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Bio 321
Tobi Limke, Ph.D.
BIO207 Online
Bio 321
Chapter 1: Homeostasis
Homeostasis
Most of the common physiological variables
of the body are maintained within a
predictable range.
Examples of such physiological variables:
Blood pressure
Body temperature
Blood glucose levels
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Set points
Every system has its set point.
This is the ideal range that is considered normal.
It is often observed in cases of chronic diseases that the
set point of the system has been reset to another level.
(exblood pressure and baroreceptors).
This means that you now have to fight the bodys natural
mechanisms to maintain a lower levels of blood
pressure..this is one reason that once you start on
hypertensive medications you often have to stay on them.
System Controls
Feedback loops or systems are a common
mechanism to control physiological processes.
A positive feedback system (also called a feed
forward) enhances the production of the
product.
A negative feedback system shuts the system
off once the set point has been reached.
Figure 1-6
Negative
Feedback
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Figure 1.01
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Figure 1-3
ICF
ISF
plasma
organs
internal environment
external
environment
Homeostasis
Homeostasis is a dynamic, not a static, process.
Physiological variables can change dramatically
over a 24 hr period but the system is still in
overall balance.
When homeostasis is maintained, we refer to
physiology; when it is not, we refer to
pathophysiology.
Reflexes
A reflex is a specific involuntary,
unpremeditated, unlearned built-in response
to a particular stimulus.
Example: pulling your hand away from a hot
object or shutting your eyes as an object
rapidly approaches your face.
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Reflexes
The pathway mediating a reflex is known as the reflex arc.
An arc has several components: stimulus, receptor, afferent
(incoming) pathway, integration center, efferent (out going) pathway
and effector.
A stimulus is defined as a detectable change in the internal or
external environment. A receptor detects the change. The pathway
the signal travels between the receptor and the integrating center is
known as the afferent pathway. The pathway along which
information travels away from the integration center to the effector is
known as the efferent pathway
An integrating center often receives signals from many receptors,
some of which may respond to quite different types of stimuli. Thus,
the output of an integrating center reflects the net effect of the total
afferent input; that is, it represents an integration of numerous bits of
information.
Non-nerve reflexes
Almost all body cells can act as effectors in homeostatic
reflexes.
There are, however, two specialized classes of tissuesmuscle
and glandthat are the major effectors of biological control
systems.
In the case of glands the effector may be a hormone secreted
into the blood.
A hormone is a type of chemical messenger secreted into the
blood by cells of the endocrine system (see Table 11).
Hormones may act on many different cells simultaneously
because they circulate throughout the body.
Types of Signals
Hormones are produced in and secreted
from endocrine glands or in scattered cells
that are distributed throughout another
organ.
Neurotransmitters are chemical
messengers that are released from the
endings of neurons onto other neurons,
muscle cells, or gland cells.
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Chemical Messengers
Chemical messengers participate not only in reflexes, but
also in local responses
Communication signals in three categories:
Endocrine: signal reaches often-distant targets after
transport in blood.
Paracrine: signal reaches neighboring cells via the ISF.
Autocrine: signal affects the cell that synthesized the
signal.
Point to remember
A neuron, endocrine gland cell, and other cell
types may all secrete the same chemical
messenger.
In some cases, a particular messenger may
function as a neurotransmitter, as a hormone, or
as a paracrine/autocrine substance.
Example: Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter in
the brain and also produced as a hormone by cells
of the adrenal glands.
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Gap Junctions
Biological Rhythms
Many body functions are rhythmical
changes.
Example: circadian rhythm, which cycles
approximately once every 24 h.
Waking and sleeping, body temperature,
hormone concentrations in the blood, the
excretion of ions into the urine, and many
other functions undergo circadian variation
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Figure 1-11
Some of the potential inputs and outputs that can affect the pool of a
material (like glucose) that is a dynamically regulated physiological variable.
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Associated Reading
Vander, Chapter 1
10