Coupling Analysis of Linear Vibration Energy Harvesting Systems

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Coupling analysis of linear vibration

energy harvesting systems
Article in Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing October 2015
DOI: 10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.09.006
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Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing

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Coupling analysis of linear vibration energy

harvesting systems
Xu Wang a,n, Xingyu Liang b, Gequn Shu b, Simon Watkins a
a
b
School of Aerospace, Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, RMIT University, Bundoora East, VIC 3083, Australia
School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, PR China
a r t i c l e i n f o
abstract
Article history:
Received 10 April 2015
Received in revised form
14 July 2015
Accepted 1 September 2015
This paper has disclosed the relationship of vibration energy harvester performance with
dimensionless force factor. Numerical ranges of the dimensionless force factor have been
dened for cases of weak, moderate and strong coupling. The relationships of coupling
loss factor, dimensionless force factor, critical coupling strength, coupling quotient,
electro-mechanical coupling factor, damping loss factor and modal densities have been
established in linear vibration energy harvester systems. The new contribution of this
paper is to determine a frequency range where the vibration energy harvesting systems
are in a weak coupling and the statistical energy analysis is applicable.
& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Piezoelectric
Electromagnetic
Vibration energy harvesters
Dimensionless force factor
Coupling loss factor
Statistical energy analysis
1. Introduction
Conversion of vibration energy in structure, machine or vehicle into electric energy will improve reliability, comfort and
energy utilisation efciency, which contributes to environmental sustainability. However, most of the vibration energy
harvesting researches focused on the resonant analysis of the harvesters of specially designed materials or structures with
single frequency harmonic excitation. The resonant analysis is often conducted by deterministic approach. In reality,
ambient environment excitation is often random such as the excitation generated from the road surface to moving vehicles.
The deterministic analysis is not sustainable. This is because the resonant harvested power and energy harvesting efciency
are much overestimated, when the excitation frequency is deviated from the resonant frequency.
Ambient environment vibrations or excitations are random, and they could be of a low or mid or high frequency. As a
matter of fact, some of the piezoelectric vibration energy harvesters work more efciently in the middle and high frequency
than in the low frequency [21,26]. In the middle or high frequency, the established methods are not able to reliably predict
the vibration energy harvesting performances of a series of vibration energy harvester systems of the same design. This is
due to the system parameter variations which are caused by variations in materials and manufacturing processes. In this
case, statistical energy analysis (SEA) of vibration energy harvester systems needs to be developed. SEA is a framework of
study with primary variables of energy for the systems being studied from populations of similar design construction having
known distributions of dynamic parameters. The procedures for SEA are: model development, parameter evaluation and
calculation of response. The motivation of adopting the SEA framework is to avoid repeatedly re-simulating a system with
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: 61 399256028; fax: 61 3 99256108.

E-mail address: xu.wang@rmit.edu.au (X. Wang).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.09.006
0888-3270/& 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: X. Wang, et al., Coupling analysis of linear vibration energy harvesting systems, Mech. Syst.
Signal Process. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.09.006i
X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()
Nomenclature
A
B
C
N
2ME
C0
EE
EM
e
e33
fn
H
i
I
K
ke
Le
M
Ph
P in
Ph
2 y2
C
s
V
VM
V
y
y_
y
YM
z
z_
z
z
ZM
Piezoelectric material insert surface area;

Magnetic eld constant;
Short circuit mechanical damping of the single
degree of freedom system;
Blocking capacity of the piezoelectric material
insert;
Mean energy of the electrical subsystem;
Mean energy of the mechanical subsystem;
2.718281828;
Piezoelectric constant;
Natural frequency;
Thickness of the piezoelectric material insert
disk thickness;
Square root of 1;
Current in the circuit;
Short circuit stiffness of the single degree of
freedom (SDOF) system;
The electro-mechanical coupling factor or
electro-mechanical coupling coefcient;
Self-inductance of the coil;
Oscillator mass of the single degree of freedom system;
Mean harvested power;
Mean input power;
Dimensionless
resonant
mean
harvested power;
Laplace variable;
Output voltage of the SDOF system;
Output voltage amplitude of the SDOF system;
Modulus or amplitude of the output voltage;
Base excitation displacement;
Base excitation velocity;
Base excitation acceleration;
Base excitation displacement amplitude;
Relative displacement of the mass with
respect to the base;
Relative velocity of the mass with respect to
the base;
Relative acceleration of the mass with respect
to the base;
Amplitude of the relative displacement;
Relative displacement amplitude of the mass
with respect to the base;
M
E
ME
Force factor of the piezoelectric material insert

or equivalent force factor of the electromagnetic device/transducer;
Normalised force factor;
The coupling quotient from the mechanical to
the electrical subsystems;
Resonant energy harvesting efciency;
Damping loss factor of mechanical subsystem,
or mechanical damping loss factor;
Damping loss factor of electrical subsystem, or
electrical damping loss factor;
Coupling loss factor from the mechanical to
the electrical subsystems;
Excitation frequency;
3.1415927;
Subscripts
0
33
M
E
h
in
N
Blocking capacity of the piezoelectric material

insert;
Piezoelectric working mode having the same
direction of loading and electric poles;
Mechanical subsystem;
Electrical subsystem;
Harvested energy;
Input;
Normalised;
Superscripts
1
*
__
.
..
Inverse;
Complex conjugale;
Time average;
The rst differential
The second differential
Special function
o 4
Time and spatial averaged

Modulus or absolute value
Abbreviations
SDOF
Single degree of freedom
varied parameter adjustments, as variations of materials and manufacturing processes always exist even for vibration
energy harvesters of the same design. This manuscript focuses on establishing coupling loss factor which enables statistical
energy analysis of linear piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters. The models and results developed in
this manuscript are only applicable to linear piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvester systems. As most
of electrostatic and magnetoelectric vibration energy harvester systems are nonlinear as reported in [2729], therefore, the
models and results are not suitable to the nonlinear electrostatic and magnetoelectric vibration energy harvester systems.
However, the nonlinear term or coefcient may be introduced into the analysis which will expand the statistical energy
analysis method or model developed in this manuscript to the nonlinear systems which will be our future work.
2
Electro-mechanical coupling factor ke of the electromagnetic and piezoelectric vibration energy harvesters was dened
in [1,2,511,15,19,2224], which is a numerical measure of the conversion efciency between electrical and vibration energy.
2
Electro-mechanical coupling factor ke of piezoelectric materials is equal to squared piezoelectric coefcient of the piezoelectric disk divided by the product of the free stress permittivity and short-circuited elastic rigidity of the piezoelectric disk
or equal to the squared force factor divided by the product of the short-circuited stiffness and the capacitance of the
2
piezoelectric disk. Shu and Lien [1618] dened critical coupling strength ke =, as the squared electro-mechanical coupling
2
factor ke divided by the mechanical damping ratio . They believed that when the critical coupling strength is much less
than one, the harvester system is uncoupled or weakly coupled. When the critical coupling strength is larger than 1 and less
than 10, the harvester system is moderately coupled. When the critical coupling strength is larger than 10, the harvester
system is strongly coupled. As previous researches on vibration energy harvesting analysis have never been conducted in
the framework of statistical energy analysis, coupling loss factor has never been dened for vibration energy harvesting
2
analysis. The coupling loss factor has never been related to the electro-mechanical coupling factor ke , although they are two
different concepts. Wang et al. [20,21] expressed dimensionless harvested power and energy harvesting efciency as
functions of only two dimensionless variables: dimensionless resistance RN and dimensionless force factor N. However,
they did not clearly indicate physical meanings of the dimensionless resistance RN and dimensionless force factor N. They
did not relate the dimensionless equivalent force factor 2N to the critical coupling strength. The duality and similarity of
electromagnetic and piezoelectric vibration energy harvesters were illustrated in [14,20,26]. Maidanik and Dickey [13]
dened coupling quotient 2ME for mechanical/structural or acoustic subsystems which is equal to the ratio of damping loss
factor and coupling loss factor. The coupling was classied as a weak, moderate and strong according to a numerical range of
the coupling quotient 2ME . Based on the previous researches, signicant research questions are raised as: 1. How is the
2
coupling loss factor associated with the electro-mechanical coupling factor ke ? 2. How is the coupling loss factor associated
2
with the squared dimensionless force factor N ? 3. How is the dimensionless force factor associated with the critical cou2
pling strength ke = and the coupling quotient 2ME ? The answers to those questions will enable statistical energy analysis of
linear vibration energy harvester systems for reliable performance predictions and design optimisation.
Starting from analyses of linear single degree of freedom piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvester
systems, this paper classies weak, moderate and strong electro-mechanical coupling according to numerical range of the
dimensionless force factor 2N . New contribution of this paper is to determine in which frequency range, the vibration energy
harvesting systems are in a weak coupling where the statistical energy analysis is applicable.
This paper establishes relationships between vibration energy harvester performance and the dimensionless force factor
2N and relationships of coupling loss factor, dimensionless force factor, critical coupling strength, coupling quotient, electromechanical coupling factor, damping loss factor and modal densities. The analysis results are also extended to linear
multiple degrees of freedom piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvester systems.
Small damping and linear system are assumed in this paper. For an electromagnetic vibration energy harvester system,
the internal coil resistance is expected to be much less than the external electrical load resistance.
2. Coupling analysis of a linear single degree of freedom piezoelectric vibration energy harvester system under a
harmonic excitation
For a linear SDOF piezoelectric vibration energy harvester (PVEH) as shown in Fig. 1, governing equation of the
mechanical subsystem is given by:
M U z C U z_ K U z M U y U V
Governing equation of the electrical subsystem is given by:

I U z_ C 0 U V_
where y is the excitation displacement; M is the mass; C is the short circuit mechanical damping coefcient; K is the short
circuit stiffness of the SDOF PVEH system; z is the relative displacement of the mass with respect to the base; V is the voltage
and I is the current. According to Guyomar et al. [3], the force factor and the blocking capacitance of the piezoelectric
insert C0, are respectively dened as:
8
< e33LU A
3
S
: C 0 33 U A
L
Fig. 1. A linear single degree of freedom (SDOF) piezoelectric vibration energy harvester connected to a single load resistor.
where e33 and S33 are the piezoelectric constant and permittivity, respectively, and A, L are the piezoelectric insert surface
area and thickness, respectively. According to the derivation in [21], the electrical load resistance and force factor are
normalised into two dimensionless variables of RN and N, which are given by:
(
RN R U C 0 U
2
4
2
2
C U C0 U
M U M U C 0 U 2
where M 2 U 2 U MC U is the mechanical damping loss factor; is the mechanical damping ratio. When the external load
resistance R tends to be zero, the circuit is short, Eq. (2) diminishes, while Eq. (1) becomes,
M U z C U z_ K Uz M U y
The eigen equation can be written as

M U s2 C Us K 0
For a small damping, the eigen-value is given by

K
M
2n
This represents a zero coupling. From Appendix A, the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power is derived from Eq.
(A.18) and given by:
Ph
M U y2
U M
1
URN U 2N
2
Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (8) becomes

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U2N
2
The resonant energy harvesting efciency is derived from Eq. (A.21) from Appendix A and given by
RN U 2N
10

2N
11
Therefore, the dimensionless resistance RN dened in [20,21] reects how close the harvesting circuit oscillation is to the
resonance. Physical meaning of N will be given in the sections below. When the circuit is switched on and R is larger than
zero, if the base excitation is harmonic, the relative oscillator displacement and output voltage are assumed to be:
8
sUt
>
< y Y M Ue
z Z M U es U t
>
: V V U es U t
12
Substituting Eq. (12) into Eq. (2) gives:

1
U V Us U z
C 0 Us
R
13
From Eq. (13), the harvested voltage response function was derived and given by
V
U s UR
z R U C 0 Us 1
14
Substitution of Eqs. (12) and (14) into Eq. (1) gives:

z
M
R
y K M Us2 C U s R UC2 U Us sU
1
15
The eigen equation is

K M U s2 C U s
2 U s UR
0
RU C 0 U s 1
16
When s iU , consider a small damping, at the mechanical resonance, E(K/M)0.5, which represents a weak coupling,
the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power can be derived [21] and is given by:
Ph
2
M2 yC
Ph
M U
2
y
U M
RN 2N
1
U
2 1 RN 2 2 R2
N
17

2N
Ph
1
U 4
2
M U y 2
U 2 N 2 U N 2
M
18
The resonant energy harvesting efciency can be derived [21] and is given by
RN 2N
19
1 RN 2N R2N
2N
2 2N
20
When the external load resistance R tends to be very large, the circuit is open. Eq. (16) becomes
K M Us2 C U s
2
0
C0
For the open circuit and non-damping system, the eigen-value becomes
K
2
K
2
2
U1 ke 2n U 1 ke
M M UC 0 M
21
where ke is the electro-mechanical coupling factor and given by

2
ke
2
K U C0
22
The frequency ratios /n of the short circuit and open circuit are given by
q
2
sc 1; oc 1 ke ;
23
where sc is the frequency ratio of the short circuit, and oc is the frequency ratio of the open circuit. Eqs. (22) and (23) are
identical to those equations given in [1618]. Note that the resonant frequency shift is pronounced in Eq. (21) if the electromechanical coupling factor q
ke
is large. Consider a small damping and very large external load resistance R, the circuit is
2
K
1 ke ; which represents a strong coupling, from Appendix A, the dimensionless resonant
open, at the resonance, M
mean harvested power is derived and given by:
Ph
M U y2
1 2
U N
2 RN
24
U M

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U 2N
2
25
The resonant energy harvesting efciency is derived from Appendix A and given by
2N
RN
26

2N
27
Table 1
Dimensionless resonant mean harvested power of piezoelectric and electromagnetic VE harvesters at the circuit oscillation resonance.
Dimensionless resonant harvested power when RN 1
Zero coupling R-0
Weak coupling R 40, E(K/M)0.5
Piezoelectric VE harvester
12 U 2N
Eq. (9)
P h 12 U 2N
Eq. (32)
Eq. (36)
Ph
M U y2
U M
Electromagnetic VE harvester
M U y2
U M
Ph
M U y2
U M
12 U
2N
4N 2 U 2N 2
Eq. (18)
Ph
M U y2
U M
12 U
2N
2 2 U 2N 4N
Strong coupling R-1

Ph
M U y2
U M
12 U 2N
Eq. (25)
Ph 12 U 2N
M U y2
U M
Eq. (40)
From Eqs. (8) and (24) in Table 2, the formulae of the resonant mean harvested power are interchangeable from the zero
coupling to a strong coupling when the resonant harvested power is divided or multiplied by (RN)2. From Eqs. (10) and (26)
in Table 4, the formulae of the resonant energy harvesting efciency are interchangeable from the zero coupling to a strong
coupling when the resonant energy harvesting efciency is divided or multiplied by (RN)2. Comparing Eqs. (9), (18) and (25)
in Table 1 or comparing Eqs. (11), (20) and (27) in Table 3, it is seen that the resonant mean harvested power is identical for
the cases of the zero and strong coupling, so is the resonant energy harvesting efciency. The resonant mean harvested
power in the cases of the zero and strong coupling is different from that in the case of the weak coupling, so is the resonant
energy harvesting efciency. This is because, for the zero coupling, the total resistance tends to be zero, and the harvesting
circuit is short. For the strong coupling, the total load resistance tends to be innity, the harvesting circuit is open. In both
the cases of the zero and strong coupling, the interaction of the mechanical and electrical subsystems disappears. In the case
of the weak coupling, the total load resistance is larger than zero and less than innity, there exists the interaction of the
mechanical and electrical subsystems. Similarly, analysis of a linear SDOF electromagnetic vibration energy harvesting
system can be conducted for different electro-mechanical coupling in the following section.
3. Coupling analysis of a linear single degree of freedom electromagnetic vibration energy harvesting system under a
harmonic excitation
For a linear SDOF electromagnetic vibration energy harvester (EMVEH) excited by a sinusoid signal of constant vibration
magnitude shown in Fig. 2, governing equation of the mechanical subsystem is given by
M U z C U z_ K Uz M U y B U l UI
28
where y is the excitation displacement; M is the oscillator mass; C is the short circuit mechanical damping coefcient; K is
the short circuit stiffness of the SDOF electromagnetic-mechanical system; z is the relative displacement of the oscillator
with respect to the base; I is the current in the circuit; B is the magnetic eld constant, l is the total length of the wire that
constitutes the coil. Governing equation of the electrical subsystem is given by
V B Ul U
dz
dI
Re U I Le U
dt
dt
29
where V is the voltage; Re and Le are respectively the resistance and the self-inductance of the coil. According to [21], the
electrical load resistance and equivalent force factor are normalised as two dimensionless variables of RN and 2N which are
given by:
8
RN LeRU
<

30
2
: 2N U CLe U BRU l 2 M LUe
M
M 2 U MC U
where
is the mechanical damping loss factor. Bl/R is the equivalent force factor of the EMVEH.
When the load resistance tends to be zero or very small, it is assumed the resistance of the coil wire Re is also small, that
to the case of the zero coupling. Consider a small damping, from Appendix B, at the mechanical
is RRe -1;which corresponds
p
resonance, K=M, the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power is derived and given by:

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U R3N U2N
2
31

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U 2N
2
32
The resonant energy harvesting efciency is derived from Appendix B and given by
R3N U 2N
33
Fig. 2. A linear SDOF electromagnetic vibration energy harvesting system connected to a single load resistor.

2N
34
When the circuit is switched on and R is larger than zero, it is assumed the resistance of the coil wire is very small,
compared with the external load resistance, that is, Re R or Re =R 0. For example, in the experimental device in [4], the
coil resistance Re was 0.3 , the coil inductance Le was 2.4 mH, the load resistance RL was 10,000 . It is obvious that the coil
resistance is much less than the load resistance. Consider a small damping, at the resonance, E(K/M)0.5 which represents a
weak coupling, the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power can be derived [20] and given by:
Ph
2
M 2 yC
Ph
M U
2
y
U M
RN 2N
1
U 1 2
2 R 1 RN 2N 2
35

2N
Ph
1
U
2
4
M U y2
U 2 2 2 U N N
M
36
The resonant energy harvesting efciency can be derived [20] and given by
R2N
R 2
N N 2
1 RN N
37
2N
2 2N
38
When the external load resistance R tends to be very large, the circuit is open,pwhich
corresponds to the strong coupling.
Consider a small damping, from Appendix B, at the mechanical resonance, K=M, the dimensionless resonant mean
harvested power is derived and given by:

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
URN U 2N
2
39

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U2N
2
40
The resonant energy harvesting efciency is derived from Appendix B and given by
RN U2N
41

2N
42
From Eqs. (31) and (39) in Table 2, the formulae of the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power are interchangeable from the zero coupling to the strong coupling when the resonant harvested power is divided or multiplied by
(RN)2. This feature has reected the duality of the resonant harvested power from the zero to strong coupling in term of the
reciprocal (RN)2. The dimensionless resonant mean harvested power values of the zero and strong coupling not only depend
on the coupling strength but also depend on how close the circuit oscillation is to the resonance, which coincided with the
conclusions of [25]. Comparing Eqs. (32), (36) and (40) in Table 1, it is seen that the resonant mean harvested power is
identical for the zero and strong coupling. The resonant mean harvested power value in the cases of the zero and strong
Table 2
Dimensionless resonant mean harvested power of piezoelectric and electromagnetic VE harvesters without the circuit oscillation resonance.
Dimensionless resonant mean harvested power when RN a 1 Zero coupling R-0 Weak coupling R 40, E(K/M)0.5 Strong coupling R-1
12 U RN U 2N
Eq. (8)
P h 2 1 U R3N U 2N
Ph
M U jyj2
U M
M U jyj
U M
Eq. (31)
Ph
M U jyj2
U M
1U
2
RN 2N
1 RN 2N 2 R2N
Eq. (16)
Ph
M U jyj2
U M
12 U 2
Eq. (35)
1
RN
1 U N
2
2 RN
Eq. (24)
Ph 2 12 U RN U 2N
RN 2N
1 RN 2N
Ph
M U jyj2
U M
M U jyj
U M
Eq. (39)
Table 3
Energy harvesting efciency of piezoelectric and electromagnetic VE harvesters at the circuit oscillation resonance.
Energy harvesting efciency when RN 1
Zero coupling R-0
2N
Strong coupling R-1
2 2
2N
Eq. (20)
Eq. (27)
2N
2N
Eq. (11)
2N
2 N2
Eq. (34)
Eq. (38)
Eq. (42)
Table 4
Energy harvesting efciency of piezoelectric and electromagnetic VE harvesters without the circuit oscillation resonance.
Energy harvesting efciency when RN a 1
Zero coupling R-0
RN U 2N
1 R N2N R2
RNN
Eq. (10)
Eq. (19)
R3N U 2N
Eq. (26)
RN U 2N
Eq. (33)
Eq. (37)
R 2
N N
1
R2
N
RN 2N
1 RN 2N
Strong coupling R-1

2
Eq. (41)
coupling are different from that in the case of the weak coupling. This is because no interaction exists between the
mechanical and electrical subsystems in the zero and strong coupling as the electrical circuit is either short or open in the
two cases. The resonant mean harvested power in the zero coupling is identical to that in the strong coupling, so is the
energy harvesting efciency. When the circuit is switched on, there develops the interaction between the mechanical and
electrical subsystems, and a weak coupling develops. The interaction makes the resonant harvested power or energy harvesting efciency of a weak coupling different from that of the zero and strong coupling. From Eqs. (33) and (41) in Table 4,
the formulae of the resonant energy harvesting efciency are interchangeable from the zero coupling to the strong coupling
when the resonant energy harvesting efciency is divided or multiplied by (RN)2. Comparing Eqs. (34), (38) and (42) in Table
3, it is seen that the resonant energy harvesting efciency is same for the zero and strong coupling. The resonant energy
harvesting efciency in the zero and strong coupling is different from that in the weak coupling case. The reasons have been
illustrated above.
It is noticed that the electro-mechanical coupling has little effects
on the resonant frequency of the electromagnetic
p
harvester system, the natural frequency is always calculated by K=M, which is different from that for a piezoelectric
VEH as illustrated in Eq. (21).
The duality of the piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvester was shown in [20]. It was proved that the
calculation formulae of the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power or energy harvesting efciency are interchangeable from the piezoelectric to electromagnetic VEH by replacing (1/RN)2 with (RN)2 where the RN U2N term is not
changed. The duality of the piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvester has been further veried in this
paper by comparing Eqs. (8) and (31), Eqs. (17) and (35), and Eqs. (24) and (39) shown in Table 2 or by comparing Eq. (10)
with (33), Eqs. (19) and (37), and Eqs. (26) and (41) shown in Table 4. From the pairs of Eqs. (9) and (32), Eqs. (18) and (36),
Eqs. (25) and (40) shown in Table 1, it is seen that at the electric circuit oscillation resonance RN R U C 0 U 1, the
dimensionless resonant mean harvested power is identical for both the piezoelectric and electromagnetic VEH. From the
pairs of Eqs. (11) and (34), Eqs. (20) and (38), Eqs. (27) and (42) shown in Table 3, it is seen that at the electric circuit
oscillation resonance RN R U C 0 U 1, the resonant energy harvesting efciency is identical for both of piezoelectric and
electromagnetic VEH. This is because at the electric circuit oscillation resonance and the mechanical resonance, the electrical impedances of piezoelectric and electromagnetic circuits are all equal to the mechanical impedance. The dimensionless resonant mean harvested power or energy harvesting efciency only depends on the dimensionless force factor N,
regardless of the VEH type of the piezoelectric or electromagnetic.
4. Coupling analyses of linear piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters under random
excitations
The above analyses are based on a harmonic excitation. However, ambient environment excitations are often random
with a nite frequency bandwidth. The frequency integrations over the bandwidth are required for the output voltage or
relative displacement in the above analyses in order to get the harvested power and energy harvesting efciency under
random excitations. Since ambient environmental random vibration process is assumed to be a stationary and ergodic
process or a Gaussian random process. The sampling time-averaged values of the process are equal to the ensemble
averaged values. Therefore, the piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters can be studied using
statistical energy analysis (SEA) where the mechanical and electrical subsystems are considered. This is possible because
both of the SEA and the above vibration energy harvesting analysis are focused on the resonant frequencies of mechanical
and electric subsystems.
From Eqs. (4) and (22), it is seen that the squared dimensionless force factor 2N is equal to the electro-mechanical
2
coupling factor ke divided by the mechanical damping loss factor and given by
2
2N
ke
2
2
M K U C 0 UM U C UC 0
43
where
C
M p
K UM
44
M is the damping loss factor of the mechanical subsystem. From Eq. (43), 2N has been proved to be a double of the
critical coupling strength dened in [1618]. The vibration energy harvesting system in Figs. 1 or 2 can be described by a
statistical energy analysis model where a mechanical subsystem is coupled to an electrical subsystem as shown in Fig. 3.
For a weak coupling, consider a narrow band random excitation, power transfer from the mechanical to electrical
subsystem can be written as
Ph
V 2
U ME UEM EE
R
45
2
where ME is the coupling loss factor from the mechanical to electrical subsystem; V is the mean squared voltage harvested; is the centre frequency of the narrow excitation band which should be close to the resonant frequencies of both of
the mechanical and electrical subsystems; EM is the average energy of the mechanical subsystem; EE is the average energy of
the electrical subsystem. For the SDOF VEH system, the modal densities of both of the mechanical and electrical subsystems
are equal to one, which is to say that both of the mechanical and electrical subsystems are of single degree of freedom. The
mean energy of the mechanical subsystem is given by
EM M Uz2
46
where z is the mean squared relative velocity of the mechanical subsystem. The mean energy of the electrical subsystem
is given by
2
EE
V 2
R UE U
47
where E is the damping loss factor of the electrical subsystem. The mean energy difference of the mechanical and electrical
subsystems is given by
EM EE M Uz2
V 2
R UE U
48
Substitution of Eq. (48) into Eq. (45) gives

ME
1
z2
1
R UM U V
2 U
49
It is assumed that the energy harvesting process is stationary and ergodic random process, the spatial and ensemble
average of the squared velocity or voltage are equal to the time average of the squared velocity or voltage. For a narrow band
random excitation, the time average of the squared velocity over the time average of the squared voltage is then equal to the
squared modulus of the velocity spectrum over the voltage spectrum in the frequency domain. Eq. (49) becomes
ME
1
R UM U Vz2 U3 1E
50
Fig. 3. Statistical energy analysis model of linear vibration energy harvesting system.
10
If a harmonic excitation can be looked upon as a very narrow band random excitation, from Eq. (14) where s iU , it
gives
z 2 RU C 0 U 2 1 C 20
1

2
U UR2
U U R2
51
Substitution of Eq. (51) into Eq. (50) gives

ME
R UM U
1
C 20
U 1U R2
2
52
U3 1
Consider the resonance of the electrical subsystem or the circuit oscillation RN RU C 0 U 1, from Eqs. (22) and (43), Eq.
(52) becomes
ME
53
2
M
2N
E
From Eqs. (43) and (53), it gives

ME
54
2
1
E
k2e
Therefore, the coupling loss factor from the mechanical to electrical subsystem ME is associated with the squared
2
electro-mechanical coupling factor ke and the damping loss factor of the electrical subsystem E for the weak coupling. The
2
squared electro-mechanical coupling factor ke is dened by Eq. (22) for the piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting
system.
It is assumed that the mechanical damping loss factor is equal to the electrical damping loss factor M E which is small,
therefore, for a weak coupling, Eq. (53) becomes
2N
ME
M 2 2N
55
Comparing Eq. (43) with Eq. (55) gives

2
ME
ke U M
56
2 U M ke
When ME, for a weak coupling,

ME 2N
M
2
57
From Eqs. (43) and (57), it gives

1 2
ME U ke
2
58
For the weak coupling, the coupling loss factor from the mechanical to electrical subsystems in the electromagnetic
vibration energy harvesting system is given by
ME
1
2
1
2
E
ke
M
2
M
2
N
E
B2 U l U Le U E
2
59
2 U M U R UE B2 U l U Le
2
The relationship of the coupling loss factor ME, squared electro-mechanical coupling factor ke , damping loss factor of the
electrical subsystem E has not been illustrated in the past. The relationship of the coupling loss factor ME, squared
dimensionless force factor 2N , damping loss factors of the electrical and mechanical subsystems E and M has also not been
illustrated in the previous literatures. The relationships are the new results developed from this paper.
The above linear SDOF analysis should be easy to be expanded to a linear multi-degree of freedom vibration energy
harvesting system where the modal densities of the mechanical and electrical subsystems are larger than one. When multidegree of freedom (MDOF) mechanical and electrical subsystems are considered as shown in Fig. 3, under the assumption of
a weak coupling, an excitation frequency bandwidth is selected to cover the major mechanical and electrical subsystem
resonant modes [12], which leads to modal densities of the mechanical subsystem system nM() and the electrical subsystem nE() being included in Eqs. (53) and (54) which is given by:
ME
1
2
M nnM
U 2 M
E
60
11
and
1
ME n
2
1
M
nE U k2 E
61
where ke is the mode averaged electro-mechanical coupling factor, 2N is the mode averaged dimensionless force factor. After
the coupling loss factor ME and the dimensionless force factor 2N have been established, the statistical energy analysis can
be applied to predict the mean energy values and variances of the mechanical and electrical subsystems according to
Equation (3.2.13), Equation (4.2.13) and (4.2.14) in [12].
5. Relationship between the vibration energy harvesting performance and dimensionless force factor
After the coupling loss factor of the vibration energy harvesting systems is derived, the relationships between the
dimensionless resonant mean harvested power, efciency and dimensionless force factor can be established.
From Eq. (43), 2N has been proved to be a double of the critical coupling strength dened in [1618]. The relationship of
the dimensionless force factor 2N and the force factor is presented in Eqs. (4) or (30). The coupling quotient was dened as
2ME M =ME in [13]. For a weak coupling, from Eq. (60), it gives
2ME
M nM 2 M
U
ME nE 2N E
62
The value of ME 2 will determine whether the coupling between the subsystems is weak, moderate or strong.
2
ornnME
U 2 M 4 4 1; the coupling between the mechanical and electrical subsystems is weak and
E
2N
or nnME
U 2 M o o 1 then the coupling is strong [13]. When the coupling loss factor from the mechanical
E
N
to electrical subsystem is much larger than the damping loss factor of the mechanical subsystem, the vibration energy
harvesting systems are in a strong coupling. When the coupling loss factor from the mechanical to electrical subsystem is
much less than the damping loss factor of the mechanical subsystem, the vibration energy harvesting systems are in a weak
2
2
coupling. When nnME
U 2 M Z 10; the systems are in a weak coupling. When 1 r nnME
U 2 M r 10; the systems are in a
E
E
N
N
2
moderate coupling. When nnME
U 2 M r1; the systems are in a strong coupling. These results are more illustrative than
E
2
N
those in [1618]. From Eqs. (4) and (30), for the piezoelectric vibration energy harvester,f 2 U C U C U 2 ; for the electro0
N
magnetic
R vibration
2 C U 2 energy harvester,
f B U l U Le N :
From these relationships, the frequency ranges of the weak coupling, moderate coupling and strong coupling of the
piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesting systems can be determined.
The relationship of the dimensionless force factor 2N and the coupling quotient 2ME as shown in Eq. (62) and the resultant
coupling strength ranges of the weak, moderate and strong coupling have not been illustrated in the previous literatures.
They are new results out of this paper. According to [20,21], the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power and energy
harvesting efciency are determined by only the dimensionless force factor N and dimensionless resistance RN. The normalised dimensionless force factor N reects the electro-mechanical coupling strength, while the dimensionless resistance
RN reects how close the harvesting oscillation circuit is to its resonance. The physical meanings of the dimensionless
variables RN and N have not been clearly illustrated in previous literatures.
For the linear SDOF piezoelectric VEH, consider the circuit oscillation resonance RN RU C 0 U 1 in Eq. (4) gives
If2ME M 4 41;
ME
if 2ME M o o1
ME
2N
R U 2
M U M U
63
It is seen from Eq. (63) that increasing the force factor and the external resistance will increase the dimensionless force
factor. Decreasing the mass and damping loss factor of mechanical subsystem or decreasing the centre frequency of the
excitation bandwidth will increase the dimensionless force factor.
For the linear SDOF electromagnetic VEH, consider the oscillation circuit resonance RN R=Le U 1 in Eq. (30), it gives
2
2N
B2 U l
RU M U
64
It is seen from Eq. (64) that increasing the magnetic eld intensity and the length of the coil will increase the dimensionless force factor. Decreasing the external resistance, the mechanical subsystem mass and the centre frequency of the
excitation band will also increase the dimensionless force factor.
For a linear SDOF piezoelectric or electromagnetic vibration energy harvester, assume M E according to the range of
the dimensionless force factor 2N , the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power for the cases of the weak and nonweak coupling are plotted over 2N following the pairs of Eqs. (18) and (36), and Eqs. (25) and (40) in Table 1 and shown in
Fig. 4. A line is connected between the ending and starting points of the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power
curves of the weak and strong coupling. The line is used to approximate the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power
of a moderate coupling as there are no such equations available for the moderate coupling. 2N changes from 0 to 0.1818 for
the weak coupling, from 0.1818 to 1 for the moderate coupling and from 1 onward for the strong coupling. For the
12
piezoelectric vibration energy harvester, when f 4 2 =1:142 U C UC 0 , the system is in a weak coupling where the statistical
energy analysis is applicable; when f o 2 =6:28 UC U C 0 the system is in a strong coupling where the statistical energy

analysis is not applicable. When 2 =1:142 U C UC 0 of o 2 =6:28 UC U C 0 , the system is in a moderate coupling. For the

2
electromagnetic vibration energy harvester, when f o 0:1818 U R=B Ul U C=Le ; the system is in a weak coupling where the

2
statistical energy analysis is applicable; when f 4 R=B U l UC=Le ; the system is in a strong coupling where the statistical

2
energy analysis is not applicable. When R=B U l UC=Le of o 0:1818 U R=B Ul U C=Le ; the system is in a moderate
coupling.
It is seen from Fig. 4 that the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power for the cases of the non-weak coupling is
much larger than that for the case of the weak coupling.
According to the range of the dimensionless force factor, the dimensionless energy harvesting efciency for the cases of
the weak and non-weak coupling are plotted over 2N following the pairs of Eqs. (20) and (38), Eqs. (27) and (42) in Table 3
and shown in Fig. 5. A line is connected between the ending and starting points of the resonant harvesting energy efciency
curves of the weak and strong coupling. The line is used to approximate the resonant harvesting energy efciency of a
moderate coupling as there are no such equations available for the moderate coupling. 2N changes from 0 to 0.18 for the
weak coupling and from 0.18 to 1 for the moderate coupling and from 1 onward for the strong coupling.
Fig. 4. Dimensionless resonant mean harvested power of linear SDOF piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters for the cases of the
weak and non-weak coupling (M E).
Fig. 5. Resonant energy harvesting efciency of linear SDOF piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters for the cases of the weak and
non-weak coupling (M E).
13
It is seen from Fig. 5 that the energy harvesting efciency for the cases of the non-weak coupling is much larger than that
for the case of the weak coupling.
It is seen from Figs. 4 and 5 that as the dimensionless force factor 2N increases, the dimensionless resonant mean
harvested power and energy harvesting efciency increase.
2
For a linear multiple degree of freedom piezoelectric or electromagnetic vibration energy harvester, ke should be
2
2
2
replaced by ke UnE =nM in Eqs. (54), (56), (58) and (59); N should be replaced by N UnE =nM in Eqs. (53), (55),
(57) and (59) and in the formulae of Tables 1 and 3 and in Figs. 4 and 5.
6. Conclusions
For both of the linear SDOF electromagnetic and piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting systems, the dimensionless
force factor 2N is a double of the critical coupling strength which reects the electro-mechanical coupling strength. Electromechanical coupling of the mechanical and electric subsystems can be classied according to the numerical range of the
dimensionless force factor 2N . For example, if M E, when 0 o 2N o0:18; the subsystems are in a weak coupling; when
0:18 o 2N o1; the subsystems are in a moderate coupling; when 2N 4 1; the subsystems are in a strong coupling. The frequency range of the weak, moderate and strong coupling for the linear piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy
harvesting systems can be determined from the numeric ranges of the dimensionless force factor. The dimensionless force
2
factor 2N is equal to the squared electro-mechanical coupling factor ke divided by the mechanical damping loss factor M.
The dimensionless resistance RN reects how close the harvesting circuit oscillation is to the resonance.
For a linear multiple degree of freedom piezoelectric or electromagnetic vibration energy harvester, the 2N should be
replaced by 2N UnE =nM . The dimensionless force factor 2N U nE =nM is associated with the coupling loss factor
(ME) from the mechanical to electrical subsystems by Eq. (60). The dimensionless force factor 2N U nE =nM is associated with the coupling quotient 2ME by Eq. (62).
For linear piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration energy harvesters, the calculation formulae of the dimensionless
resonant mean harvested power and efciency are interchangeable from the zero coupling to the strong coupling when they
are divided or multiplied by (RN)2. At the mechanical and electrical subsystem resonances, the calculation formula of the
dimensionless resonant mean harvested power is identical for both of the piezoelectric and electromagnetic vibration
energy harvesting systems, so is the calculation formula of the efciency. The dimensionless resonant mean harvested
power and efciency only depend on the dimensionless force factor 2N U nE =nM in this case. For both of the linear
electromagnetic and piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting systems, the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power
and efciency under the non-weak coupling are much larger than those under the weak coupling. The vibration energy
harvesting systems of the non-weak coupling perform better than those of the weak coupling. As the dimensionless force
factor 2N U nE =nM increases, the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power and energy harvesting efciency
increase.
The electro-mechanical coupling analysis has provided a basis for statistical energy analysis of the piezoelectric and
electromagnetic vibration energy harvesting systems.
Appendix A
Derivation of the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power and energy harvesting efciency of linear SDOF piezoelectric vibration energy harvesting system for zero and strong coupling.
For a linear SDOF piezoelectric vibration energy harvester connected to a single load resistor as shown in Fig. 1, when the
resistance R tends to be very large, which corresponds to a strong coupling, Eq. (15) becomes
z
M
y K M U s2 C Us C2
A:1
If s i, Eq. (A.1) becomes

z
M
A:2
y K M U 2 C U iU C2
0
q
2
2
2
At the resonance, K=M U1 ke , where the electro-mechanical coupling factor ke is given by ke 2 =K UC 0
This is same as that in [1618]. At the resonance, Eq. (A.2) becomes
z
M
y C U iU
A:3
14
According to Eq. (14), if the resistance is very large, the transfer function between the base excitation acceleration and
output voltage is given by:
V V z
z
U U
y
z y C 0 y
A:4
Substitution of Eq. (A.3) into Eq. (A.4) gives its modulus of

V
M U

y
C U U C 0
A:5
From Eq. (A.5), the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power ratio is then given by
Ph
1 y
1 M2
2
U
U
U
2
2 R
2 C C U U C 0 U R U UC 0
y
V 2
A:6
Substitution of Eq. (4) into Eq. (A.6) gives

Ph
M2 U y 2
C

Ph
2
M U y
U M
1 2
U N
2 RN
where M is the mechanical damping loss factor. From Eq. (A.2), its real part is given by

z_
M UC U 2

Re
2
y
2
K M U 2 C 0 C 2 U 2
q
2
A small damping is assumed, at the resonance, K=M U 1 ke , Eq. (A.8) becomes

z_
M
Re
y
C
The mean input power at the resonance frequency is given by

z_
1
1 M2
P in U M U y 2 URe
U
Uy 2
y
2
2 C
A:7
A:8
A:9
A:10
The dimensionless resonant mean input power is given by

P in
M2 U y2
C

P in
M U y2
U M
1
2
A:11
From Eqs. (A.7) and (A.11), the resonant energy harvesting efciency of the linear SDOF system connected with a single
load resistor gives
M2PUhy2
M2 U y2
P in
2N
RN
A:12
When the resistance R tends to be zero, this corresponds to the status of a short circuit, which is a zero coupling, if si,
Eq. (15) becomes
z
M
y K M U2 C Ui U
A:13
z
M

y
C U
A:14
p
Consider a small damping, at the resonance, K=M, the modulus of Eq. (A.13) is given by
The real part is given by

z_
M
Re
y
C
A:15
From Eq. (14), the modulus of the harvested voltage ratio is given by
V
V z
U iU U R
z
M
U UR U
U
y
z y
R UC 0 Ui U 1 y
C
A:16
From Eqs. (A.16) and (4), the mean resonant harvested power ratio is then given by
V 2
Ph
1 y
1 M 2 R U2 1 M 2
U
U
U
URN U2N
U
2
2 R
2 C
2 C
C
y
A:17
15
The dimensionless mean resonant harvested power is given by

Ph
M 2 U y2
C

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U RN U2N
2
From Eq. (A.15), the mean input power at the resonance frequency is given by

z_
1
1 M2
U
Uy 2
P in UM Uy 2 U Re
y
2
2 C
A:18
A:19
From Eq. (4), the dimensionless mean resonant input power is given by

P in
M 2 U y2
C

P in
M U y2
U M
1
2
A:20
From Eqs. (A.18) and (A.20), the resonant energy harvesting efciency of the linear SDOF system connected with a single
load resistor gives

Ph
M 2 U y2
C
M2PUiny2
RN U 2N
A:21
Appendix B
Derivation of the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power and energy harvesting efciency of linear SDOF electromagnetic vibration energy harvesting system for zero and strong coupling.
For a linear SDOF electromagnetic vibration energy harvester connected to a single load resistor as shown in Fig. 2,
substitution of Eq. (12) into Eqs. (28) and (29) gives

M U LeRU s 1 RRe
z
R L U s R
B:1

e
e
y
UM LeRU C U s2 ReRU C C K URLe R U 2 Us RRe U K K
R
and
V
U R Us
z 1 Re RLe U s
B:2
where s i. Bl/R. The modulus of the transfer function between the base acceleration and relative oscillator displacement is then given by
ss

2

z
Le U 2
Re 2
Re
Re R UM Le UC 2 2
Re U C
K ULe
Le U 2 U M
U
C
UK K
R U2
1
U 2
MU
y
R
R
R
R
R
R
R
B:3
When the resistance R tends to be very large, which corresponds to strong coupling, it is assumed the resistance Re of the
coil wire is very small, compared with the external load resistance R, that is, Re R or Re =R 0, at the resonance,
q q
K
UM
K
M
U R U MR
Le U C
M;
Eq. (B.3) becomes,
z
M

y
C U
B:4

z_
M

Re
y
C
B:5
From Eq. (B.2), the modulus of the harvested voltage ratio is given by
V
V z
UR U iU
z
M
U UR U
U
y
z y
C
1 Re Le U i U y
B:6
From Eqs. (B.6) and (30), the dimensionless resonant harvested power ratio is then given by
Ph
1 y
1 M2 R U2 1 M 2
U
U
U
URN U 2N
U
2
2 R
2 C
2 C
C
y
V 2
B:7
16
The dimensionless resonant harvested power is given by

Ph
M2 U y2
C

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
U RN U2N
2
where M is the mechanical damping loss factor. The input power at the resonant frequency is given by

z_
1
1 M2
U
Uy 2
P in U M U y 2 URe
y
2
2 C
B:8
B:9
The dimensionless resonant input power is given by

P in
M2 U y2
C

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
2
B:10
From Eqs. (B.8) and (B.10), the resonant energy harvesting efciency of the SDOF system connected with a single load
resistor gives

Ph
M2 U y2
C
M2PUiny2
RN U 2N
B:11
When the resistance R tends to be very small, which corresponds to a zero coupling, it is assumed the resistance of the
coil wire Re is also small, that is Re =R-1, Eq. (B.1) becomes,
h
i
M U Le URi U 2
z
h
i
B:12
y 2 UK 2 Le U i U UM Le U C U 2 2 UC K U Le R U2 Ui U
R
R
R
p
At the resonance of K=M Eq. (B.2) becomes
V U RU i U
z 2 Le URi U
B:13
Eq. (B.3) becomes

z
M

y
C U
B:14

z_
M

Re
y
C
V
V z
UR2 M
U
U
y
z y
Le C U
B:15
B:16
From Eqs. (B.16) and (30), the dimensionless resonant mean harvested power ratio is then given by
V 2
Ph
1 y
1 2 U R3 M 2 1 3 2 M 2
U
U
U RN U N U
U
2 2 UL2e UC C
2
C
y2 2 R
B:17
The dimensionless resonant mean harvested power is given by

Ph
M2 U y2
C

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
UR3N U 2N
2
From Eq. (B.15), the mean input power at the resonant frequency is given by

z_
1
1 M2
U
Uy 2
P in U M U y 2 URe
y
2
2 C
B:18
B:19
From Eq. (B.19), the dimensionless resonant mean input power is given by

P in
M2 U y2
C

Ph
M U y2
U M
1
2
B:20
From Eqs. (B.18) and (B.20), the resonant energy harvesting efciency of the linear SDOF system connected with a single
load resistor is given by

Ph
M2 U y2
C
M2PUiny2
R3N U 2N
B:21
17
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Coupling analysis of linear vibration energy

Corresponding author. Tel.: 61 399256028; fax: 61 3 99256108.

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Piezoelectric material insert surface area;

Force factor of the piezoelectric material insert

Blocking capacity of the piezoelectric material

Time and spatial averaged

Single degree of freedom

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Governing equation of the electrical subsystem is given by:

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

The eigen equation can be written as

For a small damping, the eigen-value is given by

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (8) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (10) becomes

Substituting Eq. (12) into Eq. (2) gives:

Substitution of Eqs. (12) and (14) into Eq. (1) gives:

The eigen equation is

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (17) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (19) becomes

where ke is the electro-mechanical coupling factor and given by

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (24) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (26) becomes

Zero coupling R-0

Weak coupling R 40, E(K/M)0.5

Strong coupling R-1

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (31) becomes

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (33) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (35) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (37) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (39) becomes

Consider the circuit oscillation resonance, RN 1, Eq. (41) becomes

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Zero coupling R-0

Weak coupling R 40, E(K/M)0.5

Strong coupling R-1

Zero coupling R-0

Weak coupling R 40, E(K/M)0.5

Strong coupling R-1

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Substitution of Eq. (48) into Eq. (45) gives

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Substitution of Eq. (51) into Eq. (50) gives

From Eqs. (43) and (53), it gives

Comparing Eq. (43) with Eq. (55) gives

When ME, for a weak coupling,

From Eqs. (43) and (57), it gives

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

If s i, Eq. (A.1) becomes

X. Wang et al. / Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing ()

Substitution of Eq. (A.3) into Eq. (A.4) gives its modulus of