifications laid down in the consumers order has

to be met.
Design evolved should also satisfy the economical
constraints imposed on the manufacturer.
STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS:
Specifications are the biggest strain on the design,

since both the consumer as well as the manufacturer
cannot get away from them without satisfying them.
16
Modern machine manufacturing techniques
Modern machines are characterised by a very wide range

of power outputs.
The power range varies from a fraction of a watt to

several hundreds of megawatt in a single unit.
Thus the ratio of power output of the smallest machine to

that of the largest machine is 1:1010
17
Range of rotational speeds of electrical machines is very

wide.
One machine may have a speed of few revolutions per

second while that of another may be several thousand
revolutions per second.
The large varied fields of applications, and wide range of

both power output and speed of operation of electrical
machines has led to a variety of types of construction.
18
CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF

MANUFACTURING
1.
Small size Machine (up to 750W).
2.
Medium size Machine (Few kW-250kW).
3.
Large size Machine (250kW-5000kW).
4.
Larger size Machine (hundreds of MW).

19
Small size machines: Electrical machines having power output up to

about 750 W may be called small machines.
Medium size machines: Electrical machines having power outputs

ranging from a few kilowatt up to approximately 250 kW may be
classified as medium size machines.
Large size machines: Electrical machines with power O/P in the range
of 250 kW up to about 5000 kW are classified as larger size machines.
The machines are usually designed and manufactured as a series and
have a definite power output range.
Larger machines are designed on individual basis. The power o/p of the
machines are hundreds to megawatt.
20
The action of Electromagnetic machines can be related to

3 BASIC PRINCIPLES namely,
(i) Induction (Faradays law).
(ii) Interaction (Biot Savarts law).
(iii) Alignment (Production of force due
to alignment-in Reluctance motors).
21
BASIC PRINCIPLES:
Faradays law:
This law states that e.m.f induced in a closed electric

circuit is equal to the rate of change of flux linkage.
The direction of induced e.m.f is such that the current

produced by it opposes the change in flux linkages.
22
The change in flux linkages can be caused in three ways:
Coil is stationary w.r.t flux and the flux varies in magnitude w.r.t
time- emf induced is called as transformer emf or pulsational emfused in transformers.
Flux is constant w.r.t time and is stationary and the coil moves
through it- emf induced is called motional emfused in rotating
machines like d.c machines, induction and synchronous machines.
Both the changes mentioned above occur together i.e., the coil
moves through a time varying field- this process involves both
transfer and conversion of energy- thus used in commutator
machines.
23
The electromagnetic force is given by:

fe= Bil sin newton
Where B= flux density, Wb/m2;
l = length of conductor, m;
I = current carried by conductor, A;
= angle between direction of current and
magnetic field.
When the conductor and magnetic field are perpendicular to each
other, = 90 degree.
So , fe= Bil newton
24
ELECTROMAGNETIC DESIGN
STATOR & ROTOR
ROTATING MACHINE
Core
STATIONARY
Core & winding
Teeth dimension
Winding & air gap
25
MECHANICAL DESIGN
ROTATING
STATIONARY
Frame
Shaft
tank)
Bearings
Tank
(Transformer
26
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

It consists of
1.
Conducting materials
2.
Magnetic materials
3.
Insulating materials
Electrical Conducting materials consists of
1.
High conductivity materials
used for making all types if windings required
2.
in electrical machines, apparatus, devices .

in transmission and distribution.
High resistivity materials (alloys).
Used for making resistances and heating devices.
27
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTING MATERIALS:
High conductivity materials.
Copper, Aluminium, Iron & Steel, Alloys of copper.

High resistivity materials (Alloys).
Nickel, Silver & Iron
28
FUNDAMENTAL REQUIREMENTS
MATERIALS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
OF
HIGH
CONDUCTING
Highest possible conductivity.

Least possible temperature coefficient of resistance.
Adequate mechanical strength i.e., absence of brittleness.
Rollability and Drawability.
Good weldability and Solderability which ensures high reliability
and low electrical resistance of the joints.
Adequate resistance to corrosion.
29
ALLOYS OF COPPER:
1.
Bronze- copper based alloys containing tin, cadmium, beryllium and

certain other metals are generally called Bronzes.
Beryllium copper
Cadmium copper
Brass- contains 66% Cu, 34%Zn.
Copper silver alloy- contains 99.1% Cu, 0.06 to 0.1% silver.
2.
3.
30
MATERIALS OF HIGH RESISTIVITY:

They can be classified into 3 categories:
I- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR PRECISION WORKS)
Consists of materials used in precision measuring

instruments & in making standard resistances and resistance
boxes.
Important material used is Manganin (composition of

Cu86%, Mn 12%, Ni 2%)
II- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR RHEOSTATS)
Consists of materials from which resistance

elements are made for all kinds of rheostats and
similar control devices.
Principal alloy is constantan consisting of 60 to 65
% Cu and 40 to 35% Ni).
II- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR HEATING DEVICES )
Consists of materials suitable for making high

temperature elements for electric furnaces, heating
devices and loading rheostats.
31
Alloys of Nickel, Chromium and Iron called as

Nichrome.
Alloys of Aluminium, Iron and Chromium.
ELECTRICAL CARBON MATERIALS:
manufactured from graphite and other forms of

carbon coal, etc.
Carbon brushes are often graphited i.e., heat treated to

increase the size of crystals.
This raises the conductivity of the brushes and reduces their
hardness.
Carbon brushes should acquire a mirror smooth surface in
order that they does not cause wear of commutator when
mounted on them.
32
CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Based on the relative permeability, materials may classified as,
1.
2.
3.
Ferromagnetic materials. (r much>1)

Paramagnetic materials. (r slightly>1)
Diamagnetic materials. (r slightly<1)
Based on the width of hysteresis loop,

1.
2.
Soft magnetic materials.

Hard magnetic materials.
33
SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS:

i) Solid core materials
ii) Electrical sheet & strip
iii) Special purpose alloys.
i)
ii)
iii)
SOLID CORE MATERIALS:

Iron, low carbon silicon steel, cast iron, gray cast iron,
cast steel, soft steel, ferro-cobalt.
SHEET METALS:
Electrical steel sheets (Non-oriented steel), and
Cold Rolled Grain Oriented steel (CRGO).
SPECIAL PURPOSE ALLOYS:
Mumetal, Permalloys, Super permalloy, Perminvar,
Permendur.
34
INSULATING MATERIALS (or) INSULANTS

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES:
An ideal insulating material should have;
i) high dielectric strength, sustained at elevated
temperatures,
ii) high resistivity or specific resistance,
iii) low dielectric losses,
iv) good thermal conductivity,
v) high degree of thermal stabilty i.e. it should not
deteriorate at high temperatures.
35
CLASSIFICATION:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
Class Y - cotton, silk, paper, cellulose, wood, etc neither

impregnated nor immersed in oil.
Class materials of class Y suitably impregnated.
Class E- Synthetic resin enamels, cotton, paper laminated with
formaldehyde bonding, etc.
Class B- mica, glass fibre, asbestos, etc, with suitable bonding
materials.
Class F-materials of class B with suitable bonding materials of
higher thermal stability(25C higher than class B).
Class H- glass fibre, asbestos & built up mica, with suitable bonding
materials like silicon resins.
36
vii.
Class C- Mica, ceramics, glass, quartz without binders or with

silicon resins of higher thermal stability.
INSULATING MATERIALS USED IN MODERN ELECTRIC

MACHINES:
Mica, Micafolium, Fibrous glass, Asbestos, Cotton fibre,
Polyamides, Synthetic-resin enamels, Slot-lining materials, Wood,
Silicones, Epoxide thermosetting resins, Synthetic resin,
Petroleum based mineral oils, Askarels.
APPLICATIONS:
a.
b.
c.
Wires for magnetic coils and windings of machines.

Laminations
Machines& Transformers.
37
LIST OF SYMBOLS:
SYMBOL
MEANING
UNIT
Number of parallel paths in armature

winding.
az
Area of cross section of conductor
mm2
ac
Specific electric loading
Amp.cond./m
Bav
Specific magnetic loading
Wb/m2 or tesla
Bgm
Maximum air gap flux density under load

conditions.
Wb/m2 or tesla
Pole arc
bp
Width of the pole body
Co
Output coefficient
Kva/m3-rps
Cooling coefficient
C W-m2
Armature diameter
38
ds
Depth of the slot
mm
Generated emf or back emf
Ecm
Maximum voltage between adjacent

segments
Eph
Induced emf per phase
frequency
Hz
Rated current
Ia
Armature current
Iz
Current in each conductor
Iph
Current per phase
Armature length
m
39
speed
rpm
speed
rps
ns
Synchronous speed
Rps
Rating of machine
kW
Pa
Power developed by armature
kW
No. of poles
kVA rating of the machine
kVA
Ql
Loss dissipated per unit area
kW/m3
resistance
ohm
Dissipating surface
m2
Tc
Turns per coil
Tph
Turns per phase
40
Va
Peripheral speed
m/sec
Ws
Width of the slot
mm
ys
Slot pitch
mm
Total no.of armature or stator conductors
Magnetic flux
Wb
Ratio of pole arc to pole pitch
Pole pitch
efficiency
Temperature rise
Current density
A/mm
Resistivity
ohm-m
41
CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF ROTATING

MACHINES
Every rotating machine has the following three quantities.

The presence of any two quantities, will produce the third
quantity.
Magnetic field-I (field)
Magnetic field-II (armature)
Mechanical force.
42
CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF A D.C

MACHINE:
STATOR
- yoke or frame
- field pole
- pole shoe
- field winding
- Interpole
ROTOR
- armature core
- armature winding
- commutator
OTHERS
- brush
-brush holder
43
CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SALIENT

POLE SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
STATOR
- yoke or frame
- armature core
- armature winding
ROTOR
- field pole
- pole shoe
- field winding
-damper winding
44
CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF CYLINDRICAL

ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
STATOR
- yoke or frame
- armature core
- armature winding
ROTOR
- solid rotor
-field conductors or bars
45
CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF
CYLINDRICAL ROTOR SYNCHRONOUS
MACHINE
STATOR
- yoke or frame
- stator core
- stator winding
ROTOR
- rotor core
-rotor bars
-end rings
46
CONSTRUCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SLIP RING

INDUCTION MACHINE
STATOR
- yoke or frame
- stator core
- stator winding
ROTOR
- rotor core
-rotor winding
-slip rings
47
Space Factor
Space factor (Sf) is the ratio of bare conductor

area to total slot area.
48
CHOICE OF SPECIFIC ELECTRIC & MAGNETIC LOADING

SPECIFIC ELECTRIC LOADING (ac):
Defined as the average flux density over the air-gap of the
machine.
Total flux around the air gap

p
Bav
Area of flux path at the air gap DL

SPECIFIC MAGNETIC LOADING (Bav):
Defined as the number of armature (or stator) ampere conductors
per metre of armature (or stator) periphery at the air-gap.
Total armature ampere conductors IzZ

ac
Armature perihery at the air gap

D
49
FACTORS DECIDING THE CHOICE OF SPECIFIC

MAGNETIC LOADING:
Maximum flux density in iron parts of the machine,
Magnetizing current, and
Core losses.
FACTORS DECIDING THE CHOICE OF SPECIFIC
ELECTRIC LOADING:
Permissible temperature rise,

Voltage rating of the machine,
Size of the machine, and
Current density.
50
CHOICE OF SPECIFIC ELECTRIC LOADING(ac)

i) Temperature rise ()
depends on Q (losses), which in turn depends on ac.
Allowable depends on insulating material used.
ii) Cooling coefficient (C)
is also proportional to the cooling coefficient;
a machine with a better ventilation has a lower C and then higher ac can
be used.
iii) Operating voltage (V)
In high voltage machines, the slot space factor, Sf is less and so only
smaller ac can be used. It also depends on the shape of the
conductors, circular or rectangular in cross section.
iv) Current Density ()
Choice of depends on cooling; higher C higher value in the
choice of ac.
51
THERMAL CONSIDERATIONS
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER:

Conduction.
Natural
Convection.
Radiation.
Artificial
EQUATION OF HEAT FLOW FOR CONDUCTION
Qcon = 1- 2
R
where,
Qcon =heat dissipated by conduction, W;
1,2 = temperatures of two bounding surfaces ,C;
R =thermal resistance of the conducting medium,
thermal ohm.
52
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING:

Q=Qrad + Qconv
=radS+ conv S
Q = S watt
Where = rad + conv

= specific heat dissipation or emissivity due to
radation plus convection.
THERMAL RESISTANCE:
It is defined as the resistance which causes a drop of 1C per
watt of heat flow.
53
HEATING TIME CONSTANT:
It is the index of time taken by the machine to attain its final

steady temperature rise.
COOLING TIME CONSTANT:
It is defined as time taken by the machine for its temperature

rise to fall to 0.368 of its initial value.
RATING OF MACHINES:
Rating of machines refers to the whole of the numerical values

of electrical and mechanical quantities with their duration and
sequences assigned to the machines by the manufacturers and stated on
the rating plate, the machine complying with the specified dimensions.
54
ENCLOSURES FOR ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINE
9.
Open machine
Open pedestal machine
Open end- bracket machine
Protected machine
Screen protected machine
Drip-proof machine
Splash-proof machine
Hose-proof machine
Pipe-ventilated (or) duct-ventilated machine
10.
Totally enclosed machine
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
55
Heat flow
Heat flow in two dimensions:
Heat does not travel along parallel paths and the dissipating surfaces are
not homogenous.
In actual practice the heat flow is in different directions and the windings
and cores have insulation in addition to copper and iron respectively.
Thermal resistivity of built up windings and cores depends upon relative
thickness of insulation to copper and iron.
56
Consider a coil having a large axial length:

l-length of coil m,
W-width of coil m,
T- thickness of coil,m.
py-thermal resistivity along aa, ohm m
px-thermal resistivity along bb, ohm m
q- heat produced per unit volume.
57
Thermal resistance of horizontal and vertical elementary strips

Two thermal paths are in parallel.
y dxw / t
y wdx
l ( AB CD)
4lxt
w
x dx
x tdx
t
l ( AB CD) 4lwx
58
Total thermal resistance of walls
x y twdx
4lx y w2 xt 2
Q be the total heat produced in the coil
Q
w
t
8l
t
x w y
59
TEMPERATURE RISE
Q = Power loss (heat produced ), J/s or W
G = weight of the active material of the Machine, kg
h = specific heat, J/kg-C
S = cooling surface area, m2
= specific heat dissipation, W/ m2 -C
c = 1/ = cooling coefficient, m2 -C / W
m = final steady temperature rise, C
60
HEATING CURVE
m
Temp rise
= m(1-e-t/Th)
0.0632
m
Th
Time,t
61
COOLING CURVE
Temp rise
= ie-t/Tc
0.368
i
Tc
Time,t
62
Rating of Machines
Rating of machines refers to the whole of the numerical values of

electrical and mechanical quantities with their duration and sequence as
signed to the machines by the manufactures and stated on the rating
plate, the machine complying with specified conditions.
63
OVER MOTORING:
(using a motor of higher rating than is required by load) leads to higher
capital costs and increased losses because of lower efficiency at
reduced load.
In a.c drives, motors working at reduced loads lead to poor power
factor leading to uneconomic loading of supply circuits and apparatus.
LOAD DIAGRAM(or) TIME SEQUENCE GRAPHS:
which show the variation of motor torque, power and load current as
function of time.
64
TYPES OF DUTIES AND RATINGS
The following are the types of duty as per IS:4722-1968

Specification for rotating electric machinery:
S1: Continuous duty

S2: Short time duty
S3:Intermittent periodic duty
S4:Intermittent periodic duty with starting
S5:Intermittent periodic duty with starting & braking
S6:Continuous duty with intermittent periodic loading
S7:Continuous duty with starting & braking
S8:Continuous duty with periodic speed changes.
65
In the descriptions and diagrams for duty types S1 through S9 the following
symbols are used:
P = power in kW
Pv = losses in kW
max = maximum temp. in C
n = speed/min
= temperature in C
JM = moment of inertia of the
motor in kgm2
Jext = moment of inertia of the
load referenced to the motor
shaft in kgm2
tA = starting time in s, min

tB = load period in s, min
tBr = Braking time in s, min
tS = cycle duration in seconds
tSt = stop period in s, min, or h
tr = relative duty cycle (%)
t = time in s, min, or h
T = thermal time constant in
minutes
CONTINUOUS DUTY(DUTY TYPE S1 ):
Duration of load is for a sufficiently long time such that all

parts of the motor attain thermal equilibrium.
(i.e) The motor will attain its maximum final steady state
temperature rise.
E.g continuously running fans, pumps and other equipment
which operate for several hours.
The simplified load diagram is a horizontal straight line.
Continuous rating may be defined as the load that may be
carried by the machine for an infinite time without the
temperature rise of any part exceeding the maximum
permissible value.
67
SHORT TIME DUTY(DUTY TYPE S2 ):
The motor operates at a constant load for some specified time

which is then followed by a period of rest.
Period of load is so short that the machine cannot reach its

thermal equilibrium i.e steady state temperature rise.
Period of rest is so long that that the motor temperature drops to

the ambient temperature.
E.g. Railway turntable, navigation lock gates.
Short time rating of a motor may be defined as its output at

which it may be operated for a specified time without exceeding
the maximum permissible value of temperature rise.
68
S1: Continuous duty
S1: Short time duty
The period of operation is so short that the temperature rise of the motor does not
reach its final steady state value.
And the period of rest is so long that the motor returns to cold conditions.
Standard short time ratings are: 10,30,60 & 90 minutes
SHORT TIME RATING:

Short time rating of a motor may be defined as its output at which it
may be operated for a certain specified time without exceeding the
maximum permissible value of temperature rise.
INTERMITTENT RATING:
It applies to an operating condition during which short time load
periods alternate with periods of rest or no load without the motor
reaching the thermal equilibrium & without the maximum temperature
rising above the maximum permissible value .
DUTY FACTOR (or) LOAD FACTOR (or) CYLIC DURATION

FACTOR):
It is defined as the ratio of the heating (working) period to the period
of whole cycle.
70
INTERMITTENT PERIODIC DUTY(DUTY TYPE S3 ):

The period of constant load and machine de-energized alternate.
The load periods are too short to allow the motor to reach its final
steady state value.
Periods of rest are also too small to allow the motor to cool down to
ambient temperature.
E.g Cranes , lifts and certain metal cutting machine tool drives.
71
S3: Intermittent periodic duty-type without starting
INTERMITTENT PERIODIC DUTY WITH STARTING:

Consists of sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a
period of starting, a period of operation at constant load and a rest
period.
The operating period and rest period are too short to obtain thermal
equilibrium during one duty.
The intermittent rating of the motor applies to an operating condition

during which short time load periods alternate with periods of rest or
no load without the motor reaching the thermal equilibrium and
without the maximum temperature rising above the maximum
permissible value.
73
S4: Intermittent periodic duty with starting
INTERMITTENT PERIODIC DUTY WITH STARTING &

BRAKING:
Consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each consisting of a
period of starting, a period of operation at constant load, a period of
braking and a rest period.
The operating period and rest period are too short to obtain thermal
equilibrium during one duty cycle.
75
S5: Intermittent periodic duty with starting and electrical braking
CONTINUOUS DUTY WITH INTERMITTENT PERIODIC DUTY:

period of operation at constant load and a period of operation at no
load.
The machines with excited windings hence normal no load voltage
excitation during the load period.
The operation and no load voltage excitation during the load period are
too short to attain thermal equilibrium during one duty cycle .
77
S6: Continuous-operation periodic duty
CONTINUOUS DUTY WITH STARTING & BRAKING:
Consists of a sequence of identical duty cycles each having a period of

starting, a period of operation at constant load and a period of electrical
braking.
There is no rest or de-energised period.
The duty factor for this duty cycle is 1.
79
S7: Continuous-operation duty with starting and electrical braking
CONTINUOUS DUTY WITH PERIODIC SPEED CHANGES:

period of operation at constant load corresponding to a predetermined
speed of rotation, followed immediately by a period of operation at
another load corresponding to a different speed of operation.
The operating period is too short to attain thermal equilibrium during

one duty cycle, there being no rest and de=energized period.
81
S8: Continuous-operation periodic duty with related

load/speed changes
Temperature rise
Q = Power loss (heat produced ), J/s or W
G = weight of the active material of the Machine, kg
h = specific heat, J/kg-C
S = cooling surface area, m2
= specific heat dissipation, W/ m2 -C
c = 1/ = cooling coefficient, m2 -C / W
m = final steady temperature rise while heating , C
n = final steady temperature rise while cooling, C
i = initial temperature rise over ambient medium, C
Th = heating time constant
Tc = Cooling time constant, S
t = time, S
METHODS FOR DETERMINATION OF MOTOR RATINGS FOR

VARIABLE LOAD DRIVES:
I.
Method of average losses,
II.
Equivalent current method,
III.
Equivalent torque method, and
IV.
Equivalent power method.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE RISE:
i.
ii.
iii.
Thermometer method.
Resistance method.
Embedded temperature detector method.
85
COOLING OF ROTATING ELECTRICAL MACHINES:

In most cases, the cooling electrical machines is carried out by air
flow and this cooling is called ventilation.
In high speed machines such as turbo alternators, hydrogen is

used for cooling.
ADVANTAGES OF HYDROGEN COOLING:
Compared with air, hydrogen has the following properties:i)
(1/14) th density thereby the windage losses and
noise reduced .
ii)
14 times specific heat and 1.5 times heat
transfer leading to improved cooling.
86
iii) 7 times thermal conductivity resulting in reduced

temperature gradient,
iv) reduced corona effect,
v)
will not support combustion so long as the
hydrogen/air mixture exceeds 3/1.
In operation, the fans mounted on the rotor circulate

hydrogen through the ventilating ducts and internally
mounted gas coolers.
The required gas pressure is maintained by a regulator.
The precaution to be observed is the stator frame must be
gas tight and explosion proof and oil film gas seals at the
rotor shaft ends are essential.
87
INDUCED AND FORCED VENTILATION:
In induced ventilation, the fan produces decreased air pressure inside of

the machine, causing air to be sucked into the machine under the
external atmospheric pressure .
In the forced ventilation, the air is forced into the fan by the fans
mounted internally or externally.
The ventilation can also be classified as,

i) Radial,
ii) axial and
iii) combined radial and axial.
88
Standard Specifications
Standard ratings of machines

Types of enclosure
Standard dimensions of conductors to be used
Method of marking ratings and name plate details
Performance specifications to be met
Types of insulation and permissible temperature loss
Permissible loss and range of efficiency
Procedure for testing of machine parts and machines
Auxiliary equipments
89
Name Plate Details
KW or KVA rating of machine

Rated working voltage
Operating speed
Full load current
Class of insulation
Frame size
Manufacturers name
Serial number of the machine
90
Standard Specifications
IS 325-1966
IS 4029-1967
IS12615-1986
IS13555-1993
IS8789-1996
IS 12066-1986
: Specifications for 3ph induction motor

: Guide for testing 3ph induction motor
: Specifications for energy efficient
induction motor
: Guide for selection & application of 3ph
induction motor for different types of
driven equipment
: Values of performance characteristic for
3ph induction motor
: 3ph induction motors for machine tools
91

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DESIGN OF

Major considerations in Electrical

be defined as a creative physical

The major considerations to evolve a good design are:

Compliance with performance criteria as laid down in

Mechanical force required for movement in rotating

In electrostatic machines, the energy density is limited by

In electromagnetic machines, magnetic effect is used for

Voltages that can be developed and used by normal

A small current can produce large mechanical forces by

DESIGN FLOW CHART

DESIGN PROCESS: MAGNETIC CIRCUIT,

BASIC STRUCTURAL PARTS OF AN

The insulating material should withstand electrical,

The size of the insulation is not only decided by the

Eg. For the same operating voltage thicker insulation has to

Should be as high as possible to reduce the operating cost.

Magnetic and electric loadings used should be small and this

So the capital cost of a machine designed foe high efficiency

should satisfy numerous

In I.M length of air gap is small in order to have high p.f.

In large machines, size of the shaft is decided by considering

Type of bearings to be used depends on the inertia forces due

Commutation conditions limits the maximum output of the

Problem of P.F is particularly important in case if I.M.

Length of air gap is determined by P.F considerations.

Value of flux density depends on the power factor, hence P.F

Specifications laid down in the consumers order has

Specifications are the biggest strain on the design,

Modern machine manufacturing techniques

Modern machines are characterised by a very wide range

The power range varies from a fraction of a watt to

Thus the ratio of power output of the smallest machine to

Range of rotational speeds of electrical machines is very

One machine may have a speed of few revolutions per

The large varied fields of applications, and wide range of

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF

Small size Machine (up to 750W).

Medium size Machine (Few kW-250kW).

Large size Machine (250kW-5000kW).

Larger size Machine (hundreds of MW).

Small size machines: Electrical machines having power output up to

Medium size machines: Electrical machines having power outputs

The action of Electromagnetic machines can be related to

This law states that e.m.f induced in a closed electric

The direction of induced e.m.f is such that the current

The change in flux linkages can be caused in three ways:

The electromagnetic force is given by:

So , fe= Bil newton

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

used for making all types if windings required

in electrical machines, apparatus, devices .

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

Copper, Aluminium, Iron & Steel, Alloys of copper.

Nickel, Silver & Iron

Highest possible conductivity.

Bronze- copper based alloys containing tin, cadmium, beryllium and

MATERIALS OF HIGH RESISTIVITY:

Consists of materials used in precision measuring

Important material used is Manganin (composition of

Consists of materials from which resistance

II- GROUP: (MATERIALS USED FOR HEATING DEVICES )

Consists of materials suitable for making high