¢ DRAINAGE ie a 6.018 __AETTER Paes 26Gu: |er ee ares sco ee eared 2 beets ms . THE AMERIGAN ASSOCIATION OF PETROLEUM GEOLOGISTS BULLETIN V. 51, NO. 11 (NOVEMBER, 1967), P. 2246.2299, 4 FIGS, 1 TABLE & J DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD* 1 Stanford, California 94305 ABSTRACT Drainage gonlysis, i wiful jn, structural interpretation, particulary inane ol_low sei Analysis includes consideration of drainage patterns, drainage texture, individual stream patterns, and drainage anomalies, Drainage patterns generally are subdivided into basic and modified basic To these might be added pattern varieties. A. basic. pattern is one whose gross characteristics readily distinguish it from other basic patterns, Modified basic patterns differ from the type patterns in some fairly obvious regional aspect as, for example, a tendency toward parallelism of the larger tributaries in a dendritic : pattern. Thus many modified patterns are transitional in character between basic patterns, and the naming of such patterns may be a matter of judgment, Patter varieties are characterized by internal details, commonly obscure. In 2 broad sense, the basic patterns, the modified basic pattems, and the Pattern varieties are analogous to. the generg, Species, and varieties of the zoological classification. ‘A complex patteri consists of two contentpuraneous patterns adjacent to each other; a compound pattern consists of two unlike superimposed patterns. ‘The palimpsest pattern consists of two super- ‘imposed patterns, but one is a paleopattern, Drainage texture depends ona variety of factors: In any one small area where all other factors are constant, drainage texture may provide information on underlying materials and indirectly on stmcture. Sec ; Individual stream patterns may display characteristics similar ‘to. those of the Bross drainage «. . em and may be referred to by the same name. Thus individual patterns may be referfed to by ch terms as rectangular, angulate, or contorted. Other stream patterns include irregular, rectilinear, meandering, braided, misit, and beaded, alae Drainage anomalies are local deviations from drainage and stream patterns which dsewhere accord with the known regional geology and/or topography, The expectable pattern i as the: norm; the anomalies indicate departures from the regional geologic or topographic controls. Analysis of drainage anomalies has revealed structural data in some flatland regions where other methods of investigation have been unsatisfactory. > Iytronuern een Dusunase PATIEENS) A Gai is the design formed by the “Aggregate of drainageways in an area regardless of whether they are océupied by permanent streams. A slream pattern is the design formed Drainage analysis is an important tool in pho- togeologic interpretation, particularly in areas of low relief. It may provide: clues to inactive struc- tural features exposed at the surface, to structur- al features currently rising, and, possibly, to bur- ied structural features. The density of drainage “may provide information on permeability and texture of materials, and may infer the identity of materials. The characteristics and significance of drainage patterns, drainage texture, individual stream patterns, and drainage anomalies are con- sidered here. Techniques involving grid sampling and the use tal computers eventually may result in the application of numerical values to drainage pat- terns (Merriam and Sneath 1966). It is too early, however, to speculate on the advantages and disadvantages of this procedure. ? Manuscript received, June 25, 1966; accepted, Feb- ruary 3, 1967. *Geology Department, Stanford University. The writer is indebted to Chester R. Longwell and Stanley N. Davis for review of the manuscript, but only he is responsible for its content, 2246 by a single drainageway. Both basic and modified basic drainage pat- terns have been described (Zernitz, 1932). In ad- dition to these there are drainage varieties. A basic_pattern is one whose gross characteristics readily distinguish it from other basic patterns. A modified basic pattern differs from the type basic Dattern in some regional aspect as, for example, the close spacing of Small parallel tributaries in the pinnate-dendritic pattern or the preferred or- ientation of longer tributaries in the directional- trellis pattern (Fig. 2, B and G). Drainage vari- eties differ from the basic and modified basic pat- terns in internal details. Varieties are legion and the application of individual names is impractical. In a broad sense, the basic patterns, the ‘modified « basic patterns, and the pattern varieties may be likened to the genera, species, and varieties of the zoological classification,DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION BASIC PATTERNS taries entering the larger streams at an acute Most of the basic patterns are controlled by angle. The drainage, therefore, has a featherlike regional structure. Zernitz (1932) classified as F frondlike appearance (Fig. 2, B). The patte:n major (basic?) the following patterns: dendritic, i best developed in fine-textured. casily eroded parallel, trellis, rectangular, radial, and annular. ‘materials such as loess. The fine texture of the Because these are discussed in most elementary ™aterials accounts for the close spacing of the geology texts, only a pictorial review (Fig. 1, small tributaries, and the steep valley sides are A-F) and a brief summation of characteristics the cause of their parallelism. On some slopes. and geologic significance (Table I) are’ included. Particularly solifluction slopes in the Arctic, the ‘Two other patterns, multibasinal and contorted, !0sely spaced parallel tributaries are long com=— are grouped with the basic patterns in this report Pared with those in Figure 2. They are barely in- (Fig. 1, G and-H; Table I). The original or ear- ised into the gentle slopes and extend to the Jiest known references to most of the basic and rests of the rounded divides. The pattern resem- modified basic patterns are. recorded in the foot-- bles feathery plumes. mites to ‘Table T. Anastomotic—This pattern, characterized by a network of interlocking channels, sldughs, bayous, MODIFIED BASIC PATTERNS and oxbow lakes, is found on floodplains and del- Modified"basic patlemne athouga Usually rec- ‘5 and in tidal marshes (Fig. 2, C). Varieties of ognized as belonging to one of the basic types, the pattern have been termed “reticular” by Par- differ in certain regional characteristics. For ex- Vi5 (1950, p. 43-44) and “reticulate” by White- ample, the degree of parallelism of the main house (1944, p. 9). streams in a region of dendritic drainage is gener- _ Distributory—This is the branching pattern ally a functior of the regional slope. On'different found on alluvial fans and deltas (Fig. 2, D). It declivities, therefore, there may be all transitions Tesembles the dendritic pattern. except that the from dendritic to parallel drainage. ‘Transitional ‘tibutaries diverge from, rather than converge to-” types. also may result from changes with time. ard, the main stream. ‘The change toward parallelism might result from Parallel Pattern Modifications progressive steepening of a slope. Trellis charac- sypparailel—The subparallel pattern (Zetnitz teristics may appear in a dendritic pattern as streams are superposed from an overlying cover onto dipping rocks, Transitions among all the basic types seem possible. Some of the modified patterns are considered below. 1932, p. 518) shows Jess paralleligm than the basic pattern. If due to slope alone, the pattern resembles that formed by the branches of a pop- lar tree. Where due to mild structural control by deformed strata of relatively uniform resistance to erosion, there is sufficient parallelism among segments of the main streams and tributaries to suggest the bedrock control, but streams com- monly diverge from the geologic grain, The elon- gate streams are not ordinarily -as continuous along the strike as those of the trellis pattern. Dendritic Pattern Modifications, Subdendritic—This pattern differs from the type dendritic only in the Tack~of perfection: Deviations are presumably due to secondary re- gional controls, either structural or topographic. Thus, in part of the Amazon basin recently j | studied by the writer (Howard 1965), the den- ori ncaa a Le ee a a Wane subparallel pattern of drumlin areas dritic pattern, “inherited from an unconformable (Fig. 2, E) mantle, is being fransformed toa trellis pattern 2 by adjustment of tributaries to the strike underlying formations. Along the lower Yell stone River in eastern Montana, the dendritic drainage is slowly developing trellis character- istics under the influence of a prevailing system of poorly expressed joints (Fig. 2, A). ; ‘Trellis Pattern Modifications Pinnate-—This pattern is characterized by _Subtrellis—The subtrellis pattern differs from many closely spaced, more-or-less parallel tribu- the type trellis only in the degree of continuity Colinear —This pattern (Zernitz, 1932, p. 519) is characterized by remarkably straight parallel streams or channels which alternately disappear and reappear (Fig. 2, F). The pattern is found. in areas of linear loess and sand ridges.ww ae ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD A. Dendritic aL C. Trellis B, Poraliel D._ Rectangular Uy te a ues { F aR G. Multi-basinal \ 7 eS oe or ways pwr = SZ ae 1 prlZ, = ee eee Wage= aS e ° Fic, 1—Basic drainage patterns, Each pattern occurs in a wide range of scales. Examples shown may be regarded as types, Dendritic pattern resembles spreading branches of oak or chestnut tree with tributaries entering at wide angles. In trellis pattern, small tributaries to long parallel subsequent streams are about same length on both sides of subsequent streams,DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION a [+ papur J. Sronmmicance oF Basic axD MODIFIED Bastc Duatkace PATTERNS ‘ Pina Mediied Basie 5 Dead Torigontal sediments o beveled opi Tublendtie Hengpte tant tye rece Se sonal seat pee a i : Coat Sees tapi ype pet jonas inw-textred, easily erodable ma |~ ters resembles spreading oak oF chest Bee an aii . Anastomoti™ Floodplane, delas, and tidal Disuiatary =e sian ‘il fare and dele 4 Panik Generally indicates moderate to seep Sabparalet® Thiegmedate anges or ntl Ur See ce aeedn ares of pr subpar ole PSiecelandloeme Al ranatons cee uncon his pattern and Cotsen etree nea loese and sid pe Meads tei es [iis] Dinping or ftded setimentany, vol Sibealis Parle dngatelandiov RE oer reenany ecu ee ae wae socks Graf paral! acter © jretonal Trelis tie homecine, Gentle slopes fined lake of, Storied rane i Sf eis. al Ganson to para Recarved Tells putngag fois 1S pies Te pattem is Feared HLS See io GLE sal butane Fault Trelis Branching, comverpng. diversi, FE toy same se om opens Canesten Bese take lel suineguene Hiims Joint Tels Stmight palit ints and at ae mail ents and/or Falls at Highs anal asuates Feats andjor fas at other Ga mks once sepetve eae of 220? Shee! ‘A Stmound ne aide eit, Seams a aides ula gilate gates scm: Ext eBenal continue en Volcanos, domes, and erin resid Contato Costes, cies, cad tae Yeats dae ysl ptr e's atte “A corms of teint SAD'ERT deh be ead te ree aca dt aaegke re i ena be ce a : ee Stectural dome sad pass, dia Tonge wibutarics to annlar ab Snes Sna pent sods Lene ial nde | eRe lip ema ESSE Mes tins Tammocky sapien devout; die Ginthly Dinwried | Glacial erosion and/or depesiton Cotilly scoured or defied. bedrock Zs oe Sheu Secon yates, mest Kent imestone Sint, "Sat peomaleet “Tho Seis in agsred forall ‘Themmokars cet EUR alpratn tiers whose & Ec agne be unkdows Elongate Bayt Coastal plans and deltas, Contant Conted, comma layered mel The longer tibutaren to, veh Gomes SAS, sles aod mi Fe te ere nd ory ands provi the east meets Zeuanacsie yer and Eee ome Ee Pattern der Pint eile tetween pusaing fuer ees cis (re, 2, BY is Belin and gncinen IEE dren rene ncn As at ees aod valleys, td gener: UiySGealler scale b 4 TDescibed by Dutton (1882, p- 6,62, 63) and appliod asa drainage term at least as early as 1898 (Russel, p. 204). Classified as a ba ‘pattern by Zeraite (1082, p. 499) *Zerpite (1932, p, $10). = Mfiis (1895, p16) {Tint ae i modern sence by Zerit 1922, p 508), bt the pattem was reogniaed mach cir (Daub, 1879p. 37-875) Kem 1904, p. 436-440; Hobbs, 1908, pl 7) ‘J Gidatarasiace i deserted and ilustrated in Jagear (1901, p. 174, pl, XVIII) and is referred to by Dake and Brown (1925, p. 134 Cone ana Fores to annular draniaga, but Zemitz (1982, p. 407) may have been the fist fo apply’ the name to the drainage patter "ages em map” wed he ne aoa fore ek Ghee aR, 1 have bee ree a ttetae eharnceraed yy numerous depressions, The fem “pely basin” Parvis, 1980, p, 87) would have been appronnate Bes ocbeen roti to the are ofthe Oxains Formation in the Great Bidld And specially rated tothe presence ofan impervious # Yon Bageln (1942, p, 113,336) Bee ed a d patra by Ze ). The de . ‘however, had been used long por to 193: Fa eee ate by Zerntz (1932, p, $14), The descriptive adjective “anastomosing,” however, had been use! long porto 1932. Sonnsoe 1995, p 497) recited the term “raided” to the interlacing ofan individual trea, Bae oti, o. anv aicbuved the term “dichotomic” to Finch and Trewartha (1942), The writer «as unable to locate the term in the 1942 PACrnCe ov i the fest edition of their Klonens of Gegraphy, but may have overlooked i, Distibutaries are mentioned on pazes Sot, SR and'385 of the 1st edt, 1980, and on pages 290, $26, and 340 ofthe 24 ed, 1942, ‘eZernita (193, p 318) ® Zerate (1932) b.81). : 4 Dake and Brown (1925, 191 1 Zeer (1988, 51). 2 Davis (1480, pe 280) © Meller (1943), p50. "8 Pars 1930)" ps Ade2250 > ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD - E. Subparotiel, eecanie ol LT, t Fic. 2.—Modified basic patterns. Each pattern occurs in a wide range of scales. } | and parallelism of the dominant drainage. The Directional trellis —This term is suggested for j distinction between subtrellis and subparallel is a Modification of the trellis pattern in which the commonly a matter of judgment. tributaries to the long subsequent streams are Nei6 tently longer on one side of the valley than cor on the other (Fig. 2, G). The pattern most com- is found in areas of gently dipping homo- clinal beds, but also occurs on gentle slopes with parallel beach ridges. Recurved trellis —This is a modification of the trellis pattern in which the pattern as a whole forms sweeping curves around the noses of plung- ing folds (Fig. 2, H). It is more orderly and tematic, and generally larger in scale, than the contorted pattern in metamorphic terrain. Com- parison of the lengths of small tributaries on op- posite sides of the curved subsequent streams, particularly at the noses of the folds, commonly permits distinction between plunging anticlines and synclines; the direction of flow of the longer tributaries generally indicates the direction of dip. s Fault trellis This pattern has been attributed by Dake and Brown (1925, p. 191) to “alternat- ing grabens and horsts or a succession of parallel ‘the trellis, pattern on tilted or folded strata, with a tendency toward dendritic drainage between the faults. Right-angle turns are also less common. In the San Mateo quadrangle, just south of San Francisco, California, the _fault-controlled streams, although grossly parallel, locally diverge. converge, and branch, and the broader inter- stream segments show dendritic, radial, or other drainage patterns (Fig. 3, A). Joint trellis —A second fracture trellis pattern, characterized by short, remarkably straight paral- lel streams, may be referred to as joint trellis although the fractures may include faults. A good example is found in the Zion Park region of Utah (Fig. 3, B) Both of the fracture trellis patterns differ from the rectangular pattern in having one dominant set of parallel streams. Rectangular Pattern Modifications Angulate—This pattern (Zernitz, 1932, p. 517) ig” characterized by numerous _acute-angle bends and barbed tributaries. It is generally found in areas where an additional set (or sets) of fractures is superimposed on a rectangular sete ‘There may be two superimposed rectangular tems of different orientation, Figure 3C is a generalized portrayal of the drainage of part of the Yellowstone plateau. The drainage alignments DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION 22: 1 clearly indicate one rectangular system with ele- ments oriented approximately north-south and east-west, and another system oriented northeas southwest and northwest-southeast A remarkable example of joint control is pr ent in French Guiana, where several sets of more or less equally spaced joints impart a geometric pattern to both the drainage and topography. The pattern bas been referred to as by Zonneveld et al. (1952, p. 153). Another zeom ric pattern, on a much smaller scale. found in permafrost areas where ice wedges thaw around the margins of soil polygons. This pat described as polygonal. Radial Pattern Modificatioi Contripetol—This pattern (Da 249) is a modification of the radial pattern in which the streams flow inward toward a closed or nearly closed central depression (Fig. 3, D). The pattern commonly is associated with caters. cal- eras, and a wide variety of depressions. In some areas, such as the “pan belt” of the Union of South Africa (King, 1951, p. 91), there is a com- plex of centripetal patterns. The regional pattern might be referred to as multicentripetal. ‘Multibasinal Pattern Modifications ‘The multibasinal pattern occurs principally in areas of glacial erosion and deposition, eolian ero- sion and deposition, solution, and permafrost. It also is found, however, in regions of recent vol- canic activity and in landslide areas. There are many modifications of the pattern, even within individual regions. Thus in glaciated areas, the majority of the depressions may be small or large, closely spaced or widely scattered, and the drainage may display varied amounts of integra- tion, In sandy areas, the depressions may display great diversity in shape and size in accordance with the characteristics of the dunes within which they occur, and may also display a certain amount of integrated drainage. The pattern may then closely resemble the drainage pattern in mo- rainal area: In volcanic areas, the depressions may include craters and calderas, Java-dammed valley: interflow basins, or collapsed lava caves or tun- nels. In many lava fields, depressions large enough to be shown on topographic maps are less profuse than in morainal or sand areas.| 2252 > ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD A. Fault Ne B. voint trellis Rae © Anguiate D. Centripetal az Tale Fic. 3.—Modified basic patterns (A-D); complex, compound, and palimpsest patterns (E-H). Each pattern occurs in a wide range of scales.9 DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION 2255 In landslide areas, depressions are found either behind rotated slump blocks, within chaotically jumbled landslide debris, or where drainage has een blocked. This multibasinal pattern is usually of small regional extent. ‘The multibasinal pattern is rarely diagnostic in itself of either process or material; patterns formed by different processes may be remarkably alike. A pitted outwash area in Minnesota illus- trated by Cooper (1935, Fig. 4, p. 10) is remark- ably similar to the solution-pan landscape of parts of Florida. Multibasinal patterns in areas of moraine, sand dunes, limestone, recent Java fiows, landslides, and permafrost may resemble each other at least superficially. Conclusions reached as to process or type of materials based on pat- tern alone could be in error. Nevertheless, several genetic terms have been suggested for varietis the multibasinal pattern: glacially disturbed, de- ranged, kettle hole, swallow hole, parst, and ‘Others. If there is doubt as to genesis, the pattern is best referred to simply as multibasinal. If, on the other hand, the pattern includes features that eave no doubt as to process or material, there may be justification for using one of the estab- lished genetic terms. Thus, a multibasinal pattern with (2) depressions ranging from tiny steep- sided pits, many of which are circular, to large. deep, irregular valley-ke basins, (Z) some: de- pressions aligned rectinearly, and (3) scattered disappearing and/or reappearing streams, may pethaps be referred to as a swallow-hole or karst pattern, Or, a multibasinal pattern associated with evidence of thawing permafrost, such as po- lygonal ground and beaded drainage, might be re- ferred to as thermokarst (Muller, 1943, p. 50). Parvis (1950, p. 43) suggested the name “elon- gate bay” for a multibasinal pattern in which the depressions are large, elliptical, and parallel. The pattern is found in some coastal-plain and delta areas and has been variously attributed to meteo- rite impact, solution, segmentation of lagoons at higher stands of the sea, and to thaw of formerly frozen ground. The value of the purely descrip- tive term “elongate bay” for this pattern is obvi- ous. COMPLEX, COMPOUND, AND PALIMPSEST PATTERNS De ans Zemitz (1932, p. 521) proposed the term “complex” for an aggregate of dissimilar patterns Yeflecting different structural controls in adjoin- ing areas, Parvis (1950, .p. 43) sugzt term “anomalous” for complex patterns found in areas Of differing topogcaphy and materials. The terms “complex” and “anomalous” have thus been applied to situations that are in part similar and in part dissimilar. Inasmuch as the term “complex” has priority, it should be retained but perhaps with its scope enlarged to include all pat- terns representing an aggregate of adjoining dis- similar patterns due to structure, materials, and/ or differences in topography. In Figure 3, E, the contrasted patterns are due to differences in structural features. An example of drainage differences caused by differences in topography on identical materials is the multibasinal drainage of moraine the subparallel drainage of drumlin topograph: The term “compound” was applied by D. W. Johnson (per peal sams (OAT Rites consisting of two or more contemporaneous pat- terns in the same area, as, for example, the com- bination of radial and annular patterns character- istic of many domes (Fig. 3, F). Dendritic and multibasinal patterns commonly are combined in areas where streams have cut youthful valleys into a relatively insoluble formation below a solu- tion-pitted limestone formation. The depressions are restricted to the limestone-capped divides be- tween the streams. A somewhat similar combina- tion of patterns results from partial integration of drainage in morainal areas. ‘The writer encountered an interesting drainage pattern which he has called_palimpsest (Howard. 1962, p. 2255). In the palimpsest pattern, an older, abandoned drainage or stream pattern forms the background for the present pattern. ‘The example (Fig. 3, G) is in the western coastal plain of Taiwan. At the site of the anomaly, the present drainage pattern’is radial. Faintly visible through the rice paddies is a meandering channel whose presence is indicated primarily by the somewhat smaller size of the paddies within its confines. The meandering channel’ crosses’ the present low topographic bulge toward its crest. Clearly, the topographic high was not present when the meandering stream crossed the’ area. ‘The meandering stream apparently was deflected by the growing arch on which the present radial drainage came into existence. The situation sug- gests either active deformation within the coastal plain, not an unlikely possibility considering the2254 instability of the island of Taiwan es a whole, or differential settling over a buried topographic high, or both. Any draingge pattern that includes traces of an older, unlike pattern may be re~ ferred to as palimpsest. Remnants of original stream courses are common in many areas of gla- cial and eolian activity, multiple piracy, and re- cent warping and faulting. Figure 3H illustrates in generalized fashion the relation of the Mis- souri River (or the Ohio River) to abandoned pregiacial valleys. PATTER: Pattern varieties differ from basic and modi- fied basic patterns in internal details. They com- monly provide useful geologic information Regional differences, such as contrasts in densi- ty of drainage, do not distinguish varieties. It is expectable that a dendritic pattern in shale will be finer than that in sandstone, and that a trellis pattern in slate will be finer than that in in- terbedded sedimentary strata. Any drainage pat- tern may be fine, medium, or coarse textured. Intrapattern differences in texture, however, do distinguish varieties. Thus, a dendritic pattern in an area in which thick, horizontal beds of sand- stone and shale are exposed in the slopes may display @ coarse texture in the sandstone and a finer texture in the shale. The pattern is “textur- ally zoned.” In another variety of the dendritic pattern, many streams consistently are closer to one side VARIETIES of their valleys than the other. In the Leaven- worth quadrangle (Kansas-Missouri), streams that flow generally east or west hug the steeper south (north-facing) slopes. The dendritic pattern suggests essentially horizontal sedimentary rocks or beveled, uniformly resistant crystalline rocks, but the valley asymmetry suggests an additional influence such as a gentle southward dip, active tilting, or differences in degree of erosion of the valley slopes due to direction of exposure. -That the asymmetry is not due to stream defféction resulting from terrestrial rotation is evident from the fact that the steep slope is on the left side of some streams and on the right side of others. ‘Another variety of the dendritic pattern, char- acteristic of granitic areas, displays numerous sick- lelike curves. These apparently are the result of ‘The term right and left apply when facing down- current. ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD deflection of streams around bodies of relatively unfractured or otherwise resistant rock. 5 Comparable varieties are found in each of the other basic and modified basic patterns, A de- .d treatthent of these is beyond the scope of this report. The important point is that careful study of local departures from the regional pat- terns may reveal unsuspected information of con- siderable value, The analysis of drainage varieties and of the related drainage anomalies discussed below presents a unique challenge to the geolo- gist ‘DratnaGe TEXTURE Drainage texture refers to the relative spacing of drainage lines regardless of occupancy by perennial streams. The terms “fine,” “medium,” and “coarse” generally are used in a relative sense to indicate the spacing. A fine texture is one in which there is a high degree of ramification ‘of drainage lines resulting in a dense network involving myriad small streams. Fine texture is typical of clay, shale, silt, and other relatively impervious materials. A coarse texture, in contrast, exhibits very little ramification, and longer, more widely separated valleys prevail. Coarse texture is typical of permeable materials such as sand, gravel. and rocks that weather into coarse fragments. Medium texture is interme- diate between the two extremes. ‘The use of these textural terms without clarification is inadvisable, not only because they mean different things to different people, but be- cause texture varies with scale. Attempts have been made to express textures quantitatively on the basis of the number (stream frequency) and total length (drainage density) of drainage lines per unit area (Horton, 1945; Smith, 1950). How- ever, quantitative determinations of texture in- volve laborious, time-consuming procedures, and the resulting degrees of refinement are greater than necessary for many geologic problems. A satisfactory procedure for reports is to prepare diagrams showing the drainage textures, at the scale of the maps or photos, that are regarded as fine, medium, and coarse, and perhaps as ultrafine and ultracoarse. * Drainage texture is influenced by @) climati- cally controlled factors such as amount and dis- tribution of precipitation, vegetation, and per- mairost; (2) rock characteristics, including tex-a re {™ DRAINAGE Al ture and size of fragments released by weather- ing infiltration capacity: @) topography and G) stage and number of erosion cycles. In any one small area of study, the climatic factors, the topography, and the stage and number of ero- sion cycles may be reasonably constant, so that the variations in texture will reflect differences in rock characteristics and infiltration capacity. In unconsolidated sediments, the drainage tex- ture is related directly to grain size. On similar declivities, small rills can easily move particles of clay and silt and develop myriad smail channels, whereas larger streams, that is) the accumulations from larger watersheds. are required to move sand and gravel. Hence the channels are more widely spaced. As Schumm reported (1956, p. 607), @ certain minimum drainage area is required to maintain a stream channel in an area of uniform lithology and simple structure. He expressed this quantitatively as a constant_of channel_mainte- nance, which is actually an expression of texture. The reader is referred to Schumm’s paper for further discussion of this relationship. In areas of hard rock, the size of the frag- ments provided for transport is the decisive fac- tor. The removal of large blocks ordinarily re- quires larger streams than does the removal of small fragments, if there are no strong contrasts in stream gradients. Texture of drainage in gran- ite areas, for example, may range from fine in closely fractured zones to coarse where the frac- tures are more widely spaced. On very gentle slopes in humid climates, deep weathering may result in a fine-textured soil regardless of the rock type below. The fine-textured debris, however, generally influences the texture only of that part of the drainage system that has not eroded through the surficial mantle. Infiltration capacity, the rate at which water soaks into the ground, depends to a large degree on permeability. Deposits of sand and gravel, as well as permeable rocks including those in which the permeability is the result of fractures, readily absorb precipitation. Therefore, they have few surface streams and display a coarse drainage texture. The pattern may be finer on steep slopes, however, where velocity of flow results in re- Guced infiltration and greater surface runoff. Clay, with a low infiltration capacity, has a large surface runoff and a dense network of surface drainage. ' NALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION 22 Vegetation, with its absorbent root mat and underlying soil, retards runoff and reduces development of rills. Thus, the texture of drain- age in humid climates is generally coarser than in arid climates, and the texture is coarser on heav- ily vegetated slopes than on barren slopes. Some gravel deposits display a medium or even fine texture of drainage. Such gravels may have a high content of “fines”—materially reducing the permeability—or may be exposed on steep slopes, such as terrace scarps or steep dip slopes where the velocity of flow is rapid enough to insure considerable runoff. Drainage texture may vary within the confines of a single drainage pattern depending on the na- ture of the rocks exposed. Theoretically, the cross-country trend of the boundary belween tex- tural zones should assist in correlation of rock units from one drainage basin to another. Srmean PATTERNS ‘The names applied to stream patterns are self- explanatory, and most of the patterns are so well known that further explanation is not required. However, a few comments seem pertinent. Some individual stream patterns show the characteristics of the overall drainage pattern and are referred to by the same names (Johnson, 1932), Thus, a stream showing right-angle bends may be referred to as rectangular; one with acute angle bends, as angulafe; and one with tight hair- pin turns, as contorted. The geologic implications of these stream patterns are the same.as for the corresponding drainage patterns. Other distinctive stream patterns are: the ir regular pattern characterized by a more or Tes Tandom course and suggesting an absence of structural or topographic control; the rectilinear pattern, with abnormally long straight reaches, generally indicating fracture control: the mean- dering pattern, indicating competency on the part ‘Of the stream to transport available bed load (Leopold and Wolman, 1957, p. 39); and the braided pattern, indicating an inability to handle Ded Toad* Alternate meandering and braided reaches, therefore, suggest local differences in the texture of the materials being supplied to the stream and may indicate alternate exposures of “Detailed discussions of floodplain stream patterns appear in Melton (1936) and Russell (1939).RE Tee 225 1] - unlike materials. Misfit_meandering streams, in which the dimensions of the meand do not é agree with those of meander scars or of flood- plain scrolls, suggest geologic or climatic change. ‘The sickle pattern displays some arcuate curves and is most common in areas of plutonic rocks and migmatites. The barbed pattern indicates ei- ther piracy or the presence of joints, faults, or layers of weak rock trending obliquely across the path of the stream, The term “beaded” has been | applied to streams in the subarctic along which small thaw sinks are present at irregular inter- vals, Successions of beaver dams give a = superficially similar pattern, as do, on a larger scale, strings of glacial lakes. ‘The writer has named a new pattern, spatulate . which could be included under beaded, but which . he believes is distinctive enough to warrant a sep- arate designation. In essence, it consists of alter- nate broad valley segments and narrow defiles The pattern is displayed by some of the valleys, | such as the Aragva, that drain south from the Caucasus in southern Russia, The Aragva and its sister streams pass intermittently through resis- = tant and weak Cretaceous sedimentary rocks - (Renngarten, 1937, p. 104). The streams are re- stricted to defiles where the more resistant car- : bonaie rocks of the Upper Cretaceous are brought down to river level in the troughs of synclines, but they meander in broad open reaches in the weaker, sandy-argillaceous Lower Creta- ceous sediments of the anticlinal cores. The | defileg and open reaches range in length from 0.5 to 2 mi or more. The pattern is quite regular in these open folds, with the broad, elongate seg- ments occurring at uniform intervals along the valley. Other spatulate patterns may have no structur- al significance. The spatulate pattern displayed by the Missouri River in eastern Montana and wes | ern North Dakota is glacial in origin (Howard, | 1958). The Missouri trench is locally 1 mi-or less in width; in intervening areas its width may ex- ceed 4 mi, The narrow segments represent ice- marginal paths cut former divides, wherees the broad elongate segments represent i> parts of preglacial valleys. The pattern is irreg i lar in that the broad segments inherit their 5 trends from an ancestral drainage whose trends . were opposed to the trend of the ice front. Thus the broad segments are considerably varied in across ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD orientation and are irregularly distributed along the present valley. DRAINAGE ANOMALIES Anomalies in drainage patterns and in the pat- terns of individual streams have been the subject of discussion in recent years. They are of partic- ular importance in the flatlands. The analysis of Grainage may provide clues to, structural features undetectable by other methods. A drainage anomaly can be defined as a local deviation from the regional drainage and/or stream pattern gyhich elsewhere accords with the known regional structure and/or topography. ‘The expectable pattern is regarded as the norm (DeBlieux, 1949, p. 1253-1254), and the devia- tions are anomalies. An alternation of broad val- ley segments and narrow defiles along transverse streams in areas in which the structure is known to consist of folded weak and resistant rock is herein regarded as normal, as are sicklelike curves in granité areas. However, in many other geologic environments these phenomena are anomalous. Anomalies suggest structural or topo- graphic deviations from the regional plan, Many composite patterns, for example, involve a small enclave of one*pattern within another, rather than two adjacent patterns of equal magnitude. ‘An illustration is the local occurrence of radial and annular drainage within a regional dendritic pattern (Fig. 4, A). Many pattern modifications and varieties also involve anomalies as, for exam- ple, local parallelism of streams in a dendriti pattern (Fig. 4, B). Many anomalies are localized along individual streams. Some of these are listed below. ¥ Rectilinearity—Long, rectilinear segments of streams, particularly if aligned across divides with rectilinear segments of other streams, con- stitute an anomaly if the regional pattern is other than rectangular, angulate, or fault-trellis. A frac- ture, or an easily erodable vein or dike is indi- cated. In Figure 4C the arrow indicates a rec linear stream. Abrupt and localized appearance of meanders — DeBlieux (1949, p. 1259) has described an inter- esting stream anomaly at the Lafitte oil field in Jefferson Parish, about 15 mi south of New Orleans (Fig. 4, D). The channel of an aban- doned Mississippi River distributary is relatively straight and simple ‘for several miles upstream waleat DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN G EOLOGIC INTERPRETATION 2257 A Dendrite with radial |S Dearie, Tells infivence B Local meandering Piottee E Compressed meanders ‘2miles mine FH Rnomalous flare in T. Anemaious pond morsh, or clluviel fil Schematic se K. Flying levees “AYR nematic Fic. 4—Examples of drainage anomalies. A, B, DeBlieux and Shepherd, 1951; D, F, J—Louisiana, DeBlieux, 1949; I—East Africa, after Holmes, 1968}, and downstream from the Lafitte salt dome. At the dome, however, two meanderlike curves are present. This interruption of the normal pattern may be related to a subtle upstragm reduction in stream gradient caused by the appearance of the dome along its path. zs Compressed_meanders—DeBlieux and Shep- herd (1951, p. 98) described a stream pattern in which several meanders of an otherwise nor- mal and continuous series are squeezed, com- pressed, and incised (Fig. 4, E). The anomaly, along the Double Mountain Fork of the Brazos River in Kent County, Texas, is at the site of a subsequently demonstrated structural anomaly. Schematic C, G—Amazon basin; E—Kent County, Texas, after after DeBlieux, 1949;’ K—Louisiana, generalized after H, L—generalized examples. No explanation of the anomaly is offered. Mc- Kenzie Creek, a tributary from the south, dis- plays an anomalous curve apparently influenced by the dome. —DeBlieux Abrupt and localized _ br “ ibaa 5. 1259) reported the abrupt and local ap- pearance of braiding at Scully salt dome in aban- doned distributaries of Bayou Lafourche about 30 mi southwest of New Orleans (Fig. 4, F). Braiding generally indicates inability of a stream to trans- port its bed load (Leopold and Wolman, 1957, p. 50). Inability may result from local acquisition of a coarser load than the stream is competent to handle, loss of volume due to locally increased2258 underflow, loss of velocity caused by flattening of the gradient (perhaps by a rising structure), or some other geologic or hydrologic factor. De- Blieux attributed the braiding to flattening of the gradient. The presence of similar anomalies in neighboring streams may permit regional delinea- tion of the area or zone of anomalous behavior and allow a more informed consideration of cause. Correlation of meandering and braided reaches in adjacent streams conceivably might permit the delineation of formational boundaries. ‘The same may be indicated by more subtle varia- tions in stream patterns (Tator, 1954, 414), such as zonal variations in drainage density with- in the drainage pattern. Anomalous pinching or flaring of valleys or channels—Local widening or narrowing of val- Teys or channels, not a repetitive feature of the regional drainage pattern, may indicate local structure. A shallow upwarp, for example, might bring slightly weaker or more resistant materials to stream level, thereby influencing the rate of valley widening; or upwarping might result in in- jon of the stream, the valley being broader up- stream and downstream (Fig. 4, G and H). Anomalous ponds, marshes, or alluvial fills— ‘The presence of an isolated pond, marsh, or allu- vial fill along the path of a mature stream where landslides or other surficial causes can be exclud- ed, may indicate damming by subsidence or by uplift directly downstream. Some stream$ have been able to maintain their courses across rising obstructions; other streams have been diverted. Excellent examples of anomalous ponding are provided by Lakes Victoria and Kioga in East Africa (Fig. 4, 1). The lake basins originally drained westward by way of the streams labeled A and B in the figure, Relative subsidence of the central area contemporaneous with creation of the western and eastern rift valleys resulted in drowning of the lake basins and reversal of the direction of flow of the outlet streams, many of whose tributaries are barbed and locally drowned. Blocking of the western outlets diverted the wa- ters of newly created Lake Victoria northward to Lake Kioga and thence northwestward around the northern end of the western rift valley. Although these drainage modifications are on a grand scale, similar phenomena may occur at all scales. Anomalous breadth of levees—Russell (1939, p. 1212) noted that leaves of abandoned channels ARTHUR DAVID HOWARD along the Mississippi River are narrower in some. places than others. He suggested that subsidence of the levees at these places permitted encroach- ment by the neighboring swamp or marsh result- ing in the reduced levee width. Tt is recognized generally that subsidence in the Mississippi delta is differential, being retarded over the sites of buried structural features. Thus, levees are generally broader where they cross such structural features than they are up- or downstream, This is true of the levees of the abandoned Bayou Lafourche (Fig. 4, J) where it crosses the Valentine dome about 30 mi south- west of New Orleans in Lafourche Parish (De- Blieux, 1949, p. 1253). DeBlieux recognized that levee broadening may be caused by factors other than subsidence, such as crevassing, bifurcation, and coalescence, but believed that these causes are readily recognizable Flying levees—In many parts of the Missis- sippi delta, former channels have subsided below marsh level and only small “fragments are preserved, perhaps because they are on buried structural features (Fig. 4, K). Because these levee remnants are completely isolated, the expression “Aying levee” is herein proposed. De- Blieux (1949, p. 1255) cited the levee remnants at Four Isle dome, about 70 mi southwest of New Orleans in Terrebonne Parish, as an exam- ple. Here, the flying levees are more than 3 mi downstream from the present terminus of Bayou Grand Caillou. Anomalous curves_and_turns—An anomalous curve or tum is one that 1s abnormal within the drainage pattern in which it occurs. The varieties are legion, being most common in the flatlands (Fig. 4. L). For example, a domal upwarp across the path of a stream may gently “shoulder” the stream aside, forcing it to follow a curved, com- monly semicircular path around the structural feature. Barbed junctions similar to those result- ing from piracy may be formed where tributaries to one stream are blocked by an upwarp and are defiected sharply into neighboring drainage, If domal upwarp takes place between anal streams, both streams may be deffected, resulting in a peculiar “blowlegged” pattern. A stream. crossing an active strike-slip fault may be offset laterally and display sharp right-angle turns where it enters and leaves the rift. Faults may lead to anomalous lengthening and flattening of a curve.Sumaary Drainage analysis may provide information on structural features and type of materials. The analysis should consider not only basic patterns, but also modified basic patterns, pattern varieties, drainage texture, stream patterns, and anomalies. The drainage patterns, individually and in com- bination, provide a certain amount of information which, in the flatlands at least, may not be ob- tainable by ordinary field methods. The palimp- sest pattern is of special interest inasmuch as it i may indicate current tectonic activity. Drainage texture within any one small area in which’ climate, topography, and erosional history are reasonably constant commonly may be indica- tive of the permeability of materials or of the size of particles provided by weathering. Individual stream patterns may provide infor- mation on structural features, rock type, hydrau- lic conditions, or geomorphic changes. Drainage anomalies may provide information on local structural features, active deformation, differential subsidence, or changes in the hydrolo- ic regimen. ‘REFERENCES CITED Cooper, W. S., 1935, The history of upper Mississippi River in late Wisconsin and postglacial time: ‘Minn, Geol. Survey Bull. v. 26, 116 p. -/ Dake, C. L,, and J. S. Brown, 1925, Interpretation of topographic and geologic maps: New York, Mc- Graw-Hill, 335 p. Daubrée, A\, 1879, Geologie expérimentale: Paris, Dunod, p. 357-375. Davis, W. M., 1889, Rivers and valleys of Pennsylva- nia! Natl, Geog. Mag., v.41, p. 183-25. DeBlieux, C. W., 1949, Photogeology in Gulf Coast exploration: Am. Assoc, Petroleum Geologists Bull., v. 33, p, 1251-1259. and G. F. Shepherd, 1951, Photogeologic studs in Kent County, Texas: Oil and Gas Jour., v. 50, no. 10, p. 86, 88, 98-100. Dutton, C. E.,'1882, Tertiary history ‘of the Grand Canyon disttict: US. Geol. Survey Mon. 2, 422 p. Engeln, O. D. von, 1942, Geomorphology: New York, ‘Macmillan, 655 Finch, V. C., and G. T. Trewartha, 1936, Elements of geography, st ed.: New Vork, McGraw-Hill, p. 307, 342, 35: = and ——— 1042, Elements of seography 2d ed.: New York, McGraw-Hill, p. 290, 326, 340. Hobbs, W. H., 190i, Lineaments of the Atlantic bor- der egion: Geol. Soc. America Bull, v. 15, p. 435- 506. “Holmes, Arthur, 1963, Principles of physical geology, 2d ed: New York, Ronald Press, p. 1058 Horton, R. E., 1945, Erosional development DRAINAGE ANALYSIS IN GEOLOGIC INTERPRETATION streams and their drainage basins: Hydrophysical approach to, quantitative morphology: Geol-So. ¢ rica Bull, v. 56, P- 27 Heme 'D” “oss, Drainage evolution, in_north- Castern Montana and northwestern North Dakota Geol, Soc. America Bull., v. 69, p. 575-888. 3962, Palimpsest drainage and Chungchou Photogeologic anomaly, Taiwan: Am. Assoc. Pe- troleum Geologists Bull. v. 46, p. 2255-2. 1965, Photogeolosical interpretation of struc- Ture in the Amazon basin, a test study: Geol. Soc ‘America Bull. v. 76, P. 385-406. gelmeriga Bull. ¥- T90r, The laccolths of the Black ‘Hie: US, Geol. Survey, 21st ann. rept, pt. 3, 163-208, Johnson, Douglas, 1932, Streams and thei ‘cance; Jour. Geol, v. 40, p. 481-497. Kemp, J. F., 1804, Preliminary report on the geolozy of Essex’. County [N.Y]: New York Stat Geol, Survey, ann. rept. 1803, p. 431-472. King, L. C, 1951, South African scenery: London, ‘Oliver and Boyd, 379 p. a Leopold, L. B., and M. G. Wolman, 1957, River chan- ‘nel. patterns: braided, meandering, and straight US. Geolfi Survey Prof. Paper 282, p. 39-85. Melton, F. A. 1936, An empirical classification of floodplain streams: Geog. Rev. v. 26, p. 303-609. ‘Merriam, D. F., and P, H. A. Sneath, 1966, Quantita- tive comparison of contour maps: Jour. Geophys. Research, v. 71, p. 1105-1115 ‘Muller, S. W., 1043, Permafrost or permanently fro- zen ground’ and elated problems: US. Engineers Ofice, Strategic Eng. Study Spec. Rept. no. 62, 136 p. Parvis, Merle, 1950, Drainage pattern significance in ‘airphoto identification of soils and bedrock: Highway Research Board, Natl, Research Coun- cil Bull. 28, p. 36-62. Renngarten, V., 1937, La route militaire de Géorgie: 17th Internat. Geol. Congress. USS.R, Excur- sion au Caucase, Rostov-Tbilisi, p. 70-113. Russell, I. C., 1898, Rivers of North America: New ‘York, G. P. Putnam, 327 p. Russell, R. J., 1930, Louisiana stream patterns: Am. ‘Assoc, Peircleum ‘Geologists Bull., v. 23, p, 1199- 3227. : Schumm, S. A, 1956, Evolution of drainage systems ‘and slopes in_badlands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey: Geol. Soc. America Bull, v. 67, p. 507 ‘46. Smith, K. G., 1050, Standards of grading texture of ‘erosional topography: Am.’ Jour. Sci, v. 248, p. 635-068, Tator, B. A, 1954, Drainage anomalies in coastal plain regions: Photogramm. Eng., v. 20, p. 412- signifi- 47. Whitehouse, F. W., 1944, The natural drainage of some very fiat monosoonal lands (western Queens- land, Australia): The Australian Geographer, Tune, 1944, p. 3-16, Willis,’ Bailey, 1805, The northern Applachians ‘Natl. Geog. Soc. Mon., v. 1, no. 6, p. 169-202. Zernitz, Emilie R., 1932, Drainage patterns and their significance : Jour. Geol., v. 40, p. 498-521 Zonneveld, J. I. S., et al., 1952, The use of aerial pho- tographs in a tropical country (Surinam): Pho- togramm. Eng., v. 18, p. 144-168. ey we as on