Abstract

Android is open source software, manufacturers can modify the operating system to suit their
respective needs and phones. This becomes a cheap and feasible alternative for the manufacturer,
as opposed to developing an operating system in-house or hiring a software company to do it.
The Android platform includes support for the Bluetooth network stack, which allows a device to
wirelessly exchange data with other Bluetooth devices. The application framework provides
access to the Bluetooth functionality through the Android Bluetooth .Here the proposed system is
designed to controlling the speed of induction motor using android application where the
remotely controlling speed of induction motor is achieved. Android mobile act as a transmitter
and the received by Bluetooth receiver interfaced to AVR microcontroller of 8051 family. AVR is
an advanced version of 8051 microcontroller. Each time data is sent by android application as per
code written is executed by AVR to deliver supply signal to triac through optical isolation. Hence
the power to load connected in series with triac is controlled based on received signal and speed
control of induction motor is achieved.

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
For the improvement of quality product many industrial application requires adjustable speed
and constant speed. Due to rapid advance in automation and process control the field of
adjustable speed drives continuously. In recent technology, various alternate techniques are
available for the selection of speed of drive system. Up to the 1980 the dc motor was the choice
for variable speed drive application. Induction motors are using any application such as
Industrial drives control, automotive control, etc. The project has been designed to develop a
speed control system for DC motor in all the fourquadrant. Using four-quadrant chopper it is
possible to demonstrate forward, instant forward brake, reverse, instant reverse brake control of a
DC motor using triac [11] based microcontroller through remotely operated commands to it by
touch screen based user friendly GUI on any smart phone with Android applications. The AC
induction motor is the most popular motor used in consumer and industrial applications, and
represented the "muscle" behind the industrial revolution. It has since been modified to the more
common three phase structure, which results in balanced operation of the motor voltages and
currents.. There are various methods for controlling the speed of AC motors [1]. There are
several of method is available for speed control of ac motor one of the method is two vary
frequency and voltage of motor. Speed modulation of a single-phase motor is usually achieved
either by some electrical means, such as reducing supply voltage by auto-transformer, or by
switching windings to change the number of motor poles for different operating condition as
required. For changing the speed of capacitor run motor as shown in fig.1 voltage control is best
method, but it allows only limited speed range to be obtained. Now frequency acts as interesting
alternative to voltage control. The most appropriator actuators for variable speed drive is seem to
be capacitor run drive. In our project the speed of induction motor, control with the help of
android apps that comes under wireless technology. Android application use here as a transmitter

and remote control in order control the speed of induction motor with the help of Bluetooth as a
receiver.

1.1 SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE

In this project, embedded system has been used which is a combination of software and
hardware. . An embedded system is a programmed hardware device. These are the controllers,
processors, arrays or other hardware using dedicated (embedded) logic or programming (code)
called firmware or a microkernel. Figure 2 shows the block diagram representation of the
systems to be designed and implemented. The Block diagram consists of: Microcontroller, LCD
Display, Bluetooth module, Switching assembly, Power supply, Load (either ac motor or bulb),
Android application. Fig.2. Block Diagram A. Block Diagram Description: Microcontroller is the
heart of the system. The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit
microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is
manufactured using Atmels high-density non volatile memory technology and is compatible
with the industry standard 80C51 instruction set and pin out. The on-chip Flash allows the
program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional non volatile memory
programmer

CHAPTER-2
BLUETOOTH AND ANDROID
We all have experienced the inconvenience that arises when we start connecting peripherals to
a

control. Then we start to think how easy it would be if all these connections were done using

a different way from the physical cables, like infrareds, radio or microwaves. The companies of
computer science and telecommunications needed to develop an opened, low cost interface to
make easier the communication between devices without using cables. This is the origin of the
technology which key name is "Bluetooth". This is a fact nowadays, but now another problem
arises and is that there are a lot of standards and technologies, incompatible between them. What
we need now is a universal, valid device for the connection of all kinds of peripheral, and that
works in a transparent way for the user. This is Bluetooth. Opposite to other current technologies,
like infrared promoted by the IrDA (Infrared Data Association) or DECT, Bluetooth has the
support of the industry of computer science and telecommunications, which in some way
guarantees the success. Although there is a high number of manufacturers who incorporate the
interface IrDA in their telephones, included Ericsson, Motorola and Nokia, the use turns out to be
frustrating for many users who treat without success to download information from their PC or
PDAs to their mobile telephones, or vice versa. The devices that Bluetooth incorporates are
recognized and speak each other in the same way as a computer does it with the printer. The low
price of these products means that the incorporation in any device supposes a low cost for the
manufacturer and the user.

Fig.2.1 BLUETOOTH

2.1 WHAT IS BLUETOOTH?

Bluetooth is a standard used in links of radio of short scope, destined to replace wired connections
between electronic devices like cellular telephones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDA), computers, and
many other devices. Bluetooth technology can be used at home, in the office, in the car, etc. This
technology allows to the users instantaneous connections of voice and information between several
devices in real time. The way of transmission used assures protection against interferences and safety in
the sending of information. Between the principal characteristics, must be named the hardiness, low
complexity, low consume and low cost. The Bluetooth is a small microchip that operates in a band of
available frequency throughout the world. Communications can realize point to point and point
multipoint.

2.2 How it works?

Every device will have to be equipped with a microchip (transceiver) that transmits and receives in the
frequency of 2.4 GHz that is available in the whole world (with some variations of bandwidth in different

countries). Besides the information, there are three channels of voice available. The information can be
exchanged to speeds of up to 1 megabit for second (2 megabits for second in the Second Generation of
this Technology).

A scheme of frequency hop (jumps of frequency) allows to the devices to communicate inclusive in
areas where a great electromagnetic interference exists. Besides that is provided with schemes of
encryptation and check. 2.2. Frequency Bands The standard Bluetooth operates in the band of 2,4 GHz.
Though worldwide, this band is available, the width of the band can differ in different countries. This is
the frequency of band of the scientific and medical industries 2.45 GHz (ISM*). The ranges of the
bandwidth in The United States and Europe are between 2.400 to 2.483,5 MHz and it covers part of
France and Spain. The ranges of the bandwidth in Japan are between 2.471 to 2.497 MHz. So the system
can be used worldwide due to that the transmitters of radio covers 2.400 and 2.500 MHz and it is possible
to select the appropriate frequency. This ISM* is opened for any system of radio and must take care of the
interferences of monitors for baby, the controls for doors of garages, the wireless telephones and the
microwave ovens (the source with higher interference). ISM: The industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
radio bands were originally reserved internationally for the use of RF electromagnetic fields for industrial,
scientific and medical purposes other than communications. In general, communications equipment must
accept any interference generated by ISM equipment.

2.2 What is Android?

Android is an open source and Linux-based Operating System for mobile devices such as smartphones
and tablet computers. Android was developed by the Open Handset Alliance, led by Google, and other
companies. Android offers a unified approach to application development for mobile devices which
means developers need to develop only for Android, and their applications should be able to run on
different devices powered by Android. The first beta version of the Android Software Development Kit
(SDK) was released by Google in 2007, whereas the first commercial version, Android 1.0, was released
in September 2008. On June 27, 2012, at the Google I/O conference, Google announced the next Android
version, 4.1 Jelly Bean. Jelly Bean is an incremental update, with the primary aim of improving the user
interface, both in terms of functionality and performance. The source code for Android is available under
free and open source software licenses. Google publishes most of the code under the Apache License
version 2.0 and the rest, Linux kernel changes, under the GNU General Public License version 2.

2.3 Features of Android

Android is a powerful operating system competing with Apple 4GS and support great features. Few of
them are listed below: Feature Description Beautiful UI Android OS basic screen provides a beautiful and
intuitive user interface. Connectivity GSM/EDGE, IDEN, CDMA, EV-DO, UMTS, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
LTE, NFC and WiMAX. Storage SQLite, a lightweight relational database, is used for data storage
purposes. 1. OVERVIEW Android 2 Media support H.263, H.264, MPEG-4 SP, AMR, AMR-WB, AAC,
HE-AAC, AAC 5.1, MP3, MIDI, Ogg Vorbis, WAV, JPEG, PNG, GIF, and BMP Messaging SMS and
MMS Web browser Based on the open-source WebKit layout engine, coupled with Chrome's V8
JavaScript engine supporting HTML5 and CSS3. Multi-touch Android has native support for multi-touch
which was initially made available in handsets such as the HTC Hero. Multi-tasking User can jump from
one task to another and same time various application can run simultaneously. Resizable widgets Widgets
are resizable, so users can expand them to show more content or shrink them to save space MultiLanguage Support single direction and bi-directional text. GCM Google Cloud Messaging (GCM) is a
service that let developers send short message data to their users on Android devices, without needing a
proprietary sync solution. Wi-Fi Direct A technology that let apps discover and pair directly, over a highbandwidth peer-to-peer connection. Android Beam A popular NFC-based technology that let users
instantly share, just by touching two NFC-enabled phones together.

2.4 Android Applications

Android applications are usually developed in the Java language using the Android Software
Development Kit. Once developed, Android applications can be packaged easily and sold out either
through a store such as Google Play or the Amazon Appstore. Android powers hundreds of millions of
mobile devices in more than 190 countries around the world. It's the largest installed base of any mobile
platform Android 3 and is growing fast. Every day more than 1 million new Android devices are activated
worldwide. This tutorial has been written with an aim to teach you how to develop and package Android
application. We will start from environment setup for Android application programming and then drill
down to look into various aspects of Android application

CHAPTER-3
LCD (liquid crystal display)
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronic visual display that uses
the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly.
LCDs are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-purpose computer display) or
fixed images with low information content, which can be displayed or hidden, such as preset
words, digits, and 7-segment displays as in a digital clock. They use the same basic technology,
except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays
have larger elements.
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors, televisions,
instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are common in consumer devices
such as DVD players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones, and have
replaced cathode ray tube (CRT) displays in nearly all applications. They are available in a wider
range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they
do not suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence.
The LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT. Its
low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment
more efficiently than CRTs. It is an electronically modulated optical device made up of any
number of segments controlling a layer of liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source
(backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.. Most common LCDs
connected to the microcontrollers are of 16x2 and 20x2 displays. This means 16 characters per
line by two lines and 20 characters per line by 2 lines respectively

Fig 3.1 Display

3.1 Working of LCD:
The main principle behind liquid crystal molecules is that when an electric current is applied
to them, they tend to untwist. This causes a change in the light angle passing through them. This
causes a change in the angle of the top polarizing filter with respect to it. So little light is allowed
to pass through that particular area of LCD. Thus that area becomes darker comparing to others.

3.2 Advantages of using LCD:

1.Sharpness: Image is perfectly sharp at the native resolution of the panel. LCDs using an analog
input require careful adjustment of pixel tracking/phase (see Interference, below).
2.GeometricDistortion: Zero geometric distortion at the native resolution of the panel. Minor
distortion for other resolutions because the images must be rescaled.
3.Brightness:
High peak intensity produces very bright images. Best for bright environments.
4.ScreenShape: Screens are perfectly flat.
5.Physical: Thin, with a small footprint. Consume little electricity and produce little heat.

CHAPTER-4
Induction motor
An asynchronous motor type of an induction motor is an AC electric motor in which
the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic
induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be
made

without

electrical

connections

to

the

rotor

as

are

found

in universal, DC and synchronous motors. An asynchronous motor's rotor can be either wound
type or squirrel-cage type.
Three-phase squirrel-cage asynchronous motors are widely used in industrial drives because
they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for
smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed
service, induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in
variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing
and prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load
applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications. Variable voltage and variable frequency drives
are also used in variable-speed service.

Fig.4.1induction motor

4.2 Operation
4.2.1Working Principle of Induction Motor

We need to give double excitation to make a machine to rotate. For example if we consider a
DC motor, we will give one supply to the stator and another to the rotor through brush
arrangement. But in induction motor we give only one supply, so it is really interesting to know
that how it works. It is very simple, from the name itself we can understand that induction
process is involved. Actually when we are giving the supply to the stator winding, flux will
generate in the coil due to flow of current in the coil. Now the rotor winding is arranged in such a
way that it becomes short circuited in the rotor itself. The flux from the stator will cut the coil in

the rotor and since the rotor coils are short circuited, according to Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, current will start flowing in the coil of the rotor.

. When the current will flow, another flux will get generated in the rotor. Now there will be two
flux, one is stator flux and another is rotor flux and the rotor flux will be lagging w.r.t to the
stator flux. Due to this, the rotor will feel a torque which will make the rotor to rotate in the
direction of rotating magnetic flux. So the speed of the rotor will be depending upon the ac
supply and the speed can be controlled by varying the input supply. This is the working principle
of an induction motor of either type single and three phase. .
In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the
motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations. Whereas a
synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor
rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is
therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the
induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited
or closed through an external impedance. [22] The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the
windings of the rotor;[23] in a manner similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary
winding(s). The currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react
against the stator field. Due to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be
such as to oppose the change in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current
in the rotor windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotorwinding currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field.
The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the
applied load. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor current, an
induction motor always operates slower than synchronous speed. The difference, or "slip,"
between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5 to 5.0% for standard Design B
torque curve induction motors.[24] The induction machine's essential character is that it is created
solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in synchronous or DC machines or
being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors.

For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of
the stator's rotating magnetic field otherwise the magnetic field would not be moving relative to
the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below
synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more
current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the
magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called slip.
Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the
load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. [25] An
induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear
induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.

Fig

Types Induction Motor

Single Phase Induction Motor
1.

Split phase induction motor

2.

Capacitor start induction motor

3.

Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor

4.

Shaded pole induction motor

Three Phase Induction Motor

1.

Squirrel cage induction motor

2.

Slip ring induction motor

We had mentioned above that single phase induction motor is not a self starting and three
phase induction motor is self starting. So what is self starting? When the machine starts running
automatically without any external force to the machine, then it is called as self starting. For
example we see that when we put on the switch the fan starts to rotate automatically, so it is self
starting.
In two-pole single-phase motors, the torque goes to zero at 100% slip (zero speed), so these
require alterations to the stator such as shaded-poles to provide starting torque. A single phase
induction motor requires separate starting circuitry to provide a rotating field to the motor. The
normal running windings within such a single-phase motor can cause the rotor to turn in either
direction, so the starting circuit determines the operating direction.
In certain smaller single-phase motors, starting is done by means of a shaded pole with a
copper wire turn around part of the pole. The current induced in this turn lags behind the supply

current, creating a delayed magnetic field around the shaded part of the pole face. This imparts
sufficient rotational field energy to start the motor.

These motors are typically used in applications such as desk fans and record players, as the
required starting torque is low, and the low efficiency is tolerable relative to the reduced cost of
the motor and starting method compared to other AC motor designs.
Larger single phase motors are split-phase motors and have a second stator winding fed with
out-of-phase current; such currents may be created by feeding the winding through a capacitor or
having it receive different values of inductance and resistance from the main winding.
In capacitor-start designs, the second winding is disconnected once the motor is up to speed,
usually either by a centrifugal switch acting on weights on the motor shaft or a thermistor which
heats up and increases its resistance, reducing the current through the second winding to an
insignificant level. The capacitor-run designs keep the second winding on when running,
improving torque. A resistance start design uses a starter inserted in series with the startup
winding, creating reactance.
Self-starting polyphase induction motors produce torque even at standstill. Available squirrel
cage induction motor starting methods include direct-on-line starting, reduced-voltage reactor or
auto-transformer starting, star-delta starting or, increasingly, new solid-state soft assemblies and,
of course, VFDs.
Polyphase motors have rotor bars shaped to give different speed-torque characteristics. The
current distribution within the rotor bars varies depending on the frequency of the induced
current. At standstill, the rotor current is the same frequency as the stator current, and tends to
travel at the outermost parts of the cage rotor bars (by skin effect). The different bar shapes can

give usefully different speed-torque characteristics as well as some control over the inrush
current at startup.
In wound rotor motors, rotor circuit connection through slip rings to external resistances
allows change of speed-torque characteristics for acceleration control and speed control
purposes.

Speed control

speed-torque curves for different motor input frequencies

Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to vary the
frequency, and cage induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed applications. Applications
such as electric overhead cranes used DC drives or wound rotor motors (WRIM) with slip
rings for rotor circuit connection to variable external resistance allowing considerable range of
speed control. However, resistor losses associated with low speed operation of WRIMs is a major
cost disadvantage, especially for constant loads. [34] Large slip ring motor drives, termed slip
energy recovery systems, some still in use, recover energy from the rotor circuit, rectify it, and

return it to the power system using a VFD. In many industrial variable-speed applications, DC
and WRIM drives are being displaced by VFD-fed cage induction motors. The most common
efficient way to control asynchronous motor speed of many loads is with VFDs. Barriers to
adoption of VFDs due to cost and reliability considerations have been reduced considerably over
the past three decades such that it is estimated that drive technology is adopted in as many as 3040% of all newly installed motors.

Construction
The stator of an induction motor consists of poles carrying supply current to induce a
magnetic field that penetrates the rotor. To optimize the distribution of the magnetic field,
windings are distributed in slots around the stator, with the magnetic field having the same
number of north and south poles. Induction motors are most commonly run on single-phase or
three-phase power, but two-phase motors exist; in theory, induction motors can have any number
of phases. Many single-phase motors having two windings can be viewed as two-phase motors,
since a capacitor is used to generate a second power phase 90 from the single-phase supply and
feeds it to the second motor winding. Single-phase motors require some mechanism to produce a
rotating field on startup. Cage induction motor rotor's conductor bars are typically skewed to
reduce noise.

Rotation reversal
The method of changing the direction of rotation of an induction motor depends on
whether it is a three-phase or single-phase machine. In the case of three phase, reversal is carried
out by swapping connection of any two phase conductors. In a single-phase split-phase motor, it
is achieved by changing the connection between the primary winding and the start circuit.

Single-phase split-phase motors that are designed for specific applications may have the
connection between the primary winding and the start circuit connected internally so that the
rotation cannot be changed. Also, single-phase shaded-pole motors have a fixed rotation, and the
direction cannot be changed (except by disassembly of the motor and rotating the stator to face
opposite relative to the original rotor direction).

Power factor
The power factor of induction motors varies with load, typically from around 0.85 or 0.90 at
full load to as low as 0.12 at no-load,[33] due to stator and rotor leakage and magnetizing
reactances. Power factor can be improved by connecting capacitors either on an individual motor
basis or, by preference, on a common bus covering several motors.

For economic and other considerations, power systems are rarely power factor corrected to
unity power factor. Power capacitor application with harmonic currents requires power system
analysis to avoid harmonic resonance between capacitors and transformer and circuit
reactances. Common bus power factor correction is recommended to minimize resonant risk and
to simplify power system analysis.

Efficiency
Full load motor efficiency varies from about 85% to 97%, related motor losses being broken
down roughly as follows

Friction and windage, 5% 15%

Iron or core losses, 15% 25%

Stator losses, 25% 40%

Rotor losses, 15% 25%

Stray load losses, 10% 20%.

TRIAC
TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a generic trademark for a three terminal electronic
component that conducts current in either direction when triggered. Its formal name is
bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor. A thyristor is analogous to a relay in that
a small voltage and current can control a much larger voltage and current. The illustration on the
right shows the circuit symbol for a TRIAC where A1 is Anode 1, A2 is Anode 2, and G is Gate.
Anode 1 and Anode 2 are normally termed Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and Main Terminal 2 (MT2)
respectively.
TRIACs are a subset of thyristors and are related to silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs). TRIACs
differ from SCRs in that they allow current flow in both directions, whereas an SCR can only

conduct current in a single direction. Most TRIACs can be triggered by applying either a positive
or negative voltage to the gate (an SCR requires a positive voltage). Once triggered, SCRs and
TRIACs continue to conduct, even if the gate current ceases, until the main current drops below
a certain level called the holding current.
Gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs) are similar to TRIACs but provide more control by turning off
when the gate signal ceases.
TRIACs bidirectionality makes them convenient switches for alternating-current (AC). In
addition, applying a trigger at a controlled phase angle of the AC in the main circuit allows
control of the average current flowing into a load (phase control). This is commonly used for
controlling the speed of induction motors, dimming lamps, and controlling electric heaters.

TRIAC semiconductor construction

OPERATION
To understand how TRIACs work, consider the triggering in each of the four
quadrants. The four quadrants are illustrated in Figure 1, and depend on the gate and MT2
voltages with respect to MT1. Main Terminal 1 (MT1) and Main Terminal (MT2) are also
referred to as Anode 1 (A1) and Anode 2 (A2) respectively.
The relative sensitivity depends on the physical structure of a particular triac, but as a
rule, quadrant I is the most sensitive (least gate current required), and quadrant 4 is the
least sensitive (most gate current required).
In quadrants 1 and 2, MT2 is positive, and current flows from MT2 to MT1 through P,
N, P and N layers. The N region attached to MT2 does not participate significantly. In
quadrants 3 and 4, MT2 is negative, and current flows from MT1 to MT2, also through P,
N, P and N layers. The N region attached to MT2 is active, but the N region attached to
MT1 only participates in the initial triggering, not the bulk current flow.

In most applications, the gate current comes from MT2, so quadrants 1 and 3 are the
only operating modes (both gate and MT2 positive or negative against MT1). Other
applications with single polarity triggering from an IC or digital drive circuit operate in
quadrants 2 and 3, than MT1 is usually connected to positive voltage (e.g. +5V) and gate
is pulled down to 0V (ground).

Quadrant 1

Quadrant 1 operation occurs when the gate and MT2 are positive with respect to MT1
The mechanism is illustrated in Figure 3. The gate current makes an equivalent NPN
transistor switch on, which in turn draws current from the base of an equivalent PNP
transistor, turning it on also. Part of the gate current (dotted line) is lost through the ohmic
path across the p-silicon, flowing directly into MT1 without passing through the NPN
transistor base. In this case, the injection of holes in the p-silicon makes the stacked n, p
and n layers beneath MT1 behave like a NPN transistor, which turns on due to the
presence of a current in its base. This, in turn, causes the p, n and p layers over MT2 to
behave like a PNP transistor, which turns on because its n-type base becomes forwardbiased with respect to its emitter (MT2). Thus, the triggering scheme is the same as an
SCR. The equivalent circuit is depicted in Figure 4.
However, the structure is different from SCRs. In particular, TRIAC always has a small
current flowing directly from the gate to MT1 through the p-silicon without passing
through the p-n junction between the base and the emitter of the equivalent NPN
transistor. This current is indicated in Figure 3 by a dotted red line and is the reason why a
TRIAC needs more gate current to turn on than a comparably rated SCR
Generally, this quadrant is the most sensitive of the four. This is because it is the only
quadrant where gate current is injected directly into the base of one of the main device
transistors

Quadrant 2

Figure

Operation

in

quadrant 2
Quadrant 2 operation occurs when the gate is negative and MT2 is positive with respect to
MT1.
Figure shows the triggering process. The turn-on of the device is three-fold and starts
when the current from MT1 flows into the gate through the p-n junction under the gate.
This switches on a structure composed by an NPN transistor and a PNP transistor, which
has the gate as cathode (the turn-on of this structure is indicated by "1" in the figure). As
current into the gate increases, the potential of the left side of the p-silicon under the gate
rises towards MT1, since the difference in potential between the gate and MT2 tends to
lower: this establishes a current between the left side and the right side of the p-silicon
(indicated by "2" in the figure), which in turn switches on the NPN transistor under the
MT1 terminal and as a consequence also the pnp transistor between MT2 and the right
side of the upper p-silicon. So, in the end, the structure which is crossed by the major
portion of the current is the same as quadrant-I operation.

Quadrant 3

Figure

6:

Operation

in

quadrant 3
Quadrant 3 operation occurs when the gate and MT2 are negative with respect to MT1.
The whole process is outlined in Figure. The process happens in different steps here
too. In the first phase, the pn junction between the MT1 terminal and the gate becomes
forward-biased (step 1). As forward-biasing implies the injection of minority carriers in
the two layers joining the junction, electrons are injected in the p-layer under the gate.
Some of these electrons do not recombine and escape to the underlying n-region (step 2).
This in turn lowers the potential of the n-region, acting as the base of a pnp transistor
which switches on (turning the transistor on without directly lowering the base potential is
called remote gate control). The lower p-layer works as the collector of this PNP transistor
and has its voltage heightened: actually, this p-layer also acts as the base of an NPN
transistor made up by the last three layers just over the MT2 terminal, which, in turn, gets
activated. Therefore, the red arrow labeled with a "3" in Figure 6 shows the final
conduction path of the current.

Quadrant 4

Figure

7:

Operation

in

quadrant 4
Quadrant 4 operation occurs when the gate is positive and MT2 is negative with respect to
MT1.
Triggering in this quadrant is similar to triggering in quadrant III. The process uses a
remote gate control and is illustrated in Figure 7. As current flows from the p-layer under
the gate into the n-layer under MT1, minority carriers in the form of free electrons are
injected into the p-region and some of them are collected by the underlying n-p junction
and pass into the adjoining n-region without recombining. As in the case of a triggering in
quadrant III, this lowers the potential of the n-layer and turns on the PNP transistor
formed by the n-layer and the two p-layers next to it. The lower p-layer works as the
collector of this PNP transistor and has its voltage heightened: actually, this p-layer also
acts as the base of an NPN transistor made up by the last three layers just over the MT2
terminal, which, in turn, gets activated. Therefore, the red arrow labeled with a "3" in
Figure 6 shows the final conduction path of the current.

APPLICATIONS
Low-power TRIACs are used in many applications such as light dimmers, speed
controls for electric fans and other electric motors, and in the modern computerized
control circuits of many household small and major appliances.

When mains voltage TRIACs are triggered by microcontrollers, optoisolators are

frequently used; for example optotriacs can be used to control the gate current.
Alternatively, where safety allows and electrical isolation of the controller isn't necessary,
one of the microcontroller's power rails may be connected one of the mains supply. In
these situations it is normal to connect the neutral terminal to the positive rail of the
microcontroller's power supply, together with A1 of the triac, with A2 connected to the
live. The TRIAC's gate can be connected through an opto-isolated transistor, and
sometimes a resistor to the microcontroller, so that bringing the voltage down to the
microcontroller's logic zero pulls enough current through the TRIAC's gate to trigger it.
This ensures that the TRIAC is triggered in quadrants II and III and avoids quadrant IV
where TRIACs are typically insensitive

.
Fig zero crossing wave form
A zero-crossing detector is used to generate a sync pulse related to the AC voltage
phase angle often used in power control circuits. Fig. 1 shows the relationship of a zerocrossing pulse to a sine wave. The pulse occurs at 0, 180, and 360 degrees.

Fig zero crossing detector with full wave diode bridge

A direct application of a zero-crossing detector using an Arduino micro-controller to
control the power output to a lamp. This variation still uses the H11AA1 but can be
directly connected to 120VAC. The sketch is shown below.
The output of the H11AA1 is connected to Arduino DP2 to use its internal interrupt
INTR0. When the switch on DP4 is closed a LOW is detected and the program connects
interrupt 0 turning on a interrupt service routine acon.
The ISR reads the value of the potentiometer on AN0, divides by 4, then calculates a
delay based on that value. The longer the delay (between 200uSec. and 8.3mSec.) the less
power delivered to the load. The circuit will act as a lamp dimmer.

Optoisolator (optical coupler or optocoupler)

An optoisolator (also known as optical coupler, optocoupler and opto-isolator) is

a semiconductor device that uses a short optical transmission path to transfer an electrical signal
between circuits or elements of a circuit, while keeping them electrically isolated from each
other. These components are used in a wide variety of communications, control and monitoring
systems that use light to prevent electrical high voltage from affecting a lower power system
receiving a signal.
its simplest form, an optoisolator consists of a light-emitting diode (LED), IRED (infraredemitting diode) or laser diode for signal transmission and a photosensor (or phototransistor) for
signal reception. Using an optocoupler, when an electrical current is applied to the LED, infrared
light is produced and passes through the material inside the optoisolator. The beam travels across
a transparent gap and is picked up by the receiver, which converts the modulated light or IR back
into an electrical signal. In the absence of light, the input and output circuits are electrically
isolated from each other.
Electronic equipment, as well as signal and power transmission lines, are subject to voltage
surges from radio frequency transmissions, lightning strikes and spikes in the power supply. To
avoid disruptions, optoisolators offer a safe interface between high-voltage components and lowvoltage devices.

Fig

Power supply

fig.2.1
A simple desktop power supply with power output connector seen at lower-left and power input
connector (not shown) located at the rear
A power supply is an electronic device that supplies electric energy to an electrical load. The
primary function of a power supply is to convert one form of electrical energy to another and, as
a result, power supplies are sometimes referred to as electric power converters. Some power
supplies are discrete, stand-alone devices, whereas others are built into larger devices along with
their loads. Examples of the latter include power supplies found in desktop computers and
consumer electronics devices.

Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it
consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power
supply may obtain energy from various types of energy sources, including electrical energy
transmission systems, energy storage devices such as a batteries and fuel cells, electromechanical
systems such as generators and alternators, solar power converters, or another power supply.
All power supplies have a power input, which receives energy from the energy source, and a
power output that delivers energy to the load. In most power supplies the power input and output
consist of electrical connectors or hardwired circuit connections, though some power supplies
employ wireless energy transfer in lieu of galvanic connections for the power input or output.
Some power supplies have other types of inputs and outputs as well, for functions such as
external monitoring and control.

2.1 Step Down Transformer

What is a step down transformer: is one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage.
It is designed to reduce the voltage from the primary winding to the secondary winding. This
kind of transformer steps down the voltage applied to it.
As a step-down unit, the transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into low-voltage,
high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is necessary due to the
increase in current. The primary winding, which doesnt have to conduct as much current, may
be made of smaller-gauge wire.

2.1.1 Step-Down Tranformer Considerations

Fig.2.2
It is possible to operate either of these transformer types backwards (powering the secondary
winding with an AC source and letting the primary winding power a load) to perform the
opposite function: a step-up can function as a step-down and visa-versa. One convention used in
the electric power industry is the use of H designations for the higher-voltage winding (the
primary winding in a step-down unit; the secondary winding in a step-up) and X designations
for the lower-voltage winding.
you can buy transformers at very low prices from here
One of the most important considerations to increase transformer efficiency and reduce heat is
choosing the metal type of the windings. Copper windings are much more efficient than
aluminum and many other winding metal choices, but it also costs more. Transformers with
copper windings cost more to purchase initially, but save on electrical cost over time as the
efficiency more than makes up for the initial cost.

2.2 Rectifiers
In particle accelerators, rectifiers are used to convert the AC voltage into DC or low-frequency
AC to supply loads like magnets or klystrons. Some loads require high currents, others high
voltages, and others both high current and high voltage. This presentation deals with the
particular class of line commutated rectifiers (the switching techniques are treated elsewhere).
The basic principles of rectification are presented. The effects of real world parameters are then
taken into consideration. Some aspects related to the filtering of the harmonics both on the DC
side and on the AC side are presented. Some protection issues associated with the use of

thyristors and diodes are also treated. An example of power converter design, referring to a
currently operating magnet power supply, is included. An extended bibliography (including some
internet links) ends this presentation.