Collection Technique ..........................................................................

Cahier technique no. 114

Residual current devices in LV

R. Calvas

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no. 114
Residual current devices in LV

Roland CALVAS
With an engineering degree from Ecole Nationale Suprieure
dElectronique et de Radiolectricit de Grenoble (1964) and a
Business Administration Institute diploma, he joined Merlin Gerin
in 1966.
In the course of his career, he has held the position of sales manager,
followed by marketing manager for the activity dealing with the
protection of people against electrical hazards. He is currently
charged with technical communication within Schneider Electric.

ECT 114 updated, February 1999

Lexicon

Cardiac fibrillation:
A malfunctioning of the heart corresponding to
loss of synchronism of the activity of its walls
(diastole and systole). The flow of AC current
through the body may be responsible for this due
to the periodic excitation that it generates. The
ultimate consequence is stoppage of blood flow.
Direct contact:
Contact of a person with the live parts of
electrical devices (normally energised parts and
conductors).
Earthing system:
Standard IEC 60364 stipulates three main official
earthing systems which define the possible
connections of the neutral of the source and
frames to the earth or neutral. The electrical
protection devices are then defined for each one.
Electrification:
Application of voltage between two parts of the
body of a living being.
Electrocution:
Electrification resulting in death.
Fault current Id:
Current resulting from an insulation fault.
Frame:
Conductive part likely to be touched and which,
although normally insulated from live parts, may
be brought to a dangerous voltage further to an
insulation fault.
Indirect contact:
Contact of a person with accidentally energised
frames (usually further to an insulation fault).
Insulation:
Arrangement preventing transmission of voltage
(and current flow) between a normally energised
element and a frame or the earth.
Insulation fault:
Insulation rupture causing an earth fault current
or a short-circuit via the protection conductor.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.2

Leakage current:
Current which, in the absence of an insulation
fault, returns to the source via the earth or the
protection conductor.
Limit safety voltage (UL):
Voltage UL below which there is no risk of
electrocution.
Live conductors:
Set of conductors assigned to electrical power
transmission, including the neutral in AC and the
compensator in DC, with the exception of the
PEN conductor whose protection conductor
(PE) function takes priority over the neutral
function.
Operating residual current If:
Value of the residual current causing a residual
current device to trip.
According to construction standards, at 20C
and for a threshold set at IDn, low voltage
residual current devices must comply with:
n
< f < n
2
In high voltage, the zero phase-sequence
relays have, allowing for operating accuracy, an
operating current equal to the threshold
displayed in amperes.
Protection conductors (PE or PEN):
Conductors which, according to specifications,
connect the frames of electrical devices and
some conductive elements to the earthing
connection.
Residual current:
Rms value of the vector sum of the currents
flowing through all live conductors in a circuit at a
point of the electrical installation.
Residual current device (RCD):
Device whose decisive quantity is the residual
current. It is normally associated with or
incorporated in a breaking device.

Residual current devices in LV

Today, the residual current device is recognised the world over as an
effective means of guaranteeing protection of people against electrical
hazards in low voltage, as a result of indirect or direct contact.
Its choice and optimum use require sound knowledge of the electrical
installations and in particular of the earthing systems, existing technologies
and their possibilities.
All these aspects are dealt with in this Cahier Technique, completed by
numerous answers provided by Schneider Electrics technical and
maintenance departments to the questions which they are frequently
asked.

Contents
1 Introduction

1.1 The RCD: its scope

1.2 Residual current protection and Earth leakage protection:
two separate notions

p. 4
p. 4

1.3 The RCD, a useful protection device

p. 5

2.1 Effects according to current strength

2.2 Effects according to exposure time

p. 6
p. 6

2.3 Effects according to frequency

p. 8

3 Insulation fault protection

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

The installation standards

The direct contact risk
Fire protection
The TT earthing system
The TN earthing system
The IT earthing system

p. 10
p. 11
p. 11
p. 11
p. 12
p. 12

4 RCD operating principle and description

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

Operating principle
Sensors
Measuring relays and actuators
Product manufacturing standards
The various devices

p. 14
p. 14
p. 17
p. 19
p. 21

5 Optimised use of the RCD

5.1 EMC: manufacturers obligations and what this implies

for contractors

p. 22

5.2 A need: discrimination

5.3 Avoiding known problems
5.4 RCDs for mixed and DC networks

p. 23
p. 26
p. 27

2 The patho-physiological effects

of electrical current on people

6 Conclusion

p. 31

Bibliography

p. 32

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.3

1 Introduction

1.1 The RCD: its scope

In electrical installations, direct and indirect
contacts are always associated with a fault
current which does not return to the source via
the live conductors. These contacts are
dangerous for people and equipment
(see Cahiers Techniques no. 172 and 173).
For this reason the use of Residual Current
Devices (RCD), whose basic function is
detection of residual currents, is widespread.

Outgoing
current

Return
current

In

i1
Load

Source

Moreover, RCDs monitor insulation of cables

and electrical loads, and are therefore
frequently used to indicate insulation drops or to
reduce the destructive effects of a strong fault
current.

Id

i2

Fault
current

i3
Source

Load

I3

in

I1
I2

id = ia - ir

Fig. 1 : a current leakage results in a residual fault current id.

1.2 Residual current protection and Earth leakage protection:

two separate notions
It is important not to confuse these two notions.
A residual current device (RCD) is a
protection device associated with a toroidal
sensor surrounding the live conductors. Its
function is detection of current difference or, to
be more precise, residual current (see fig. 1 ).
Existence of a residual current indicates
presence of an insulation fault between a live
conductor and a frame or the earth. This current
takes an abnormal path, normally the earth, to
return to the source.
The RCD is normally combined with a breaking
device (switch, circuit-breaker, contactor) which
automatically de-energises the faulty circuit.
Earth leakage protection consists of one or
more measuring devices whose function is to
detect a difference between the input current and
the output current on part of the installation: line,
cable, transformer or machine (generator, motor,
etc.).
This protection is mainly used in medium and
high voltage. Earth leakage protection (zero
phase-sequence current) for insulation fault
protection (see fig. 2 ) and current leakage
protection for phase-to-phase fault protection
(see fig. 3 ) are both found.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.4

Fig. 2 : earth leakage protection.

Fig. 3 : current leakage protection.

1.3 The RCD, a useful protection device

The first decisive factor in choosing and using
RCDs in an installation is the earthing system
provided.
c In the TT earthing system (directly earthed
neutral), protection of people against indirect
contact relies on the use of RCDs.
c In the IT and TN earthing systems, the medium
and low sensitivity (MS and LS) RCDs are used:
v to limit the risk of fire,
v to prevent the destructive effects of a strong
fault current,
v to protect people against indirect contact (very
long outgoers).
c For all earthing systems, the high sensitivity
(HS) RCDs provide additional protection against
direct contact. They are compulsory in final
distribution in a large number of countries.

Their efficiency was confirmed at the end of this

century by the remarked reduction in the number
of people electrocuted. The result of an
IEC survey conducted in August 1982 in Japan
already proved the efficiency of these devices
(see fig. 4 ).
The residual current device is generally
recognised (throughout the industrialised world)
as being the best and most reliable of the
protection devices developed to provide
protection against indirect contact in the low
voltage field.
Such were the words of professor C.F. DALZIEL
(Berkeley-USA), one of the pioneers of the study
of the effects of electrical current on people in
the fifth international conference of the AISS
(Lucerne 1978).

Annual number of deaths

by electrocution
Decree of the law making HS-RCDs compulsory

40

30

20

10

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80
Years

Fig. 4 : graph showing the evolution of deaths by electrocution due to the use of hand-held tools in Japanese
companies. This figure begins to drop in 1970, the year after that in which a law was decreed making the use of
high sensitivity RCDs compulsory.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.5

2 The patho-physiological effects of electrical current on people

The patho-physiological effects of electrical

current on people (tetanisation, external and
internal burns, ventricular fibrillation and cardiac
arrest) depend on a variety of factors: the
physiological characteristics of the person in
question, the environment (e.g. dry or wet) and
the characteristics of the current passing through
the body.
As protection of people is the main function of
the RCD, it is clear that optimum implementation
of these devices requires knowledge of the

sensitivity thresholds of people and of the risks

incurred.
The International Electrotechnical Committee
(IEC) has looked into the problem in order to
pool, at international level, a variety of viewpoints
reflecting and even often defending national
practices, habits and standards. Many scientists
have participated in this undertaking and have
helped clarify the subject (Dalziell, Kisslev,
Osypka, Bielgelmeier, Lee, Koeppen, Tolazzi,
etc.).

2.1 Effects according to current strength

The effects of the electrical current passing
through the human body depend on the frequency
and strength of this current (see fig. 5 ).

Effects (for t < 10s)

Current strength (mA)

DC
50/60 Hz

Slight tingling, perception threshold

3.5

0.5

Painful shock, but no loss of muscular control

41

37

Non-release threshold

51

10

50

Considerable breathing difficulty

60

15

61

Respiratory paralysis threshold

10 kHz

30

Fig. 5 : effects of weak electrical currents on human beings.

2.2 Effects according to exposure time

The risks of non-release, respiratory arrest or
irreversible cardiac fibrillation (see lexicon)
increase in proportion to the time during which
the human body is exposed to the electrical
current (see fig. 6 ).
The chart in figure 6 identifies in particular zones
3 and 4 in which danger is real.
c Zone 3 (situated between curves b and c1).
For people in this situation, there is normally no
organic damage. However there is a likelihood of
muscular contractions, breathing difficulties and
reversible perturbation of the formation of
impulses in the heart and of their propagation. All
these phenomena increase with current strength
and exposure time.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.6

c Zone 4 (situated to the right of curve c1)

In addition to the effects of zone 3, the likelihood
of ventricular fibrillation is:
v approximately 5 % between curves c1 and c2,
v less than 50 % between curves c2 and c3,
v more than 50 % beyond curve c3.
Patho-physiological effects such as cardiac
arrest, respiratory arrest and serious burns
increase with current strength and exposure time.
For this reason it is accepted that use of an RCD
with instantaneous operation and with a threshold
of less than 30 mA, ensures this situation is
never reached and such risks never incurred.
With a more general approach, IEC 60364
(NF C 15-100 in France) stipulates the operating

times for the Residual Current Devices according

to contact voltage. These times are recalled in
the two tables in figure 7 .
Limit safety voltage (UL)
According to environmental conditions and
particularly presence or absence of water, limit

safety voltage UL (voltage below which there is

no risk for people, according to standard
NF C 15-100) is, in AC:
v 50 V for dry and wet premises,
v 25 V for damp premises, for example for
outdoor worksites.

Duration of current flow

ms
10000

5000

c1 c2 c3

2000
1000
500
200

100
50
20
mA

10
0.1 0.2 0.5 1

2
5 10 20 50 100 200 5001000 2000 500010000
Threshold = 30 mA
Current flowing through the body

Fig. 6 : duration of current flow in the body as a function of current strength. In this chart, the effects of AC current
(15 to 100 Hz) have been divided into four zones (as per IEC 60479-1).

Prospective contact voltage (V)

Maximum breaking time of the

protection device (s)
AC

DC

c Dry or wet premises or locations: UL i 50 V

< 50
5
50
5
75
0.60
90
0.45
120
0.34
150
0.27
220
0.17
280
0.12
350
0.08
500
0.04

5
5
5
5
5
1
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10

c Wet premises or locations: UL i 25 V

25
50
75
90
110
150
220
280

5
5
2
0.80
0.50
0.25
0.06
0.02

5
0.48
0.30
0.25
0.18
0.10
0.05
0.02

Fig. 7 : maximum duration of contact voltage holding as per standard IEC 60364.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.7

Direct contact
Direct contact with normally energised parts is
dangerous for voltages in excess of UL. The
main protection precautions to be taken are
distance and insulation.
The RCD can detect a fault current flowing
through a person and, as such, is specified,
regardless of the earthing system, in final
distribution as an additional protection. Its
operating threshold, as shown in the table in
figure 5, must be less than or equal to 30 mA,
and its operation must be instantaneous since
the value of the fault current, dependent on the
exposure conditions, may exceed 1A.
Indirect contact
On contact with an accidentally energised frame,
the danger threshold is also fixed by the limit
safety voltage UL.
To ensure there is no danger when network
voltage is greater than UL, contact voltage must
be less than UL.

In the diagram in figure 8 , when the installation

neutral is earthed (TT earthing system) where:
RA = earthing resistance of the installation
frames,
RB = earthing resistance of the neutral,
this implies choosing an operating threshold
(I n) of the RCD such that:
Ud = RA d UL
and thus: I n i

UL
RA

The protection operating time must be chosen

according to fault voltage
RA
Ud =
U
RA + RB
(see fig. 7).
Note that if the equipotentiality of the site is not
ensured or is badly ensured, contact voltage is
equal to fault voltage.

Id
N

RCD

PE
RCD

Ud

RB

RA

Fig. 8 : fault voltage generation principle RCD.

2.3 Effects according to frequency

IEC 60479-2 deals with the effects of
AC current of a frequency in excess of 100 Hz.
Skin impedance decreases in reverse
proportion to frequency. The standard states
that the frequency factor, which is the ratio of
current at the frequency (f) over current at the
frequency of 50/60 Hz for the same physiological
effect considered, increases with frequency.
Moreover, it has been observed that between
10 and 100 kHz the perception threshold

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.8

increases approximately by 10 mA to 100 mA

in rms value.
Although standards do not yet stipulate specific
operating rules, the major manufacturers,
aware of the potential risks of such currents,
ensure that the thresholds of the protection
devices they propose are below the ventricular
fibrillation curve defined in standard
IEC 60479-2 (see fig. 9 ).

Id() / Id(50 Hz)

25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00
10

100

50

1 000

10 000
Frequency (Hz)

Limit
A type ID
AC type ID
Vigirex RH328A

Fig. 9 : variations in ventricular fibrillation threshold (as per IEC 60479-2) and thresholds of various RCDs set on
30 mA, for frequencies of between 50/60 Hz and 2 kHz (source: Merlin Gerin).

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.9

3 Insulation fault protection

3.1 The installation standards

RCDs are used in electrical, domestic and
industrial installations. Their use depends on
standards and mainly on the IEC 60364
(in France NF C 15-100).
This standard officially stipulates three main
systems for earthing the electrical network: the
earthing systems (see fig. 10 ), used to a greater
or lesser extent depending on the country.
Furthermore, for each of these systems it
defines more precisely the use of the RCDs, as
the electrical hazard is greatly influenced by
choice of earthing system (see Cahier
Technique no. 172).
It also describes the basic precautions which, in
normal operating conditions, considerably
reduce electrical hazards, for example:
c distance and obstacles,

Directly earthed neutral (TT)

c insulation: class II devices and safety

transformers,
c earthing of frames,
c equipotentiality.
General rules
Whatever earthing system is chosen for an
installation, the standards require that:
c Each application frame be connected to an
earthing connection by a protection conductor.
c Simultaneously accessible application frames
be connected to the same earthing connection.
c A breaking device automatically disconnects
all parts of the installation where a dangerous
contact voltage develops.
c The breaking time of this device be less than
the maximum time defined (see fig. 7).

Multiple earthed neutral (TN-C)

1
2
3
N
PE

RB

RA

1
2
3
PEN

RB

Unearthed neutral (IT)

Multiple earthed neutral (TN-S)

1
2
3
N
PE

RB

1
2
3
N
PE

RB

: Permanent insulation monitor.

Fig. 10 : the three main earthing systems are the TT, TN and IT systems, defined by IEC 60364-3. The TN may be
either TN-C (neutral and PE combined) or TN-S (separate neutral and PE).

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.10

3.2 The direct contact risk

This risk is the same for people whatever
earthing system is used. The protection
measures stipulated by standards are therefore
identical and use the possibilities offered by the
high sensitivity RCDs.
This is because:
c As the fault current flows through a person in
contact with a live conductor, he or she is
exposed to the patho-physiological risks
described above.
c An RCD placed upstream of the contact point
can measure the current flowing through the
person and break the dangerous current.
Regulations recognise the use of an RCD with
high or very high sensitivity (i 30 mA) as an
additional protection measure when the risk of
direct contact exists due to the environment, the
installation or people (article 412.5.1 of
IEC 60364). This risk also exists when the
protection conductor is likely to be broken or
does not exist (hand-held devices).
In this case use of a high sensitivity RCD is
compulsory. Standard NF C 15-100, paragraph

532-2.6.1, states that RCDs with a threshold at

most equal to 30 mA must protect the circuits
supplying power outlets when they are:
c Placed in damp premises or in temporary
installations.
c Of rating i 32 A in all the other installation
cases.
Note
Standard IEC 60479 states that the resistance of
the human body is greater than or equal to
1000 for 95 % of people exposed to a 230 V
contact voltage and thus through whom a 0.23 A
current flows.
An RCD with a 30 mA threshold does not limit
current, but its instantaneous operation ensures
safety up to 0.5 A (see fig. 6).
Use of an RCD with a sensitivity of 5 or 10 mA
therefore does not increase safety. However it
makes the risk of nuisance tripping not negligible
as a result of capacitive leakage (distributed
capacitances of cables and filters).

3.3 Fire protection

Whatever earthing system is used, the electrical
installations of premises where risk of fire is
present must be equipped with RCDs of a
sensitivity In i 500 mA, as it is acknowledged

that a 500 mA current can result in

incandescence of two metal parts coming into
occasional contact.

3.4 The TT earthing system

Protection of people against indirect contact
In this system protection relies on use of RCDs.
The fault current depends on the resistance of
the insulation fault (Rd) and the resistances of
the earthing connection. A person in contact with
the metal enclosure of a load with an insulation
fault (see fig. 8) may be subjected to the voltage
developed in the load earthing connection (RA).
For example
Where U = 230V, RA = RB = 10 and Rd = 0, if
the person is not on an equipotential site, he or
she is subjected to Uc = Ud = 115 V.
Protection must be provided by use of an RCD of
medium or low sensitivity which must

de-energise the faulty device as soon as the

voltage Ud exceeds the limit safety voltage UL.
We remind you that their operating threshold
must be set at:
In i UL .
RA
Protection of machines and equipment
The level of the RCD tripping thresholds
necessary for protection of people in the TT
earthing system is well below that of the fault
currents able to damage the magnetic circuits of
machines (motor) or cause fires.
The RCDs therefore prevent such electrical
destruction.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.11

3.5 The TN earthing system

Reminders
c With this earthing system, the current of a full
insulation fault is a short-circuit current.
c In TN-C, in view of the fact that the neutral and
the protection conductor are combined, RCDs
cannot be used. The following text therefore
mainly concerns the TN-S.
Protection of people against indirect contact
As the fault current depends on the impedance
of the fault loop, protection is normally provided
by overcurrent protection devices (calculation/
measurement of loop impedances).
If the impedance is too great and does not allow
the fault current to trip the overcurrent protection
devices (very long cables), one solution is to use
a low sensitivity RCD (In u 1 A).
Moreover this system cannot be used when, for
example, the network is supplied by a
transformer whose zero phase-sequence
impedance is too great (star-star connection).
Protection of electrical devices and circuits
In the multiple earthed neutral system, insulation
faults are responsible for strong fault currents
equivalent to short-circuit currents. The flow of
such currents results in serious damage, for
example: perforation of the magnetic circuit
plates of a motor, requiring replacement instead
of rewinding of the motor. Such damage can be
greatly limited by use of a low sensitivity RCD
(e.g. 3 A) with instantaneous operation, which is
thus able to react before the current reaches a
high value.
Note that the need of protection increases as
operating voltage rises, as the energy lost at the
fault point is proportional to the voltage square.
The economic consequence of such destruction
must be estimated as it is a vital criterion in
choice of earthing system.

Detection of insulation faults between the

Neutral and the protection conductor (PE)
or building frames
This type of fault insidiously transforms the TN-S
system into a TN-C system. Part of the neutral
current (increased by the sum of 3rd order and
multiple of 3 harmonic currents) permanently
flows in the PE and in the metal structures of the
building with two consequences:
c Equipotentiality of the PE is no longer ensured
(a few volts may disturb the operation of the
digital systems connected by bus and which
must have the same potential reference).
c Current flow in the structures increases the risk
of fire.
The RCDS are used to highlight this type of
fault.
Detection of insulation faults without tripping
and protection of equipment
In the TN-S earthing system, unlike the IT
system, there are no safety rules stipulating
insulation monitoring. However, all tripping
further to an insulation fault is the cause of
operating losses and often of costly repairs prior
to re-energisation. For this reason, more and
more often operators request prevention
devices in order to take action before the
insulation loss becomes a short-circuit.
The answer to this need is the use in indication,
in TN-S, on critical outgoers, of an RCD with a
threshold of around 0.5 to a few amperes, which
can detect insulation drops (on the phases or
neutral) and alert operators.
On the other hand, the risk of electrical fire is
reduced and destruction of equipment avoided
by using an RCD with tripping for In i 500 mA.

3.6 The IT earthing system

Protection of people against indirect contact
When the first insulation fault occurs, the fault
current is very weak and the fault voltage not
dangerous: the standards require that this fault
be indicated (by the permanent insulation
monitors) and tracked (by the power on fault
tracking devices).

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.12

When the second fault occurs, the installation

finds itself in a situation similar to a fault in the
TN earthing system. However there are two
possibilities: that of a single earthing connection
for all the frames and that of multiple earthing
connections.

c Case of a single earthing connection

In this case protection is usually ensured by the
overcurrent protection devices (calculation/
measurement of the loop impedances).
c Case of multiple earthing connections
When both faults affect devices not connected to
the same earthing connection, the fault current
may not reach the operating threshold of the
overcurrent releases. The standards stipulate
use of RCDs on each group of frames
interconnected with the same earthing
connection.
c In all cases, simple or multiple earthing
connections
If the impedance of a fault loop is too great (very
long cables), a simple, practical solution is to use
a low sensitivity RCD (1 to 30 A).

Protection of equipment, electrical devices

and circuits
Although there is no particular danger for
equipment when the first fault occurs, a second
fault is normally responsible for strong fault
currents equivalent to short-circuit currents, as in
the TN earthing system.
RCDs with medium or low sensitivity can then be
provided for the more critical cases (premises
with risk of fire, sensitive and expensive
machines), bearing in mind that the risk of the
second fault is particularly low, especially when
tracking of the first faults is systematic. In actual
fact, assuming a fault once every three months
and that this fault is eliminated the same day, the
average time between two double faults is
approximately 22 years!

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.13

4 RCD operating principle and description

4.1 Operating principle

All residual current devices are made up of at
least two components:
c The sensor
The sensor must be able to supply an electrical
signal which is useful when the sum of the
currents flowing in the live conductors is
different from zero.
c The measurement relay
The relay compares the electrical signal
supplied by the sensor with a setpoint value and

Toroid

Shaping

sends, with a possible deliberate delay, the

opening order to the associated breaking
device.
The unit controlling the opening of the device
(switch or circuit-breaker) placed upstream of
the electrical circuit monitored by the RCD is
known as the trip unit or actuator.
The entire RCD is shown in the diagram in
figure 11 .

Time delay
relay

Threshold

Static or relay
output

Auxiliary
supply
source

Fig. 11 : functional diagram showing an electronic RCD with auxiliary supply source.

4.2 Sensors
Two types of sensors are normally used on
AC circuits:
c The toroidal transformer, which is the most
common for measuring leakage currents.
c The current transformers, used in HV and MV
and sometimes in LV.
The toroidal transformer
This covers all the live conductors and is thus
excited by the residual magnetic field
corresponding to the vector sum of the currents
flowing through the phases and the neutral.
Induction in the toroid and the electrical signal
available at the terminals of the secondary
winding are thus the image of the residual current.
This type of sensor is used to detect residual
currents from a few milliamperes to several
dozen amperes.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.14

The current transformers (CT)

To measure the residual current of a threephase electrical circuit without neutral, three
current transformers must be installed as shown
in figure 12 .

I1

I2

I3
A

Ih
RCD

Fig. 12 : the vector sum of the phase currents yields

the residual current.

The three CTs are parallel-connected current

generators, causing circulation between A and B
of a current which is the vector sum of the three
currents and thus the residual current.
This circuit, known as the Nicholson circuit, is
commonly used in MV and HV when the earth
fault current can reach several dozen or even
several hundred amperes.
During use, care must be taken with the
CT accuracy class: with CTs of 5 % class, it is
prudent not to set earth protection below 10 % of
their nominal current. The HV electrical
installation standard NF C 13-200 of December
1989 specifies 10 %.
Special cases
c High power supply
The Nicholson CT circuit, which would be useful
in LV when the conductors are large crosssection bars or cables for the transmission of
strong currents, does not allow, even with
coupled CTs, settings that are compatible with
protection of people (threshold In i UL / Ru).
There are a number of solutions:
v If the problem occurs in a main switchboard
downstream of the transformer, the following
may be considered:
- either installation of a toroid at the supply end
of the installation on the earthing connection of
the transformer LV neutral (see fig. 13 ). This is
because, according to the Kirchhoff node law,
the residual current detected by (N) is strictly the
same as that detected by (G) for a fault occurring
in LV distribution,
- or installation of a toroid on each outgoer, all
parallel-connected to a single relay (see fig. 14 ).
When the measurement relay (normally
electronic) only needs a very weak electrical
signal to operate, the toroids can be made to
operate as current generators. When parallelconnected, they give the image of the vector
sums of the primary currents.
Although this circuit is laid down in the
installation standards, the approval of the RCD
manufacturer is preferable. However, for
discrimination reasons, it is preferable to use one
RCD per outgoer.
v If the problem arises with parallel-connected
cables which cannot all cross a toroid, a toroid
can be placed on each cable (including all the
live conductors), and all the toroids can be
parallel-connected (see fig. 15 ).
However the following must be noted:
v That each toroid detects n turns in short-circuit
(3 in the figure) which may reduce sensitivity.

HV / LV

G
1
2
3

RCD

RCD

Fig. 13 : toroid N delivers the same information as

toroid G.

RCD

Fig. 14 : toroids placed on the outgoers and parallelconnected to a single relay compensate the
impossibility of placing a toroid on the incomer.

Fig. 15 : layout of toroids on parallel-connected large

diameter single-line cables.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.15

v If the connections represent impedance

differences, each toroid will indicate a false zero
phase-sequence current. However proper wiring
considerably limits these currents.
v That this circuit implies for each toroid that the
output terminals S1-S2 be marked according to
the energy flow direction. This solution calls for
the approval of the RCD manufacturer.
c High power outgoer
To ensure a reliable, linear toroid response, the
live conductors must be placed as close as
possible to the centre of the toroid so that their
magnetic effects are completely compensated in
the absence of residual current. In actual fact,
the magnetic field developed by a conductor
decreases in proportion to distance: thus in
figure 16 , phase 3 causes at point A a local
magnetic saturation and thus no longer has a
proportional effect. The same applies if the toroid
is placed near or in a bend of the cables that it
surrounds (see fig. 17 ). The appearance of a
stray residual induction, for strong currents, will
generate on the toroid secondary a signal that
may cause nuisance tripping. The risk increases
as the RCD threshold drops with respect to
phase current, particularly on a short-circuit.
In problem cases (Max. Iph. / high In), two
solutions can be used to counter the risk of
nuisance tripping:
v Use a toroid that is far larger than necessary,
for example with a diameter that is twice the one
just right for conductor insertion.
v Place a sleeve in the toroid.
This sleeve must be made of magnetic material
in order to homogenise the magnetic field (soft
iron - magnetic plate), (see fig. 18 ).
When all these precautions have been taken:
- centring of conductors,
- large toroid,
- and magnetic sleeve,
the ratio

c Can operate the toroid at higher induction in

order to maximise the energy sensed and
minimise sensitivity to stray inductions (strong
currents).

1
3

Fig. 16 : incorrect centring of conductors in the toroid is

responsible for its local magnetic saturation at point A,
which may be the cause of nuisance tripping.

L u2

Fig. 17 : the toroid must be far enough from the cable

bend so as not to be the cause of nuisance tripping.

max. phase
may reach 50,000.
n

Using an RCD with built-in toroid

It must be pointed out that RCDs with built-in
toroids provide contractors and operators with a
ready-made solution since it is the manufacturer
who studies and works out the technical
solutions. This is because he:
c Masters the problem of centring the live
conductors and, for weak currents, can
anticipate and properly distribute several primary
turns around the toroid.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.16

Lu2

Fig. 18 : a magnetic sleeve placed around the

conductors, in the toroid, reduces the risk of tripping
due to the magnetic effects of the current peaks.

4.3 Measurement relays and actuators

The RCDs can be classed in three categories
according to their supply mode or their
technology.

They are very widespread (with the fail-safe

function) and particularly suitable for the creation
of an RCD with a single sensitivity.

According to their supply mode

With own current: in this device the tripping
energy is supplied by the fault current. This
supply mode is considered by most specialists
as the most reliable. In many countries and
particularly in Europe, this category of RCD is
recommended for domestic and similar
installations (standards EN 61008 and 61009).
With auxiliary supply source: in this device
the tripping energy requires a source of energy
that is independent from the fault current. These
devices (normally electronic) can therefore only
cause tripping if this auxiliary energy source is
available when the fault current appears.
With own voltage: this is a device with an
auxiliary supply source but whose source is the
monitored circuit. Thus, when this circuit is
energised, the RCD is supplied, and when this
circuit is not energised, the RCD is not activated
but there is no danger. An additional guarantee
is provided by these devices when they are
designed to operate correctly with voltage drops
of up to 50 V (safety voltage). This is the case of
the Vigi modules which are RCDs associated
with the Merlin Gerin Compact circuit-breakers.
However, as far as power supply is concerned,
the RCDs are also classed according to whether
or not their operation is of the fail-safe kind.
Two types of devices are considered to be failsafe:
c Those whose tripping only depends on the
fault current: all own current devices are fail-safe
devices.
c And those, more seldom used, whose tripping
does not only depend on the fault current but
which are automatically placed in the tripping
position (safety position) when the conditions no
longer guarantee tripping in the presence of the
fault current (e.g. a voltage drop up to 25 V).

Electronic devices
These devices are particularly used in industry
as electronics ensures:
c A very low acquisition power,
c Accurate, adjustable thresholds and time
delays (thus ensuring optimum tripping
discrimination).
Due to these two characteristics, these devices
are ideal for the creation of:
c RCDs with separate toroids, which are
associated with high rating circuit-breakers and
contactors.
c RCDs associated with industrial circuitbreakers up to 630 A.
Electronic devices require a certain energy, often
very weak, to operate. RCDs with electronic
devices are therefore available with the various
supply modes described above, either with own
voltage or with auxiliary supply source.

According to their technology

Electromagnetic devices (see fig. 19 ).
These modern devices are of the own current
type and use the principle of magnetic latching.
A very low electrical power (100 VA for some)
is sufficient to overcome the latching force and
cause the contacts to open by means of a
mechanical amplifier.

Fig. 19 : the fault current, via the toroid, supplies

energy to an electromagnet whose moving part is
stuck down by a permanent magnet. When the
operating threshold is reached, the electromagnet
destroys the attraction of the permanent magnet and
the moving part, drawn by a spring, opens the
magnetic circuit and mechanically controls circuitbreaker opening.

Ia

Ir

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.17

Mixed devices (own current)

This solution consists of inserting between the
toroid and the magnetic latching relay a signal
processing device, allowing:
c An accurate, precise operating threshold.
c Excellent immunity to interference and steep
front current transients, while respecting an
operating time compatible with safety curves. As
an example, Merlin Gerin si type RCDs are
mixed devices.
c Creation of time-delayed RCDs.
A similar principle is used in MV. In point of fact,
a few years ago tripping in electrical power
supply consumer substations (MV/LV substation)
required an accumulator bank which was the
source of many problems. The combination of an
own current electronic device and an
electromechanical trip unit with magnetic latching
offers a satisfactory solution with respect to cost
and reliability with removal of the battery.
Operational requirements
IEC 60364, paragraph 531-2-2-2 states the
following for non fail-safe devices with auxiliary
supply source:
Their use is permitted if they are installed in
installations operated by experienced and
qualified people.
Standard NF C 15-100, paragraph 532.2.2 also
states that they must not be used in household
installations or for similar applications.
Proper operating test
An RCD is a safety device. Whether it is
electromagnetic, electronic or mixed, it is thus
essential for it to be equipped with a test device.
Although own current devices appear the most
reliable, implementation of fail-safe safety with
the other own voltage or auxiliary supply
source energy sources grant the RCDs an
increased degree of safety which does not,
however, replace the periodical test.
c Recommend periodical RCD testing
In practice perfect fail-safe safety, particularly
concerning internal faults, does not exist. For this
reason, in France, RCDs using an auxiliary
supply source are reserved for industrial and
large tertiary installations and own current RCDs
for domestic and similar installations: an
arrangement which is consistent with their
inherent possibilities described above.
In all cases, periodical testing should be
recommended for highlighting internal faults.
c The manner in which the test is conducted is
important.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.18

This test must allow for the fact that capacitive

earth leakage currents are always present in an
electrical installation, as are often resistive
leakage currents resulting from damaged
insulation.
The vector addition of all these leakage currents
(Id) is detected by the toroidal sensor and may
affect test operation, in particular when the test
circuit is the one shown in figure 20 . Despite
this, this test principle is widespread as it checks
the toroid/relay/breaking device assembly.
Construction standards limit the test current,
which may account for a certain number of RCD
operating failures during the test, as shown by
the vector addition (see figure 20) of the leakage
current (Id) and the test current (test I). For
example standards IEC 61008 and 61009 state
that the test current must not exceed 2.5 In for
an RCD usable in 230 or 400 V, i.e. 1.15 In if it
is supplied in 230 V - 20%.
The test principle described above is used on
earth leakage protection sockets, residual
current circuit-breakers and residual current
devices. With respect to residual current relays
with separate toroid, the same principle is
sometimes chosen when the contractor is the
person producing the test circuit. However some
relays, for example the Merlin Gerin Vigirex, are
equipped with the test function, and also
permanently monitor continuity of the detection
circuit (toroid/relay link and toroid winding).

Test

I test
Id

1
2
3

location of If

I test

Id

Ir

Ir = Id + I test Ir u If

Fig. 20 : some test circuits created on installation may

not operate in the presence of weak fault currents.

c Verification of the operating threshold

Even more so than for the test, it is important to
bear in mind when carrying out this verification
that leakage currents of the downstream circuit,

whether or not they are natural, may flow

through the sensor.
For reliable measurement, the downstream
circuit will always be disconnected.

4.4 Product manufacturing standards

The main RCD manufacturing standards are
listed in the appendix.
The IEC has standardised for the RCDs, types,
threshold values, sensitivities and operating
curves.
AC, A and B type RCDs to be chosen
according to the current to be detected
The current conveyed in electrical networks is
increasingly less sinusoidal. Consequently
standard IEC 60755 has defined three types of
RCD: the AC, A and B types, according to the
residual current to be detected (see fig. 21 ).

c The AC type, for sinusoidal AC currents.

c The A type, for sinusoidal AC currents, pulsed
DC currents or pulsed DC currents with a
DC component of 0.006 A, with or without phase
angle monitoring, whether they are suddenly
applied or slowly increase.
c The B type, for the same currents as the
A type, but in addition for rectifier currents:
v with simple halfwave with a capacitive load
producing a smoothed DC current,
v three-phase with simple or double halfwave.

For RCDs of the type:

Id
AC

Id
A

Id
B

Fig. 21 : fault currents stipulated in the RCD construction standards.

Sensitivities (In)
These are standardised by the IEC:
c high sensitivity -HS-: 6-10-30 mA,
c medium sensitivity -MS-: 100-300 and
500 mA,
c low sensitivity -LS-: 1-3-5-10 and 20 A.
It is clear that HS is most often used for direct
contact protection, whereas the other
sensitivities (MS and LS) are used for all other
protection needs, such as indirect contact

(TT earthing system), fire hazards and machine

destruction protection.
Tripping curves
These curves take into account the international
studies performed on electrical hazards
(IEC 60479) and in particular:
c the effects of current in the case of direct
contact protection,
c limit safety voltage in the case of indirect
contact protection.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.19

With respect to the domestic and similar sector,

standards IEC 61008 (residual current circuitbreakers) and 61009 (residual current devices)
define standardised operating time values (see
table in figure 22 for the operating curves G and
S in figure 23 ):
c The G curve for the instantaneous RCDs.
c The S curve for the selective RCDs with the
lowest time delay level, used in France for
incomer circuit-breakers for example.
For power residual current devices, they are
given in appendix B of standard IEC 60947-2.
The above standards define the maximum
operating time as a function of the Id/If ratio for
inverse response time RCDs (often
electromagnetic).
Electronic RCDs, mainly used in industry and
large tertiary, normally have an adjustable
threshold and time delay, and their response
time is not dependent on the fault current.
IEC 60364 (NF C 15-100) defines maximum
breaking times on final circuits for the TN and IT
earthing systems (see fig. 24 ). For the TT
earthing system, RCD operating time must be

Type

In

In

(A)

(A)

chosen according to fault voltage. In practice G

and S type RCDs are suitable on final circuits
for i 230/440 V network voltages. The standard
also stipulates that a time of 1 second is
acceptable in the TT system, for distribution
circuits, in order to create the discrimination
stages required for continuity of supply.
In addition to the above-mentioned
characteristics of the residual current function,
product standards also stipulate:
c impact strength and jarring withstand,
c ambient temperature and humidity,
c mechanical and electrical durability,
c insulation voltage, impulse voltage withstand,
c EMC limits.
The standards also make provision for type tests
and for periodical checking of quality and
performance carried out either by the
manufacturer or by approved organisations.
They thus guarantee users product quality and
safety of people.
RCDs are also marked for quality, for example
NF-USE marking in France.

Standardised value of operating

and non-operating times (in seconds) at:
In
2 In 5 In 500 A

General
All
(instantaneous) values

All
values

0.3

0.15

0.04

0.04

Maximum operating
time

Selective

> 0.030

0.5

0.2

0.15

0.15

Maximum operating
time

0.13

0.06

0.05

0.04

Minimum nonoperating time

> 25

Fig. 22 : standardised values of the maximum operating times and non-operating times as per IEC 61008.
t
(ms)
500
200

S max.

100
50

20
500

10
1

10

Id / In.

Fig. 23 : maximum operating time curves for S (selective) and G (general purpose) residual current circuitbreaker or device.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.20

Nominal
phase-to-earth
network voltage
(VCA).

Maximum breaking time (s)

TN
IT
IT
Non-distributed Distributed
neutral
neutral

120-127

0.8

0.8

220-230

0.4

0.4

0.8

400

0.2

0.2

0.4

580

0.1

0.1

0.2

Fig. 24 : maximum breaking times.

4.5 The various devices

The standards state that technologically different
RCDs exist that are suited to the two main
sectors: domestic and industry.
The RCD must be chosen according to the
network earthing system and the protection
target (direct contact, indirect contact, load
protection, etc.). However it is also necessary to:

c Analyse operating requirements (discrimination

needs, fail-safe safety needs, etc.), in order to
determine:
v the required threshold level (sensitivity),
v the time delay ranges (delay).
The table in figure 25 gives a concise
presentation of the various devices.

c Define its type (A, AC or B) from the network

characteristics (AC, mixed, etc.),

Areas - Types

Network earthing system

Sensitivity

Time delay

Extension with earth

leakage protection
(breaking by built-in contact)

TT - TN - IT

i 30 mA

Earth leakage
protection socket
(breaking by built-in contact)

TT - TN - IT

30 mA

Residual current
circuit-breaker

TT - TN - IT

30 - 300 mA

In France

Domestic and similar

Residual current device

c Incomer

TT

is the most common

S type as option
(disturbed network with
or without surge arrester)

c Final distribution

TT

30 - 300 mA

TT - (TN and IT in socket

circuit protection)

30 - 300 mA

c Power

TT - (TN and IT in fire,

machine and long outgoer
protection)

30 mA to 30 A

0 to 1 s

c Final distribution

TT - (TN and IT in fire and

machine protection)

30 - 300 mA

Residual current relay

with separate toroid

TT - (TN and IT in fire,

machine and long
outgoer protection)

30 mA to 30 A

0 to 1 s

In = 500 mA

Industry and large tertiary

Residual current
circuit-breaker
Residual current device

Fig. 25 : general presentation of the various RCDs.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.21

5 Optimised use of the RCD

5.1 EMC: manufacturers obligations and what this implies for contractors
EMC (Electro Magnetic Compatibility) is the
control of electrical interference and its effects:
a device must neither be disturbed nor disturb its
environment.
All electrical equipment manufacturers must
naturally comply with certain EMC standards.
RCDs are tested for electromagnetic
compatibility (emission and susceptibility)
according to the European Directive which
specifies compliance with a certain number of
standards (for example: EN 61543 for domestic
RCDs).
However, electrical installations generate or
transmit disturbances (see Cahier Technique
no. 187), which can be permanent or temporary,
alternating or impulse, low or high frequency, as
well as conducted or radiated, common or
differential mode, internal or external to
buildings. Overvoltage is one of the most
troublesome disturbances.
Overvoltage withstand
RCDs can be sensitive to lightning strokes,
particularly on overhead networks which are
more likely to be affected by atmospheric
disturbances. In point of fact, according to the
distance of the cause of the disturbance, an LV
network can be subjected to:
c An overvoltage occurring between the live
conductors and the earth: the disturbance flows
off to the earth well upstream of the RCDs
(see fig. 26a ).
c An overcurrent, a part of which flows off in the
network downstream of the RCD, particularly via
the stray capacitances (see fig. 26b ).
c An overcurrent detected by the RCD and
which is due to breakdown downstream of this
RCD (see fig. 26c ).
Technically speaking, solutions are known and
normally implemented by RCD manufacturers.
Such solutions include:
c For electromagnetic relays, installation of a
parallel diode on the relay exciting circuit. This
solution is used for incomer circuit-breakers.
c For electronic relays, use of a low-pass filter at
signal shaping level (see fig. 11).
Manufacturing standards make provision for
RCDs immunised against these stray currents:
the S type RCDs (In u 100 mA). However

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.22

manufacturers also propose devices with high

sensitivity and reinforced immunity such as the
Merlin Gerin RCDs of the si type (In i 30 mA).
Thus, confronted with this problem, installation
service quality is only dependent on the device
chosen.

t
1,2 s

50 s
b

t
10 s

t
8 s

20s

Fig. 26 : standardised voltage and current waves

representative of lightning.

Influence of choices when designing an

installation
Installation designers and installers, while
respecting proper procedures, are also active in
this area, particularly when choosing the earthing
system for the installation. For example they
must know that in the TN system, several
currents are responsible for the disturbance due
to radiation of sensitive devices:
c On an insulation fault, strong currents flow in
the PE, the device frames and the structures.

c In the TN-C earthing system, load unbalance

currents flow continuously in the metal structures
of the buildings.
c In the TN-S earthing system, these unbalance
currents also appear on an insulation fault
between the neutral and the protection
conductor. Moreover, this fault, which cannot be
detected by the overcurrent protection devices,
insidiously changes the TN-S system into a
TN-C system.

5.2 A need: discrimination

Ensure that only the faulty outgoer is deenergised by the tripping of the protection
device: this is the purpose of discrimination and
the aim of protection co-ordination.
Vertical discrimination
This type of discrimination presides over the
operation of two protection devices connected in
series on a circuit (see fig. 27 ).
In view of RCD operating requirements as well
as of their manufacturing standards,
discrimination must be both current and time.
c Current, as, according to the standards, an
RCD must trip at I n and not trip at I n / 2. In
practice, a ratio of 3 is required:
In (upstream) u 3 In (downstream).
c Time, as, in order to react, all mechanisms
need a period of time, even the smallest, to
which a deliberate time delay or delay must
sometimes be added.
The double condition of non tripping of Da for a
fault downstream of Db is therefore:
In (Da) > 2 In (Db).
and
tr (Da) > tr (Db) + tc (Db) or tr (Da) > tf (Db)
where:
tr = tripping delay = time of non operation
tc = time separating the moment of breaking
(including arcing time) from the moment when
the breaking order was given by the
measurement relay,
tf = operating time, from detection of the fault
through to complete breaking of the fault current.
Time-delayable electronic relays may exhibit a
fault memorisation phenomenon by their
threshold circuit. It is then necessary to take into
account a memory time -tm- (see fig. 28 ) to
ensure that they do not trip after opening of the
downstream device:
tr (Da) > tf (Db) + tm.

Note
Problems may be encountered when
implementing discrimination if it is necessary to
combine residual current devices and residual
current relays, since:
c The residual current device is defined in delay
time -tr-.

Da
RCD

Db
RCD

Fig. 27 : vertical discrimination.

tr

tc

(1)

tm
tr

(2)

(3)

tc
tm

tc

Fig. 28 : the time delay of an upstream RCD must take

account of the breaking time associated with the
downstream RCD and of the memory time of the
upstream relay.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.23

c The residual current relay is defined in specific

operating time or time delayed to a value t, which
corresponds to the time elapsing between the
occurrence of the fault and the transmission of the
opening order to the breaking device (see fig. 29 ).

The successive times tf and tr (or t) must then be

calculated (at 2 I n) for each RCD, starting at
final distribution and moving back towards the
origin of the installation.

RCD

RCD
Vigicompact

Vigirex

tr = 60 ms

t = 200 ms

RCD

RCD

Vigirex RH

Vigicompact

tr = 15 ms

tr = 60 ms

tc = 30 ms

tf < 140 ms

tf = 45 ms

Fig. 29 : two examples of time discrimination, associating a residual current device of the Vigicompact type and a
Vigirex relay (Merlin Gerin). Note that these times are far shorter than the authorised tripping times in figure 24.

Horizontal discrimination
Sometimes referred to as circuit selection,
stipulated in standard NF C 15-100 paragraph
536.3.2, it means that a residual current device
placed in a cubicle at the supply end of the
installation is not necessary when all the
outgoers in this cubicle are protected by residual
current devices. Only the faulty outgoer is deenergised: the residual current devices placed
on the other outgoers (parallel to the faulty
outgoer) do not detect the fault current
(see fig. 30 ). The residual current devices may
then have the same tr (or t).
In practice, horizontal discrimination may go
wrong. Indeed nuisance tripping known as
sympathy tripping has been observed,
particularly on networks containing very long
outgoers (stray capacitances of unbalanced
cables) or capacitive filters (computer).
Two examples are given below:
c Case 1 (see fig. 31 )
The opening of Db placed on the supply circuit
of a load R, a powerful overvoltage generator

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.24

(e.g. welding machine) causes an overvoltage

on the network.
This overvoltage causes on outgoer A,
protected by Da, the occurrence of a capacitive
earthing current which may be due to the stray
capacitances of the cables or to a capacitive
earthing filter.

RCD

RCD

Fig. 30 : example of horizontal discrimination.

A solution: the RCD of Db may be instantaneous

and the RCD of Da must be time-delayed.
Note that for this configuration, the time delay of
the RCD (Da) is often vital as, when circuit A is
energised, the capacitances (stray or otherwise)
cause the appearance of a damped oscillating
residual current (see fig. 32 ).
As a guideline, a measurement taken on a large
computer containing an interference filter
revealed a current with the following
characteristics:
v 40 A (first peak),
v f = 11.5 kHz,
v damping time (66 %): 5 periods.
c Case 2 (see fig. 33 )
A full insulation fault on phase 1 of outgoer B
places this phase at the potential of the earth.

The capacitive current supplied by outgoer A will

cause by sympathy the tripping of the
corresponding RCD. This phenomenon exists for
all earthing systems, but mainly affects networks
using the IT system.
Both examples show the need to time delay the
RCDs of long outgoers and those containing
filters.
Use of directional RCDs is another solution to
prevent tripping due to the return of capacitive
current via the healthy outgoer.
This type of RCD detects the fault current,
compares its amplitude with the scheduled
threshold level and only trips if this current
passes through the toroid from upstream to
downstream.

I
(A)

(B)

Da

Db

RCD

RCD

Fig. 31 : the presence of a capacitance on outgoer A

may cause:
c on opening of Db, the tripping of Da ,
and/or
c on energisation of outgoer A, the tripping of Da .
The use of time-delayed RCDs is often necessary to
protect against the nuisance tripping caused by
lightning overvoltages or equipment switchings.

Fig. 32 : transient current wave occurring on closing of

a highly capacitive circuit.

Extended network

(A)

Da

Cp

RCD

2
3
(B)

Db

RCD

Fig. 33 : in the presence of a fault, Da may open instead of Db. Use of time-delayed RCDs is often necessary to
protect against nuisance tripping on healthy outgoers.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.25

5.3 Avoiding known problems

Taking leakage currents into account
The last sub-chapter emphasises the attention
that must be paid to these currents, often
capacitive, which by deceiving the RCDs are
able to seriously disturb operation.
c 50 Hz - 60 Hz leakage currents
As from the design stage of the installation, the
lengths of the various outgoers should be
evaluated, together with the future equipment
containing capacitive earthed devices. It is then
necessary to design a distribution system able to
reduce the importance of this phenomenon.
Consequently, interference filters (compulsory
according to the European directive on EMC)
placed on the microcomputers and other
electronic devices, generate in single-phase
permanent leakage currents at 50 Hz of the
order of 0.5 to 1.5 mA per device.
These leakage currents add up if the devices are
connected to the same phase. And if these
devices are connected to all three phases, these
currents cancel each other out when they are
balanced (vector sum). This reflection is all the
more true when the RCDs installed have low
thresholds. In order to guard against nuisance
tripping, the permanent leakage current must not
exceed 0.3 In in the TT and TN systems, and
0.17 In in the IT system.
c Transient leakage currents
These currents appear on energisation of a
circuit with a capacitive unbalance (see fig. 33)
or on a common mode overvoltage. S type
RCDs (In u 300 mA) and si type RCDs
(In = 30 mA and 300 mA) prevent nuisance
tripping as do also slightly time-delayed RCDs.
c High Frequency leakage currents
Examples of large EMC polluters are thyristor
rectifiers whose filters contain capacitors which
generate an HF leakage current able to attain
5% of nominal current. Unlike the 50 Hz - 60 Hz
leakage currents whose vector sum is zero,
these HF currents are not synchronous over all
three phases and their sum constitutes a
leakage current. In order to prevent nuisance
tripping, RCDs must be protected against these
HF currents (equipped with low-pass filters): this
is the case for industrial RCDs and for the
Merlin Gerin S and si type RCDs.
c Lightning currents
If the installation is equipped with a surge
arrester, the RCD sensor should not be placed
on the flow path of the current generated by the
lightning (see fig. 34 ). Otherwise,

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.26

implementation of RCDs immunised against

these currents (time-delayed or S type) is the
solution.
Maintaining the earthing system
When replacement sources are provided,
protection of people and equipment should be
studied in the various configurations of the
installation, as the position of the neutral with
respect to the earth may be different. The
supply, even temporary, of an installation with a
generator set requires interconnecting the sets
frame with the existing earthing network
whatever the earthing system and, in the TT
system, earthing of the generator neutral, since
otherwise the fault currents would not reach the
RCD threshold.
When the installation in the TT earthing system
contains an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS),
earthing of the neutral downstream of the UPS is
essential for proper operation of the RCDs
(K contactor on figure 35 ), but not for protection
of people as:
c The installation is then in the IT system and
the first fault is not dangerous (see standard
C 15-402, paragraph 6.2.2.2.).
c The likelihood of a second insulation fault
occurring during the period of operation limited
by back-up time of the UPS batteries is very
slight.

A
RCD

Flow off of current

generated by
lightning

B
RCD

Surge arrester

Fig. 34 : in an installation containing a surge arrester,

according to local obligations, the RCD may be placed
differently: in A a time-delayed or S type RCD and in
B a standard RCD.

3L

Non backed up
outgoers

Bypass circuit

3L
N

3L
N

Transfer
switches

3L

3L

3L
N

3L
N

Transfer switches
N

Power loss
detection relay

(Maintenance)

Backed up
equipment

Fault supplied by the self-generating UPS

Fault supplied by the mains

Fig. 35 : on detection of mains power loss on the UPS supply, the contactor K reproduces the TT system downstream of the UPS.

5.4 RCDs for mixed and DC networks

An insulation fault with DC current is far less
dangerous than with AC current
Experiments (see fig. 5) have shown that for
weak currents people are approximately 5 times
less sensitive to DC current than to 50/60 Hz
AC current.
The risk of ventricular fibrillation only appears
over 300 mA.
Installation standards NF C 15-100 and
IEC 60479 have chosen a ratio close to 2, taking

account of the fact that in practice fault currents

are directional but not always smoothed.
This is illustrated by figure 36 drawn up using
the table in figure 7.
Note that a three-phase rectifier supplied by a
400 V AC phase-to-phase voltage generates a
direct contact voltage of 270 V DC, which
corresponds to a maximum breaking time of
0.3 s.

t (s)
5
2.5

1
0.75
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.08
0.04

Contact voltage
100

50
120

100
200 230
400 500 (V AC)
200 250 300 400 500
(V DC)

Fig. 36 : curves established from the maximum breaking times of an RCD laid down by NF C 15-100,
paragraph 413.1.1.1.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.27

RCD manufacturing standards take into account

the existence of non AC currents, and
particularly define the standard cases shown in
figure 21 and describe the relevant tests. To give
an example, residual current circuit-breakers
must operate for Id i 1.4 In in all cases
corresponding to figure 37 , with or without
superimposition of a smoothed DC current of
6 mA: the fault current is applied either suddenly
or by slowly increasing from 0 to 1.4 In in 30 s.
The RCDs satisfying these tests can be
identified by the following symbol on their front
face:

k
Real fault currents
These currents reflect the voltages existing
between the fault point and the neutral of the
installation. The waveform of the fault current is
seldom the same as that of voltage or applied
current, delivered to the load. Fault voltages and
currents of the pure DC type (zero ripple factor)
are very rare.
c In the domestic sector, distribution and rectifier
circuits are single-phase, and correspond to the
diagrams marked A to F in figure 38 . A type
RCDs provide protection of people. However, for
diagram B, they only detect fault currents if their
occurrence is sudden. Note that circuit E is
increasingly common as it is placed at the input
of switch mode power supplies that are
widespread in electrical household appliances
(TV, microwave, etc.) as well as in professional
equipment (microcomputers, photocopiers, etc.).
c In industry most rectifier circuits are threephase (diagrams G to K in figure 39 , see
page 30).
Some circuits may generate a DC fault current
with a small ripple factor:

v Circuits G and H
Circuit G supplies a rectified voltage with a
permanent small ripple factor, and consequently
fault currents that are hard to detect by the RCD.
On the other hand, circuit H generates highly
chopped fault currents which are thus visible by
the RCD. However this circuit is equivalent to
circuit G for full wave conduction.
v Circuit J
This common circuit type is particularly used for
variable speed controllers used in DC motors.
The back-electromotive force and reactor of the
motors generate smoother fault currents than the
G and H circuits described above. However,
regardless of the thyristor conduction angle, the
RCDs placed upstream of the variable speed
controllers must be able to provide protection.
Some standard RCDs may be suitable provided
their lDn threshold receives a suitable setting.
To give an example, figure 40 shows the
sensitivity of an RCD, with analogue electronic
technology, according to the variable speed
controller output voltage applied at the motor.
v Circuit K
With this circuit type, a fault on the DC circuit
does not produce d / dt in the magnetic sensors
of the RCDs which are then blinded. This circuit
is dangerous unless a transformer is used
instead of an autotransformer, as AC and A type
RCDs are inoperative.
Special case: DC current return
Let us now see what happens when a second
fault occurs on the AC part of a network
(see fig. 41 ) containing a rectifier according to
circuit G described above. If the power supply
(A) of the rectifier is not monitored by an RCD, or
if this RCD has been incorrectly chosen or is
inoperative for any reason, the insulation fault
existing on the DC part remains.

Sensitivity
and
100 %

Sinusoidal AC fault
On-load motor

and

50 %

90
Off-load motor
20 %

and
135
Fig. 37 : waveform of the A type RCD test currents.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.28

Ud/Udo
0.15

100 %

Fig. 40 : evolution of the sensitivity of an electronic

RCD placed upstream of a thyristor rectifier.

A/
Soldering iron or two "setting"
light dimmer switch

ph

Id

R
t
N

B/
Television, battery charger, etc.

ph

Id

R
t
N

C/
Light dimmer, arc welding machine

ph

Id

R
t
N

D/
Household appliances with
motor (universal)

ph

Id

M
_
t
N

E/

Id
ph

N
t

F/

Id
ph

N
t

Fig. 38 : form of the fault currents detected on the single-phase supply of rectifiers when an insulation fault occurs on their positive output.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.29

G/
Welding machine
c electromagnet
c electrolysis
c etc.

(+)

Id

Fault on (+)

(-)

Fault on (-)
H/
Rectifier set for:
c industrial DC network
c electrophoresis

(+)

Id

Fault on (+)

1
R

3
NB: The fault current in (+) follows
the upper limit of the conduction zones.
Likewise, the fault current in (-) follows
the lower limit.

(-)

(+)

Fault on (-)

J/
Variable speed controller for DC motor.

1
2

M
_

3
NB : The fault current is pulsed at
low speeds and is very close to pure
DC current at high speeds.

(-)
L

(+)

K/
Stationary battery charger for:
c DC auxiliary network
c UPS

Id
+

Fault on (+)

1
t

2
N

(-)

NB: In this diagram, the smoothing

reactor (L) causes conduction
(cyclic and in pairs) of the thyristors
such that the fault point (+) or (-) is always
electrically connected to the neutral, resulting
in a virtually pure DC fault current.

Fault on (-)

Fig. 39 : form of fault currents detected on the three-phase supply of rectifiers when an insulation fault occurs on their output.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.30

However, should a fault occur on an AC outgoer

B, the current of this fault is equal to i1 + i2, and
there is no certainty that the RCD placed on this
outgoer, if it is of the AC type, will trip at the
displayed threshold. For this reason standard
C 15-100, paragraph 532-2-1-4 stipulates:
When electrical devices likely to produce DC
currents are installed downstream of an RCD,
precautions must be taken so that, should an

earth fault occur, the DC currents do not affect

operation of the RCDs and do not jeopardise
safety.
It is thus advisable to:
c choose the right RCD placed just upstream of
a rectifier system,
c if necessary, use A type RCDs in the
remainder of the installation.

Da

3
2
1

(A)
N
311 V

Db

(B)
i1

Ru

i2

Ru

Fig. 41 : the current of a latched fault at the rectifier output (non-opening of Da) may blind the RCD placed
on B.

6 Conclusion

At a time when electricity, as an energy source,

is playing an increasingly dominant role in
housing, tertiary and industry, it is useful to point
out and quantify the electrical hazard and to
further knowledge of Residual Current Devices.
These devices, like any others, have their strong
and weak points. Not yet fully perfected, they
play an increasingly important role in the
protection of people and equipment. All
industrialised countries make extensive use of
RCDs, with a variety of earthing systems, both in
industry and housing.
Generally speaking, the following information is
important for installation standards and
practices:
c For protection of people against the indirect
contact risk, an RCD is:
v compulsory in the TT system,
v necessary in the IT system if there are several
earthing connections,

v to be provided in the case of very long

outgoers in the TN and IT systems.
c For protection of people against direct contact
risk, an RCD is very useful and often stipulated
by standards as an additional precaution
irrespective of the earthing system.
c RCDs also provide protection against:
v fires of electrical origin,
v destruction of machines in the TN system,
v electromagnetic disturbances in the TN-S
system (neutral insulation monitoring).
Present day RCDs comply with construction
standards (see chapter 4) and continue to
progress in terms of reliability and immunity to
interference phenomena which are not
ascribable to insulation faults.
The purpose of this study is to further knowledge
of residual current devices and thereby
contribute to the safety of us all.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.31

Bibliography

Standards
From 1997 onwards the new publications,
issues, versions and IEC amendments to
existing publications have a designation in the
60000 series.
We would like to draw the users attention to the
fact that the former publications printed before
1997 continue to bear the old numbers on the
printed copies, while waiting to be revised.
Product standards
c IEC 60479: Guide to the effects of current
passing through the human body.
c IEC 60755: General rules concerning residual
current protection devices.
c IEC 60947-2: Low voltage switchgear - Part 2:
Circuit-breakers.
c IEC 61008, NF C 61-150 and 151: Automatic
residual current circuit-breakers for domestic and
similar purposes.
c IEC 61009, NF C 61-440 and 441: Circuitbreakers for domestic and similar purposes.
c IEC 61557-6, NF EN 61557-6: Electrical
safety in low voltage distribution systems up to
1000 V AC and 1500 V DC - Part 6: Residual
current devices (RCD) in TT and TN systems.
c UTE C 60-130: Residual current protection
devices.
c NF C 61-420: Small residual current devices.
c NF C 62-411: Connection and similar
equipment, residual current devices for first
category installation monitoring switchboards.
c Draft standard: earth leakage protection
socket.

Cahier Technique Schneider Electric no. 114 / p.32

Installation standards
c IEC 60364, NF C 15-100: LV electrical
installations
c UTE C 15-401: practical guide, installation of
thermal motor/generator sets
c UTE C 15-402: practical guide, static
uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
Schneider Electric Cahiers Techniques
c Protection of people and uninterruptible power
supplies
J.-N. FIORINA, Cahier Technique no. 129
c Evolution of LV circuit-breakers with standard
IEC 60947-2
E. BLANC, Cahier Technique no. 150
c Earthing layouts in LV
B. LACROIX and R. CALVAS,
Cahier Technique no. 172
c Earthing systems worldwide and evolutions
B. LACROIX and R. CALVAS,
Cahier Technique no. 173
c Disturbances of electronic systems and
earthing systems
R. CALVAS, Cahier Technique no. 177
c Cohabitation of strong and weak currents
R. CALVAS and J. DELABALLE,
Cahier Technique no. 187
Other publications
The Schneider Electric guide to the LV electrical
installation
Editor: CITEF S.A.

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Edition: Schneider Electric
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1999 Schneider Electric

Schneider Electric