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KANELLOS
MECHANICAL ENGINEER
NATIONAL TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS
(KANELLOS THEORY)
SCIENCE FICTION?
Dedicated to
Vassilis Xanthopoulos
NIKOS KANELLOS
INTRODUCTION
Photo 01
Vassilis Xanthopoulos - S. Chandrasekhar
Among other things, Vassilis Xanthopoulos left us his book About Stars And
Universes
6th edition and which should have been included in the secondary upper
schools curriculum.
In this book and on page 69, chapter 8 Vassilis writes:
The greatest revolution in cosmology occurred around 1930, when Edwin
Hubble proved beyond any doubt that the universe is expanding.
However, when Hubble started to study more distant galaxies he realized
that they are all receding from us and indeed the greater the distance the greater
the recession velocity. And, it did not take him long to discover, between 1929
and 1932, the law of expansion which bears his name:
V=H.d
The recession velocity V is proportional to the distance d of the galaxy.
Hubble estimated the constant of proportionality H, called the Hubble
constant, at a distance of approximately 500km/sec/3.62 million light years.
Fifty years later, our picture of the universe differs from that of Hubbles only in
the value of the H estimate which seems to be closer to 50km/sec/3.62 million
light years.
Based on our observations and Copernicus theory we reach a conclusion
that each galaxy will see all the other galaxies receding from it. In other words
galaxies recede from each other in the universe.
How does this happen?
The answer is relatively simple but also revolutionary. The galaxies are not
moving within the universe (because if they receded from the galaxy on their
right, they would approach the galaxy on their left), but it is the universe itself,
the space which is expanding.
The right image is that it is the geometric space itself which is formed by
the presence of the galaxies that is expanding while the distribution of galaxies
is getting sparse.
Right from the start this Hubbles law interpretation left me with a kind of
metaphysical uneasiness and a quest for further understanding because as we all
know the notion of space is a mathematical one, and therefore it cannot be
interpreted in terms of expansion or contraction.
This provided food for thought for me and I started writing this work which
gives a geometric interpretation to Hubbles law but it also draws further, very
important conclusions concerning the history of the universe.
CHAPTER 1
HUBBLES LAW
Galaxies recede from one another at a velocity proportional to their
distance
The relative velocity of the distant stars had been previously determined on
the basis of the Doppler effect of certain spectrum lines (the redshift when the
stars move away from us or the blueshift when they approach us.)
Determining the distances of
Fig. 1
It is certain now that the universe is expanding and the distances between the galaxies are
continually increasing 1.
For example, a star which is 100 million light years away recedes at a
velocity of -2100km /sec. Accordingly, a star which is 13.5 billion light years
away, 135 times farther, would move at a velocity of 135X2100-283500km/sec,
very close to the light speed and therefore very close to the boundaries of the
On the bottom left side of the figure there is a little square with Hubbles first observations in 1929.
The rest of the curve, which shows clearly the direct correlation between distance and recessional velocity,
was/had been added until 1960 for distances of 100,000,000 light years.
The real velocities are 1/10 of Hubbles initial value. More recent observations show that the Hubble
constant (H) is 1/10 of the original calculation that Hubble established so the constant H was corrected
accordingly.
10
universe (13.5 -13.7 billion light years) since there can be no speed greater than
that of the light.
Fig. 2
11
The fact that everything around us is receding could make us believe that
we are the motionless centre of the universe. This is not the case, though, since
as we all know the earth moves! So scientists conclude that this phenomenon is
common everywhere in the universe, given that everything recedes from
everything else and in fact not at random velocities but at directly proportional
ones to the distance between them.
So if our astronomer takes his telescope and moves, for example, to the
star of galaxy B (fig. 2) and observes our sun, he will see it recede at exactly the
same speed as he saw B recede when he was on the earth. Similarly, he will see
all the other galaxies A,B,,, receding from our sun. Thus, given that all the
distances between the galaxies increase, our conclusion is that the universe
expands.
Various theories have been put forward for the explanation of this
phenomenon but the point is that the problem remains unsolvable.
In this paper we attempt an approach from the mathematical physics point
of view.
12
Fig. 3
13
CHAPTER 2
Gravitational fluid
Going back to their early epoch, we see that the galaxies were closer to each
other and the earlier the epoch, the closer they were. Until they started merging
with each other and, going further back, they must have started compressing
each other
increased exerting more and more pressure on one another due to the
gravitational force, which became stronger as they got closer to each other.
Galaxies
are
compressed
perimetrically
due
to
incommensurate
gravitational forces, the density of the matter reaches the value of d=1090 gr/cm)
and the temperature the value of 1031 K).
14
Timelessness makes all cosmological equations of Einsteins general relativity theory collapse. When this
situation occurs, it is best described by the equations predicting the existence of singularity (=uniqueness)
of space-time, where density and curvature become infinite and the theory of relativity must be replaced by a
more accurate quantum theory of gravity.
3
For the same reasons, we cannot accept the absolute temperature T=0, namely the absolute stillness in
the gravity globe, except at the moment of explosion because then there couldnt have been any additional
forces that could have compressed the planet.
Consequently, the temperature of the gravity globe is not absolute zero but Ta=0,0.01K, a temperature
which is absolutely impossible for us to detect in any way. And when temperature is 0 then time =0. The
point of reversal of time as we measure it.
15
There is only an immense gravity force, which, like glue, like a fluid which
has the property of contracting in on itself as it is shrinking at incredible pressure
rates, is not under infinite compression but extreme compression which can go
no further.
Prior to Bing Bang, there is only gravity viscosity, which cannot be further
compressed.
Using our reasoning as well as our imagination we are heading towards the
hypergravity planet.
Using the time machine we travel backwards, prior to zero time.
16
Fig.4
g=k.x The force g of the gravitational field is proportional to the distance x from the centre of the globe,
17
The gravitons of the external shell of the gravity planet fuse under a
thermal explosion of a magnitude of over 1031 degrees Centigrade. As a result of
this thermal explosion within a period of time of 10-43 of a second all the
protons, neutrons, electrons, positrons, neutrinos, and photons are formed.
The external shell is ejected outwards at light speed.
The first inner shell, under a lower gravity pressure but subject to the
temperature of the outer shell, decays in turn at a slightly lower speed.
The second inner shell, under lower gravity force and temperature decays
at a lower speed.
Thus, we have this wonderful spectacle, which is not a real explosion but a
successive lighting of the homocentric spheres and their expansion following
homocentric shells which move at steady speeds proportional to their distance
from the centre so that Hubble law applies.
Since the explosion took place perimetrically all over the surface of the
gravity planet, it is as if it happened all over the universe.
18
And indeed the geometrical model of our gravity planet indicates that the
explosion happened everywhere at once in the universe which was small at the
time.
Time starts ticking. Gravitons explode as described above. From the first
shell, thermal energy activates the second shell and from there the third and so
on.
Gravitons fuse to form elementary particles and photons, which are in a
continuous interconversion with electrons and positrons.
For five hundred thousand years, the universe was opaque to photons, until
the temperature which was falling as the globe was expanding- reached a point
where the interconversion of photons to protons and vice versa, namely the
entanglement of matter and light came to an end and the battle ended up with the
release of photons which, for the first time rocketed to space like a luminous
sphere which is growing at light speed and through which we can see a second
luminous sphere which is growing at a lower speed than the light speed and
through which we see a third and a fourth sphere formed by the galaxies which
contain billions of burning suns.
19
20
CHAPTER 3
THEORY
If , at the moment of the Big Bang, all galaxies moved radially in all
directions of the spherical universe at initial velocities proportional to their
distance from the centre of the initial small gravity planet, then they recede from
one another at velocities proportional to their distances according to Hubbles
law. In order to prove our theory we use three theorems.
THEOREM 1
From the moment that the Big Bang took place the greatest distance
that a particle may have covered is, moving at light speed, equal to one
radius from K up to date.
21
Let us assume T is the age of the universe measured from the Big Bang
explosion and c the light speed. Then, the distance of the remotest point of the
universe from the centre of the universe (K, the imaginary centre where the Big
Bang occurred ) is R, where R= c.T (distance = velocity X time) (1)
Fig.5
Hence, the greatest radius possible of the universe is its age measured in
light years. And since it extends to all directions, the shape of the universe is (at
the beginning) a sphere of radius of T light years. This spheres outer surface is
expanding at light speed.
Fig.6
where c is the speed light at which the boundary A of the universe recedes
from the centre K and R is its distance from the centre however R=c.T (1)
So (2) is written as follows: c=(c.T).H or T.H=1 or H=1/T
22
Hubbles constant (H) is the inverse of the age of the universe (as
measurements have confirmed so far).
Consequently, Hubbles law can be stated as follows:
V=R/T
where V the relative recession velocity of two stars, R their distance
and T the age of the universe.
Namely, Hubbles constant is not constant although for our lives and for
thousands of generations it has been taken as constant, given that the time we
measure is infinitesimal in comparison to the age of the universe. Thus, though
galaxies recede, the astronomer sees all the constellations at the same place,
during his lifetime.
Nevertheless, the age of the universe is changing by the second. ...
Our theory is confirmed by measurements of time T, from the Big Bang
till today and by measurements of the recession velocities of the galaxies,
independent from each other.
As technology develops, measurements become more accurate and
H=1/T is confirmed, which proves our theory.
23
THEOREM 2
(As a conclusion of theorem I)
+
+
24
The velocity at which galaxies recede from each other is constant, that
is to say it does not change with time.
In order to apply Hubbles law, the relative velocity remains constant from
the moment of the Big Bang to date.
And in fact Hubbles law V = H.R says that the product H.R remains
constant, as H decreases with time while R increases ( H=1/T).
So the Big Bang started out at the same velocities we observe today and
we will observe forever.
It has maintained the same shape since the beginning of the world,
changing only in scale.
The births and deaths of stars inside the galaxies do not alter the overall
image of the universe.
25
Beyond the observable matter, there is also matter in thinner density which
constitutes the light, the invisible radiations which flood the universe leaving no
empty space within the universe.
Apart from the matter and the radiation, there is also matter partitioned in
even thinner layers of density which has been impossible to detect up to now
with the means available, such as gravity, and we can only make assumptions
about it.
The universe floats inside this matter, as if it were in a vessel filled with a
liquid.
26
THEOREM 3
THE GEOMETRICAL MODEL
If galaxies recede from the imaginary centre of the Big Bang radially
and outwards at velocities proportional to their distance from the centre,
then they recede from each other according to the same law (Hubbles
Law).
Fig. 8
Let us assume K is a steady point and K1 and K2 two points of matter which
can move with distances R1 and R2 respectively from K and moving at velocities
V1 and V2 in the direction of the lines KK1 and KK2.
If: V1=R1.H and V2=R2.H
then points 1 and 2 recede from each other at relative velocity:
V12=H.R12 where R12 the distance between them.
27
PROOF
(Parallel components with the same direction)
If the observer is at the point K1, he sees point K2 recede away from him in
the direction of K1K2 at relative velocity V2-V1.
the Greek letters and and KK is the
V1=R1.H
Considering K to be the centre of the Big Bang and 1 and 2 two stars
receding
Hubbles law), we conclude that they recede from each other according
to the same law:
V12=H.R12.
28
So all the observers see all the stars of the celestial dome recede at
velocities proportional to their distance.
Conversely:
If points K1 and K2 move radially from the centre outwards in the
direction of the lines KK1 and KK2 at velocities V1 and V2 and an observer in
K1 or K2 positions realises that points K1 and K2 recede at a velocity
proportional to the distance R12, in other words:
V12 =H.R12
then they recede from K at proportional velocities as well, in other words:
V1 =H.R1, V2=H.R2
We call V1 V2 respectively the velocity components V1 and V2 in the
direction R12. Then: V12 = V2-V1 = V 1 cos - V1 cos.
(1)
V1-H.R1=0
29
So, if we see a star recede from us according to Hubbles law, then we, too,
recede from the centre K of the Big Bang according to the same law.
Fig. 9
Parallel components in the opposite direction
30
Conclusion:
We recede from each other according to Hubbles law, only if we all
started off from K, because we all recede from K. That is why we say that
the universe is expanding.
From the discussion so far we understand that the earlier we go back in
time the smaller the universe was and the closer the galaxies were between them.
Going even further back in time, we reach a stage where the whole matter of the
universe must have been uniform, highly dense at a specific point from which
the universe started. This point was subject to high density and immense
gravity forces and was squeezed to such an extreme that it exploded.
In this way we reached the theory of the great explosion of the Big Bang
which occurred at a certain point which we will call the centre of the universe.
This theory was confirmed experimentally in many ways and cross-checked
using a variety of measurement methods so today we are in a position to know
that approximately 13,5 billion years ago, a great explosion took place which
formed the galactic universe. We have to point out that our sun and our earth
were still unborn until 5 billion years ago when a supernova exploded giving
birth to them.
This, however did not deter them from following the same law, the Hubble
law, just as their predecessors.
Footnote
Obviously, for greater distances where the recession velocity is comparable to speed light the sum total of
velocities V1 , V2 is corrected according to special relativity equations which do not allow the observation
of velocities to become greater than the light speed.
31
CHAPTER 4
If the universe started from one specific point in space which we consider
to be its centre and the condensed matter was ejected in all directions as does a
sphere of small- compared to today - dimensions (we cannot accept the
metaphysical view that the whole of the condensed matter was concentrated at
one point5) (Demosthenes Kazanas, the founder of the cosmic inflation theory),
then its shape is a sphere of a radius R=T light years, where T the age of the
universe.
The globes outer surface expands radially in outward direction at light
speed.
The cosmic inflation theory states that at the moment of the Big Bang 1078 seeds of universe were created,
one of which is our own universe whereas 1078-1 is the number of the other universes which have no relation
to or influence on our universe. Calculations of the cosmic inflation theory show that the visible (observableexisting ) universe was the size of a ball (radius R=20cm) at the time t=10-35sec.
32
These are the boundaries of the universe which expands in space. We will
accept that the space is infinite but mathematically defined since all its points
outside the universe are mathematically defined, with coordinates relative to the
universe.
Apart from the radiations which run through the universe the organised
observable matter consists of galaxies and the galaxies consist of stars.
All the other structures of the universe (planets, satellites, comets, passing
stars, open and globular clusters of stars, clusters of galaxies etc) are of lower
interest. The universe is full of galaxies.
The typical distance between galaxies is approximately equal to 20 galactic
diameters (on our observation field) whereas the typical distance between stars
within the galaxy is 10 million star diameters.
Galaxies are therefore sparsely populated by stars despite the fact that they
seem to include infinite numbers of stars during clear nights.
Typical galaxies are plate-shaped (like a discus). They are approximately
100,000 light years in diameter and 10,000 light years thick. As astronomers
33
reassure us, there are spaces devoid of matter in the order of 100,000,000 light
years in size where there are very few or no galaxies at all.
In some directions the universe is full of void spaces and the galaxies are
gathered mainly at the shells of the void spaces.
However, the isotropic distribution of microwave radiation supports the
theory that the matter is isotropically distributed in the universe when we are in
a position to view it on the scale of 10 billion light years and this is what is
generally accepted for the time being.
34
CHAPTER 5
black
holes,
whose
existence
is
hypothesized/deduced
by
35
Fig. 10
36
The dark matter, invisible, impenetrable and frozen, travels with us and it is
only by its gravitational effects on matter and radiation that we infer its
existence. The largest amount of matter in the universe is dark matter, which is
voracious and devours anything within its range if it is not fast enough to
escape.
mass in
37
38
CHAPTER 6
ANTI-GRAVITY
As the gravity planet exploded, its fragments were launched in all directions
and since then they have been travelling forming the universe.
Did it explode like a grenade whose fragments have been moving ever
since with their initial momentum? And whose speed distribution is governed
by the laws of probability theory and which spend their initial energy defeating
gravity?
39
Physicists,
mathematicians,
astrophysicists,
computer
scientists,
astronomers have been arguing for some years now about whether the mass of
the universe is sufficient to maintain it closed or if it will continue to expand
perpetually.
However, the fact that the stars have been moving at steady velocities since
the beginning of the world, in other words they have been performing a task
continuously defeating gravity, indicates that a source of energy fuels them in
order to maintain their regular motion.
40
One of the possible answers he came up with was the possible existence of
an infinite symmetrical universe in which every object would be equally
attracted to all directions and there wouldnt be any motion or collapse
whatsoever.
A comet, for instance, which would cross the solar system, would create an
instant increase in mass density in every point of space through which it would
pass, attracting more matter towards those areas and triggering the process of
total collapse.
Even turning a page of a book could upset the balance of the universe and
with the passage of time this would also trigger off a cataclysmic collapse.
To give a solution to the problem the religious Newton implied that God
occasionally intervened in order to maintain the distances between the stars and
the other celestial bodies.
41
It is noteworthy that this anti-gravity was significant for the long cosmic
distances but negligible for the shorter ones.
We should not forget (fig. 2) that the universe has been expanding at the
same velocities since the Big Bang. At the beginning, immense gravitational
forces were developed but this did not deter the regular expansion of the
universe and as a consequence of the gravitational fluid, in which the universe
floats.
42
This leads us to the conclusion that at that time anti-gravity was equivalent
to gravity i.e. immense.
The more the universe expands the more the gravitational fluid, which
exists in every part of the universe, extends and indicates less resistance to the
recession of masses and the more anti-gravity becomes weaker proportionally to
gravity.
Everything moves at the same velocity and thus Hubbles law proves itself
true.
Moreover, we have been accustomed to opposing forces by nature, like for
example forces which keep protons steady so as not to be dispersed because of
electrostatic repulsive forces and the opposite forces which do not allow them to
come nearer than 10-13 cm from each other because they are in danger of a
nuclear explosion.
elements of nature and which leads them to a single purpose: to avert collapse.
And since we are talking about forces and are using the word without
knowing its exact meaning but only their impact, let us explore what a peasant
knows about them.
43
A peasant knows that, in order to drag his donkey, he has to tie it with a
rope and pull it. If this peasant wants to push the donkey, he uses his hands or a
large piece of wood. In any case he knows that in order to exercise some force,
he has to have some kind of contact with it. That is what a peasant knows based
on a million years experience on earth.
44
Fig. 11
The gravity planet
until the pressure reaches its highest point. At the moment of the explosion
of the external shell a wave of pressure develops and ripples towards the centre,
as a reaction to the intensity of the explosion.
All the waves of pressure converge at the point K where we have a point of
production of the inverse wave of the same frequency (stationary wave).
45
Fig. 12
This wave, a tidal wave of gravity, ripples radially from the centre to the
circumference and equals invariably the gravitational attraction which it
annihilates keeping the initial velocity steady.
gx = k.x
where k is the constant and x the distance from the point to the centre.
46
centre V=H.x.
So here we have Hubbles law, it was created along with the Big Bang and
was not introduced later to the universe, with some decree of law.
47
CHAPTER 7
It is widely believed that the origin of all things was Erebus, a complete
void. The Old Testament starts with the same idea.
All things come to be from nothing.
And it is only natural that humans are born and die with the concept of a
beginning and an end, judging by what happens to them.
Everything which has a beginning is subject to decay. The word itself leads
us towards the search of an end.
And indeed, a 100-metre race has a start, when the shot is heard and an end
when the runner crosses the finishing line and the timer signals the end of the
race.
Every event which we witness has a beginning and an end. Each living
entity has a beginning and an end.
48
Today we are aware of the fact that the universe is a close expanding system
where nothing enters and nothing goes out. The Greek term itself =
+ (= the sum of everything) means the whole of things outside which
nothing else exists.
Matter and radiation bonded in a perpetual motion convert to each other. It
is a transformation dance where nothing can stop existing and nothing can be
created out of zero.
Even if the expansion of the universe goes on infinitely, the only thing that
can happen is for the universe to be diluted. In infinite billion years there will be
a particle of matter or energy in every 100 billion light years, but whatever
existed in the egg of the universe will also exist in the sparse universe.
Forever and ever and unto ages of ages.
The universe has no end.
Since it has no end, it has no beginning apparently.
The Big Bang is not the beginning of the universe but a moment from which
we can measure space-time.
The universe, in any shape or form, has always existed and did not develop
at a specific time. Consequently, the egg of the gravity planet has always existed,
too.
If we observe nature surrounding us, we see that all the phenomena consist
of events which repeat themselves circularly. The rain falls on the mountain
ground, it turns into a river, reaches the sea and from there it evaporates and goes
up in the sky, it turns into a cloud, it cools and falls on the ground again and so
on. An infinite circle. Molecules of matter combine and a new organism is born
which absorbs other molecules in another circle, it multiplies and decomposes in
molecules which combine to form other living organisms and so on. We are
talking about infinite circles. Even photons, with their dualistic form ( a particle
49
and a wave), travelling freely bump into cells of chlorophyll where they are
captured and transformed into vegetable mass which burns in our fireplace and
releases photons in perpetual circles.
Even the stars are born by a supernova explosion, they live illuminating the
world around them, they fade gradually, they become red giants, then white
dwarfs and die as shapeless matter, which clings to something new so as to take
part in its creation and so on.
However, the matter from the dead stars may run into a black hole, a
complex of absolutely dark and freezing matter. This absorbs and eliminates any
matter which has entered its attraction field accidentally. In chapter 4 we saw
that the amount of dark matter is much larger than the visible matter. The
universe is full of dark matter.
But how does the molecule of the visible matter disappear when the black
hole absorbs it?
At the beginning of chapter 2 we described that when gravitons fused due
to the gravitational pressure, in the same way today hydrogen fuses to become
helium, they formed the heavier particles of matter in other words protons,
neutrons, electrons, positrons, neutrinos, and photons.
The same particles which constitute the visible matter were absorbed by
the black hole because of the gravity attraction and were compressed with
awesome forces until they were split in a process inverse to the Big Bang and
came back to their initial state, namely the gravitons.
So the visible matter was swallowed and absorbed by the dark and freezing
matter, transforming it to gravitons.
In other words whatever falls into the black hole turns into dark matter.
Consequently:
The ratio of visible matter to dark matter is getting lower and lower.
50
correlated with the existence of visible matter, since it was created along with it
at the moment of the Big Bang, then it will also be annihilated
and the
reaches the
predetermined extreme point and its mass reaches the critical amount.
And then, what will become of us? Will life perish?
The fact that the software of life has developed close to the centre of the
universe, where the gravity pressure cannot destroy it, means that it will not be
destroyed. It will nestle within the centre of the universe where it will await the
new big bang in order to travel again and develop again.
51
Moses thought up, let us honour the brilliant Greek spirit and conclude this
chapter by citing great Heraclituss saying:
, ,
,
.
This world which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made.
But it always was and will be: an ever-living fire,
with measures of it kindling and measures going out.
The fairest world is to most humans but a heap of rubbish piled up
at random.
It is evident that in some way Heraclitus describes Hubbles law and the
conclusions we draw from it, as we have presented them in this paper, which is
based on Euclidean Geometry.
52
53
EPILOGUE
1. The fact that there is a way to interpret the phenomenon of the expansion of
the universe through a very simple and mathematically proved explanation,
without seeking refuge to metaphysical vagueness (theorem 3).
54
4. The view that during the initial explosion at the moment of the Big Bang the
galaxies moved outwardly through spherical shells and at velocities
proportional to their distance from the imaginary centre, in other words
proportional to the intensity of the gravity which prevailed at each spherical
shell.
This study gives a plausible solution to the problem of anti gravity as the
stationary waves which resulted from the explosions of the shells emanating
from the centre with an outward direction if we consider the gravity sphere as a
sphere of fluid, subject to the laws of fluid dynamics.
I therefore ask any mathematician, astronomer or astrophysicist, who would
kindly devote some of their precious time to study these pages, to inform me of
any errors which confute this theory.
I would be grateful to anyone who would prove me right or wrong before
the end of my life.
I strongly believe that this brief and easily understandable work, demanding
elementary knowledge of mathematics, would be suitable for college students so
that their minds be liberated from prejudice.
Nikos Kanellos