K

Learning Objectives

Chapter Outline

After you have completed your study of this

chapter, you should be able to

What Is Motivation?

Extrinsic and Inliinsic Molivalion Motivation to Learn

Identify differences between extrinsic motivation,

intrinsic motivation, and motivation to learn in
classroom acfivities.

Behavioral Views of Motivation

Describe criticisms of behavioral views of motivation,

and exploin how rewards can be used to increase

Using Rewards in Classrooms Crilicisms ol Behavioral

motivation to learn.

Approaches to Motivation Using Rewards in Classrooms:

Instructional Principles

Humanistic Views of Motivation

Development of trie Whole Person Humanistic Views of

Motivation: Instructional Principles

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

motivation theory in classrooms.

Determination Theory Assessment and Learning1 The Role ot

Describe the basic assumption on which cognitive

motivation theories are based, and analyze applications
of these theories in events in and outside of classrooms.

Expectancy x Value Theory Self-Efficacy: Beliefs About

Capability Goals and Goal Orientation Attribution Theory
Beliefs, Goals, and Attributions: Instructional Principles SelfAssessment in Self-Determinolion Developing Students' Self-

Explain the basic premise of humanistic views of

motivation, and identify applications of humanistic

Analyze applications of self-determination theory in

classroom learning activities.

Determination: Instructional Principles Diversify in Motivation

to Learn

Affective Factors in Motivation

Self-Worth Theory Arousal and Anxiety Accommodaling
Affeclive Factors in Motivation: Instructional Principles

Use self-worth theory and studies of arousal and anxiety

to explain learner behavior.

298

Chapter 10

Students" motivation is one of the most important factors influencing how much
l iey learn. As you read the following case study, which involves a world history
t ;acher who has her class involved in a unii on the Crusades, consider wlial she
docs to influence her students' motivation.

"We'd better get moving," Susan urges Jim as they approach the door of (Cathy Brewsier's classroom.
"The bt II is gonna ring, and you know how Brewster is ahout this class. She thinks it's so important."

'Did you finish your homework?" |im asks and then slops himself, "What am 1 talking about?

You've Jone your homework in every class since I've known you."

"Sere, I don'i mind il that much.... li bothers me when I don'i get something, and sometimes
it's Rveq fun. My dad helps me. 1 le says he wants to keep up with the world." Susan laughs.
"In some classes. 1 just do enough to get a decent grade, but not in here," Jim responds. "I used

to h.ite history, but I sometimes even read ahead a little, because Brewsier makes you think. It's kind
of interesting the way she's always telling us about the way we are because of something thai hap
pened a zillion years agoI never thought about this stuff in thai way before."
"'Gte. Mrs. Brewster. that assigmnetn was impossible." Harvey grumbles as he enters the

Ciassroqm.

"Tildt's good for you." Kathy smiles "I know il was a tough assignment, but you need ro be chal
lenged. It's hard for me. too, when I'm studying and trying to put together new ideas, but if I hang
in. I always feel like I can get it."

'Aw. e'mon, Mrs. Brewster. I thought you knew everything."

'I wish. I have to study every night to keep up with you people, and the harder I study, the

smarter i get.... And I feel good about it when I do."

"Bui you make us work so hard." I larvey continues in feigned complaint.

"Yes. but look how good you're getting at writing," Kathy smiles again, pointing her linger at

him. "I think you hit a personal best on your last paper. You're becoming a very good writer."
"Yeah, yeah. I know." Harvey waves on his way U> his desk, '"and being good writers-will help
us in eve ytliing we do in life." echoing a rationale the students often hear from Kathy,

''StO3 by and see me alter class," Kathy quietly says to fenny as she enters the room. "I'd like ro
talk to vcu fora minute."

We'll return to Katliy's lesson again later in the chapter, but for now we want to puse
ihree.qiu-siions: (]) How is Susan's general orientation toward school different from lim's?
(2) I Low is lim's motivation in Kathy's class different from the way he responds lo other

classes? 51 Mow is Kathy influencing that orientation? We consider these and other ques
tions in this chapter,

Wh/j Is Motivation?
Motivation is a force that energizes, sustains, and directs behavior toward a goal (Brophy.
2004: Pir nidi & Schunk. 2002), and researchers have found a positive and robust corre
lation he ween motivation and achievement (McDermott, Mordell, & Slollzfus. 2001;
Wang Ihtertel. & Walberg, 19*03: R. Weinstein. 1998).
C hildren's motivation to learn lies at the very core of achieving success in schooling. Given

rapid technological advances, an ever-chLinging knowledge base, and shifting workplace

neecs. a continuing motivation to learn may well be the hallmark of individual accomplishmen. across the lifespan. [R. Weinstein, 1998, p. 81)

In;general. motivated students

II ive more positive attitudes toward school and describe school as satisfying

Persist on difficult tasks and cause fewer management problems

Motivation. A force ihm energizes.

sustiiinv and directs behavior toward

a l!(J;il

Process information in depth and excel in classroom learning experiences

(Siipek, 1996, 20021

Not surpr singly, motivated students are a primary source of job satisfaction for teachers.

298

Chapter 10

Students' motivation is one of the mosi important factors influencing how much
they loam. As you read the following case study, which involves a world history
teacher who has her class involved in a unit on the Crusades, consider what she
does to influence her students' motivation.

"We'd better get moving."1 Susan urges |!m iis they approach the door of Kathy llrcwster's classroom.

"The bell is gonna ring, and you know how llrewster is about this class. She thinks it's so important."
"Dkl you finish your homework?" Jim asks and then stops himself. "What am I talking about?
You've done your homework in every class since I've known you."

-Sure. I don't mind it thai much

h bothers me when 1 don'i get something, and sometimes

it's even fun. My dad helps me. He says he wants to keep up with the world," Susan laughs,

"In some classes, I just do enough to get a decent grade, but not in here," |im responds. "I used

to hate history, bin I sometimes even read ahead a little, because [frowsier makes you think. It';, kind
of interesting the way she's always telling us about the way we are because of something that hap
pened a zillion years agoI never thought about this stuff in that way before."

"Gee, Mrs. Brewslcr, thai assignment was impossible." Harvey grumbles as he enters the

classroom.

"Thill's good for you." Kathy smiles, "I know it was ,i lough assignment, but you need to be chal
lenged. It's hard forme, too, when I'm studying and trying to put together new ideas, but if I hang

in, I always feel like I can gel it."

"Aw, c'mon. Mrs. Hrewsler. I thought you knew everything."

"1 wish. I have to study every night to keep up with you people, and the harder I Study, the

smarter I get. , . . And I feel good about it when I do."

"But you make us work so hard." I larvey continues in feigned complaint.

-Yes, but look how good you're getting at writing," Kathy smiles again, pointing her finger at

him. "1 think you hit a personal best on your last paper. You're becoming a very good writer."

"Yeah, yeah, I know," I larvey waves on his way to his desk, "and being good writers-will help

us in everything we do in life." echoing a rationale the students often hear from Kathy.
"Stop by and see me after class." Kathy quietly saysto Jenny as she enters the room. "I'd like to
talk to you for a minute."

We'll return to (Cathy's lesson again later in the chapter, hut for now we want to pose
three questions: (1) How is Susan's general orientation toward schooi different from Jim's?
(2) How is Jim's motivation in Kalhy's class different from the way he responds to other
classes? (3) How is Kalhy influencing that orientation? We consider these and other ques
tions in this chapter.

What Is Motivation?
Motivation is a force that energizes, sustains, and directs behavior toward a goal (Brophy,
2004: Pintrich & Schunk, 20021. and researchers have found a positive and robust corre
lation between motivation and achievement (McOcrmotl, Mordell, & Stoltzfus ?0UIWang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1993: R, YVeinslein. 1998).

Children's motivation to learn lies at ihe very core of achieving success in schooling. Given

rapid technological advances, an ever-changing knowledge base, and shilling workplace

needs, a continuing motivation to learn may well lie the hallmark of individual accomplish

ment across the lifespan. !R. Weinslein, 199M. p, 81)

In general, motivated students

^^^^^^^
llvatlon. A h<Kc thai energizes.

MiMuins. and directs behavior toward

ii goal

1 lave more positive attitudes toward schoul and describe school as satisfying
Persist on difficult tasks and cause fewer management problems
Process information in depth and excel in classroom learning experiences

(Slipck. 1996. 2U02)

Not surprisingly, motivated students arc a primary source of job satisfaction for teachers

Learning Objectives

Chapter Outline

After you have completed your study of this

chapter, you should be able to

What Is Motivation?

Exlrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation Motivation to Learn

Identify differences between extrinsic motivalion,

intrinsic motivation, and motivation to learn in
classroom activities.

Behavioral Views of Motivation

Describe criticisms of behavioral views of motivation,

and explain how rewards can be used to increase

Using Rewords in Classrooms Criticisms of Behavioral

Approaches to Motivation Using Rewards in Classrooms:

motivation to learn.

Instructional Principles

Development ot the Whole Person Humanistic Views of

Explain the basic premise of humanistic views of

motivation, and identify applications of humanistic

Motivation: Instructional Principles

motivation theory in classrooms.

Humanistic Views of Motivation

Cognitive Theories of Motivation

Expectancy x Value Theory Self-Efficacy: Belief:; Ab:ut

Capability Goals and Goal Orientation Atiribu ion Theory

Beliefs, Goals, and Attributions: Instructional Principles Self-

Determination Theory Assessment and Leaning; Tl e Role of

Assessment in Self-Determinaticn Developing Students' Self-

Describe the basic assumption on which cognitive

motivation theories are based, and analyze applications
of these theories in events in and outside of classrooms,

Analyze applications ot self-determination theory in

classroom learning activities.

Determination; Instructional Principles Diversitv in Motivation

to Learn

Affective Factors in Motivation

Self-Worth Theory Arousal and Anxiety Accorrmoilating
Affective Factors in Motivation: Instructional Pnnc pies

Use self-worth theory and studies of arousal and anxiety

to explain learner behavior.

Theories ol Motivation

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

Figure 10.1

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Motivation can be described in (wo broad categories. Extrinsic motivation is

motivation to engage in an activity as a means lo an end. whereas intrinsic

motivation is motivation to be involved in an activity for its own sake (Pin-

trich & Schunk, 2002). ExtrinsicaUy motivated learners may study hard for
a test because they believe studying will lead to high lest scores, for example:
intrinsically motivated learners study because tbey want lo understand ibe
content and they view learning as worthwhile in itself. This helps answer our

first question (How is Susan's general orientation toward school different

Extrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation

(involvement as a

(involvement for

means to an end)

its own sake)

from |im's?). lim'a comment. "In some classes. 1 just do enough lo get a de
cent grade." reflects extrinsic motivation, whereas Susan's comment. "Sure. I
don't mind it |homework| that much. . .. h bothers me when I don't get something, and

sometimes it's even fun." suggests intrinsic motivation. These relationships are illustrated
in Figure 10.1.
Although we think of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation as two ends of a continuum
(meaning the higher the extrinsic motivation, the lower the intrinsic motivation and vice

versa), they are actually on separate continua (Covington, 2000; Pintrich & Schunk.
20021. For example, students might study hard both because a topic is interesting and be
cause they want good grades. Others might study only to receive the good grades. The first
group is high in both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation; the second is high in extrinsic mo
tivation but low in intrinsic motivation. Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is
preferable because of iis focus on learning and understanding (Brophy, 2004).

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are also contextual and can changeover time (WigHeld el al., 2004). As the vignette showed, |im was exlrinsically motivated in other classes,
but intrinsically motivated in Kathy's ("I used to hate history, but. . . lirewster really makes
you think. It's actually interesting"). Kathy's class was different enough front other classes
to influence his intrinsic motivation. This answers our second opening question (How is
[im's motivation in Kathy's class different?] and leads us to the third: I low is Kalhy influ
encing that orientation?
We can begin to answer the question by examining intrinsic motivation in more detail.

Researchers have determined that learners are intrinsically motivated by activities or ex

periences that

Present a challenge. Challenge occurs when goals are moderately difficult,

and success isn't guaranteed. Meeting challenges is also emotionally satisfying
(R. Ryan & Deci. 2000; Slipek. 2002).

Provide the learner with feelings of autonomy. Learners are more motivated
when they feel that they have command or influence over their own learning
(N, Perry. 1998; Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Evoke curiosity. Interesting, novel, surprising, or discrepant experiences create

intrinsic motivation (Hropliy, 2004).
Involve creativity ami fantasy, iixperiences allow learners to personalize content

by using their imaginations (Lepper & I lodell. 1989).

In addition, some researchers suggest thai aesthetic experiencesthose associated with

beauty that evoke emotional reactionsmay be intrinsically motivating as well (Ryan &
Deci.2000).
lim's comments suggest that Kathy capitalized on two of these factors. "Nrcwstcr re
ally makes you think." suggests he was reacting to the challenge in her class, and "It's ac
tually interesting the way she's always telling us about the way we are because of something
that happened a zillion years ago." suggests he was responding to the way she promoted
curiosity in her teaching.

Motivation to Learn
Kathy capitalized on some aspects of intrinsically motivating activities, and teachers are

sometimes (mistakenly) given the impression that their instruction should be so interest
ing and stimulating that students will be generally intrinsically motivated. This is a worthwhile

Extrinsic motivation. Motivaiion to

in Lin activity as u means lu an toil
Intrinsic motivation. Motivaiion to be
involved in tin activity for its own sake

>00

Chapter 10

ideal bul it isn't realistic For all, or even most, learning activities. The following are some
reasons i Brophy, 20041:

School attendance is compulsory, and curriculum content is selected on the

hasis of what society believes students should learn, not on what students
would choose il given the opportunity to do so.

Teachers work with large numbers of students and cannot always meet
individual?' needs.
Students' performances are evaluated and reported 10 parents and other

caregivers, so students lend lo focus on meeting parents' and caregivers' demands

: athcr than on personal benefits they might derive from the experiences.
Wh it is a reasonable alternative?

if intrinsic motivation i^ ideal bul unattainable as an all-day, everyday motivational state for
teachers to seek to develop in their students, whot might he a more feasible goal? I believe thai

ii is realistic for you lo seek to develop ;ind sustain your students' motivation lo learn from
iiu idemie activities: their tendencies to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile
and to try to gel the intended learning benefits from them. [Brophy. 2004, p. ni

Students with a moiivation-io-ieam orientation make an effort lu understand topics

whelhe- or not they find the topics intrinsically interesting or the process of studying them

enjoyable. They maintain ihis effort because they believe that the understanding that results
is valuable and worthwhile. This differs from a student who does assignments only lo get by
or lor a grade, which is an emphasis on performance thai detracts from motivation to team.

The theories of learning presented in Chapters b through 9 help us understand motivation,

andiin fact, some researchers argue that learning and motivation are so interdependent dial a
person :an'i fully understand one without the other (Brophy. 2004: Pimrich & Schunk, 2002).
In I he following sections, we examine this interdependence as we study behavioral, humanistic,
andicognitive theories of motivation. A framework for these theories is outlined in Figure 10.2.

Chocking Your Understanding

l.'l

Knowledge Extensions

To deepen your understanding of the

topic in ilii* section ;md lo integrate it
with topics you've alrcadj studied, po io

ilif Knowledge Extensions module for

Chapter 10 ;it mvtv.prenhaU.com/eggen.
Respond to questions 1-3,

On the basis of the information in the ease study at the beginning of the chapter,
is Susan high in both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation or high in one and low in
the other? Explain,

Describe the primary difference between a teacher's attempt lo stimulate students'

motivation lo learn compared to a teacher who focuses on extrinsic motivation.
Look again at Kathy's discussion with Harvey in the case study. Explain how this
exchange illustrates Kathy's attempts to stimulate motivation to learn.

Td receive feedback for these questions, go to Appendix B.

Fkjuro 10.2

Theoretical views ol motivation

f
BE1-AVIORAL THEORIES

itlon to learn. Students'

tendencies tu lind academic activities

meaningful and worthwhile and to try to
e intended learning benefits from
them

Emm
HUMANISTIC THEO

i-'ocus on changes

Emphasize people's

in behavior thai result

attempts io fulfill their

expects I Ions and beliefs

from experiences with

total potential as

and iheir attempts to

Ihe environment

human beings

understand how

Exai

plB'a

the world works

500

Chapter 10

ideal, bin ii isn't realistic for all, or even most, learning activities. The following are some
reasons (Brophy, 2004):

School attendance Is compulsory, and curriculum content is selected on the

basis of whii! society believes students should learn, nol on what students
would choose il' given the opportunity to do so.

Teachers work with large numbers of students and cannot always meet
individuals' needs.

Students' performances are evaluated and reported to parents and other

earegivLTK, so students tend to locus on meeting parents' and earegivers' demands

rather than on personal benefits they might derive from ilie experiences.

What is a reasonable alternative?

If intrinsic motivation is ideal but unattainable as en all-day, everyday motivational state for

teachers to seek to develop in iheirstudents, what might be a more feasible goal? I believe thai
ii is realistic for you to seek to develop and sustain your students' motivation lo learn from

academic activities: their tendencies to find academic activities meaningful and worthwhile
and to try to gel the intended learning benefits from them. fBrophy, 2004, p. 15)

Students with a motivation-to-learn orientation make an effort to understand topics

whether or not they find the topics intrinsically interesting or the process of studying them

enjoyable. They maintain this effort because they believe that the understanding thai results
is valuable and worthwhile. This differs from a student who does assignments only to get by

or for a grade, which is an emphasis on performance that detracts from motivation lo learn.
The theories of learning presented in Chapters 6 through 9 help us understand motivation,
and in fact, some researchers argue that learning and motivation are so interdependent that a
person can't fully understand one without the other (Hrophy. 2004: Pintrich & Schunk. 2002).

In the following sections, we examine this interdependence as we study behavioral, humanistic,

and cognitive theories of motivation. A framework for these theories is outlined in Figure 10.2.

Checking Your Understanding

On the basis of the information in the case study at the beginning of the chapter,
is Susan high in both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation or high in one and low in

the other? Explain.

KnonJudge Extensions

To deepen your understanding of the

1.2

with topics you've already studied, go lo

the Knowledge Extensions moduli; for

Chapter 10 at www.prenhall.com/eggen.
RJ tu questions 1-5.

Describe the primary difference belween a teacher's attempt lo slimulale students'

motivation to learn compared lo a teacher who focuses on extrinsic motivation.

topic in this section and la Integrate ii

1.3

Look again at (Cathy's discussion with 1 Iarvey in the case study. Explain how this
exchange illustrates Kathy's attempts to stimulate motivation lo learn.

To receive feedback for these questions, go to Appendix B.

Figure 10.2

Theoretical views of motivation

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

ilivatlon io learn. Students'

iendencies lo find iicudcniic activities

meaningful and worthwhile and \o try to

gel the intended learning benefits from

ihem

BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
Focus on changes

HUMANISTIC THEORIES

in behavior that resjl!

allompts to fulfill thair

from experiences with

the environment

Emphasize people's
total potential as
human beings

COGNITIVE I

Examine peojil.

expectations and beliets

and iheir attempts \0

understand how

Ihe world works

Theories of Motivation

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation

Figure 10.1

249

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation

Motivation can be described in two broad catsgo "ies. Extrinsic motivation is

motivation to engage in an activity as a means to an end. whereas intrinsic

motivation is motivation to be involved in ar ac ivily lor its own sake (Pin-

Iridi & Schunk. 2002). l:\trinsically motivated harners may study hard For
a test because they believe studying will lead to high test scores, for example;
intrinsically motivated learners study because they want to understand the
content and they view learning as worthwhile in i self. This helps answer our

first question (Mow is Susan's general orientation toward school different

from lirn's?), Jim's comment, "In some classes, I list do enough to gel a de

Extrinsic motivation

(involvement as a
means to an and]

mIntrinsic motivation
{involvement (or
its own sake)

cent grade," reflects extrinsic motivation, whereai Susan's comment, "Sure, I

don't mind it [homework] that much. ... It bothers me when I don't gel something, and
sometimes it's even Fun," suggests intrinsic motivation. These relationships are illustrated
in Figure 10.1.

Although we think of extrinsic and intrinsic notivation as two ends of a continuum

(meaning the higher the extrinsic motivation, the lower the intrinsic motivation and vice
versa), they are actually on separate continue (Covington. 2000; hntrich & Schunk.

2002). For example, students might study hare both because a topic is interesting and be
cause they want good grades. Others might study cnly to receive the good grades. The first
group is high in both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation; the second is high in extrinsic mo-

tivation hut low in intrinsic motivation. Research indicates that intrinsic motivation is
preferable because of its focus on learning andi understand ing (Brophy, 2004).
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation are also m extual and can change over lime (Wigfield el al.. 2004). As the vignette showed, fun v/as extrinsical ly motivated in other classes,

bui intrinsically motivated in Kalhy's ("1 used id hate history, but... Brewster really makes
you think. It's actually interesting"). Kaiby's class was different enough from other classes
to influence his intrinsic motivation. This answers our second opening question II low is

|im's motivation in Kathv's class different?) ant Ieids us to the third: I iow is Kathy inlluencing thai orientation?
We can begin to answer the question by examining intrinsic motivation in more detail.

Researchers have determined that learners are intrinsically motivated by activities or ex

periences that

Present u challenge. Challenge occurs .\vh.;n goals are moderately difficult.

and success isn't guaranteed. Meeting .hallenges is also emotionally satisfying

(R. Ryan & Deci. 2000; Stipek, 20021

Provide the learner with feelings of autonomy. Learners are more motivated
when ihev feel that they have command or influence over their own learning
(N. Perry, 199& Ryan & Dcei. 2000).
Evoke curiosity. Interesting, novel, surpi ising, or discrepant experiences create
intrinsic motivation (Brophy. 2004).

Involve creativity and fantasy. Experiences allow learners to personalize content

by using their imaginations (I.epper & I lode 11, 1989).

In addition, some researchers suggest that aesthetic experiencesthose associated with

beauty thai evoke emotional reactionsmay be [intrinsically motivating as well (Ryan &
Deci. 2000).

Jim's comments suggest that Kathy capitalized on two oi' these factors. "Brewster re

ally makes you think," suggests he was reacting to the challenge In her class, and "It's ac

tually interesting the way she's always telling us abou the way we are because of .something

thai "happened a zillion years ago." suggests he v/as responding to the way she promoted
curiosity in her leaching.

Motivation to Learn
Kathy capitalized on some aspects of intrinsically n otivating activities, and teachers are
sometimes (mistakenly) given the impression that their instruction should be so interest

ing and stimulating thai students will be generally intrirsicaily motivated. This is a worthwhile

Extrinsic motivation. Motivation to

engage in <in activity as a means lu an end

Intrinsic motivation. Motivation to be
involved in an activity for ils own snk