Chapter 8 Nervous System

Angelyka Cabalo
2APH 2016-2017
FUNCTIONS
Receiving sensory input
vision, hearing, taste, smell,
touch, pain, body position,
temperature
Integrating information
brain and spinal cord major
processor
Controlling muscles and glands
Maintaining homeostasis
Establishing and maintaining mental
activity
brain center of mental activity
Central Nervous System (CNS)
- brain & spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- all the nervous tissue outside
the CNS
- nerves & ganglia
- functions to link the CNS with
various parts of the body
- carries information and commands

sensory division (afferent)

conducts action potentials from
sensory receptors to CNS
sensory neurons
motor division (efferent)
conducts action potentials from CNS
to effector organs
motor neurons

Somatic Nervous System

- action potentials from CNS to
skeletal muscles
Autonomic Nervous System
- actions potentials from CNS to
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle and
glands
- sympathetic & parasympathetic
Enteric Nervous System
- has both sensory and motor
neurons
- can function w/o the input from
the CNS or PNS
NEURONS
-

CELL BODY

nerve cell
receive stimuli, conduct action
potentials and transmit signals
to other neurons or effector
organs

single nucleus source of

information for gene expression

DENDRITES
- short
- highly branching cytoplasmic
extension
- receive information from other
neurons or from sensory receptors
and transmit information toward
the neuron cell body
AXON
- single long cell process
extending from the neuron body
- of sensory neurons : toward CNS
- of motor neurons : away from CNS
- may (COLLATERAL AXON) or may not
branch
AXON HILLOCK
- area where the axon leaves the
neuron cell body
MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
- many dendrites & single axon
- nearly all motor neurons and most
of the neurons of CNS
BIPOLAR NEURONS
- one dendrite and axon
- in some sensory organs (retina of
eye, nasal cavity)
PSEUDO - UNIPOLAR NEURONS
- most other sensory neurons
- single process
- one process to the periphery and
other to CNS
GLIAL CELLS
- neuroglia
- primary supportive cells of the
CNS and PNS
- do not conduct action potentials
- more numerous than neurons
- ability to divide
- five types
ASTROCYTES
- major supporting cells in the CNS
- can stimulate or inhibit the
signaling activity of nearby
neurons
- blood vessel endothelium : form a
permeability barrier (BLOOD BRAIN
BARRIER)
- help limit damage to neural
tissue
EPENDYMAL
- line the fluid-filled cavities
w/in the CNS
- some produce cerebrospinal fluid
and others w/ cilia on the
surface

help move the cerebrospinal fluid

through the CNS

MICROGLIA
- immune cells of the CNS
- protect the brain by removing
bacteria and cell debris
OLIGODENDROCYTES
- CNS
- Insulating material that
surrounds axons (myelin sheath)
SCHWANN CELLS
- PNS
- Produce myelin sheath

MYELIN SHEATH
- specialized layers that wrap
around axons of some neurons
- myelinated axons increased
speed and efficiency of action
potential generation along the
axon
- prevents almost all ion movement
across the cell membrane
NODES OF RANVIER
- gaps in the myelin sheath
- where ion movement can occur
GRAY MATTER
- groups of neuron cell bodies and
their dendrites
- very little myelin sheaths
- CNS : cortex (surface of brain) &
nuclei (deeper)
- PNS : ganglion
WHITE MATTER
- bundles of parallel axons with
their myelin sheaths
- CNS : nerve tracts / conduction
pathways
- PNS : nerves
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
- higher K+ inside and higher Na+
outside
- inside is while outside it is +
DEPOLARIZATION
- Na+ channels open , so Na+ comes
in (LOCAL CURRENT)
- + inside, - outside
- results in LOCAL POTENTIAL
(initiate action potentials)
REPOLARIZATION
- K+ moves out of cell
- Going back to resting membrane
potential
SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP
- helps maintain the differential
level of Na+ and K+
- 3 Na+ & 2 K+ (PISO)

consume 25% ATP in typical cell,

70% in a neuron
HYPERPOLARIZATION
- more than the resting membrane
potential
- end of repolarization
ACTION POTENTIAL
- constituted by depolarization and
repolarization
- occur in an all-or-none law /
Lucas Law
- conducted slowly in unmyelinated
axons and rapidly in myelinated
axons
- medium-diameter, lightly
myelinated axons 3-15 m/s
- large-diamter, heavily myelinated
axons 15-120 m/s
CONTINUOUS CONDUCTION
- in unmyelinated axons
- action potential in one part of a
cell membrane stimulates local
currents in adjacent parts of the
cell membrane
SALTATORY CONDUCTION
- in myelinated axons
- action potentials jump from one
node of ranvier to the next along
the length of the axon
SYNAPSE
-

junction where axon of one neuron

interacts w/ another neuron or
effector organ
PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL
- end of axon
POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE
- membrane of dendrite or effector
cell
SYNAPTIC CLEFT
- space that separates the
presynaptic terminal and
postsynaptic membrane
SYNAPTIC VESICLES
- store neurotransmitters in
presynaptic terminal

action potentials arriving at

presynaptic terminal cause voltagegated Ca+2 channels to open
Ca+2 diffuses into the cell and
causes synaptic vesicles to release
Acetylcholine (ACh)
ACh diffuse from the synaptic
terminal across the synaptic cleft
ACh combine with their receptor
sites and cause chemically gated Na+
channels to open

Na+ diffuses into or out of the cell

and causes a change in membrane
potential

ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE
- breaks down ACh
- breakdown products
(norepinephrine) are returned to
presynaptic terminal for reuse
REFLEX
- involuntary reaction in response
to a stimulus
- most of them occur in the spinal
cord or brainstem
REFLEX ARC
- neuronal pathway by which a
reflex occurs
- basic functional unit of the
nervous system
- smallest simplest pathway capable
of receiving a stimulus and
yielding a response
- simplest reflex arcs no
interneurons
- five basic components
sensory receptor
sensory neuron
interneurons
motor neuron
effector organ
CONVERGING PATHWAY
- two or more neurons synapse with
the same neuron
- allows information transmitted in
more than one neuronal pathway to
converge into a single pathway
DIVERGING PATHWAY
- axon from one neuron divides and
synapses w/ more than one other
neuron
- allows information transmitted in
one neuronal pathway to diverge
into two or more pathways
SUMMATION
- allows integration of multiple
subthreshold local potentials
SPATIAL SUMMATION
- occurs when local potentials
originate from different
locations on the postsynaptic
neuron
TEMPORAL SUMMATION
- occurs when local pathways
overlap in time
SPINAL CORD
- extends from foramen magnum to
the second lumbar vertebra

SPINAL NERVES
- 31 pairs
- communicates between the spinal
cord and body
- combination of ventral and dorsal
root
- has both motor and sensory axons
(mixed nerves)
- also contain parasympathetic and
sympathetic axons
- exit the vertebral column between
adjacent vertebrae
- each has a specific cutaneous
sensory distribution except C1
- organized into 3 major plexuses
(T2-T11 does not join a plexus)
CAUDA EQUINA
- resemble a horses tail
- inferior end of the spinal cord
and where spinal nerves exit
WHITE MATTER
- superficial
- myelinated axons
- has 3 columns
dorsal
ventral
lateral
ASCENDING TRACTS
- sensory
- axons that conduct action
potentials toward the brain
DESCENDING TRACTS
- motor
- axons that conduct action
potentials away from the brain
GRAY MATTER
- deep
- collection of neuron cell bodies
- shaped like letter H
posterior horns
- sensory
anterior horns
- motor
lateral horns
- associated w/ ANS
CENTRAL CANAL
- fluid filled space in the center
of the cord
VENTRAL ROOT
- motor
- combination of ventral rootlets
DORSAL ROOT
- sensory
- combination of dorsal rootlets
DORSAL ROOT GANGLION
- found in dorsal root
- cell bodies of pseudo-unipolar
sensory neurons

STRETCH REFLEX
- knee-jerk reflex / patellar
reflex
- simplest reflex
- to determine the higher CNS
centers that normally influence
this reflex are functioning
WITHDRAWAL REFLEX
- flexor reflex
- to remove a limb or another body
part from a painful stimulus
- pain receptors
DERMATOME
- area of skin supplied with
sensory innervation by a pair of
spinal nerves
CERVICAL PLEXUS
- C1-C4
- Muscles attached to the hyoid
bone, skin of neck and posterior
portion of head
- PHRENIC NERVE innervates the
diaphragm
BRACHIAL PLEXUS
- C5-T1
- Supply the upper limb and
shoulder
Axillary nerve
- shoulder muscles & skin
over part of the shoulder
Radial nerve
- muscles in the posterior
arm and forearm & skin over
posterior surface of arm,
forearm and hand
Musculocutaneous nerve
- anterior muscles of the
arm & skin over radial
surface of the forearm
Ulnar nerve
- 2 anterior forearm
muscles & intrinsic hand
muscles and skin over ulnar
side of hand
- can easily be damaged
- funny bone
Median nerve
- anterior forearm muscles
and some intrinsic hand
muscles & skin over radial
side of hand
LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS
- L1-S4
- Supply the lower limbs
- SCIATIC NERVE tibial & common
fibular nerve bound by sheath
Obturator nerve

- muscles and skin of the

medial thigh
Femoral nerve
- muscles & skin of
anterior thigh & skin of
medial side of leg
Tibial nerve
- posterior thigh muscles,
anterior posterior leg
muslces & most of intrinsic
foot muscles & skin over
sole of feet
Common fibular nerve
- muscles of lateral thigh
& leg and some intrinsic
foot muscles

BRAINSTEM
- connects the spinal cord to the
remainder of the brain
- damage to this can cause death
- nuclei for all but for the first
two cranial nerves are located
here
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
- continuous with the spinal cord
- inferior portion of the brainstem
- regulation of heart rate & blood
vessel diameter, breathing,
swallowing, vomiting, coughing,
sneezing, balance and
coordination
- PYRAMIDS descending nerve
tracts, transmit action
potentials from brain to motor
neurons of spinal cord &
conscious control of skeletal
muscles
PONS
- ascending & descending nerve
tracts
- relay information between the
cerebrum and cerebellum
- an arched footbridge
- breathing, swallowing & balance
(lower pons)
- chewing & salivation (other
nuclei in pons)
MIDBRAIN
- smallest region of the brainstem
- COLLICULI four mounds
Superior visual reflexes
& receive touch and
auditory input
Inferior major relay
centers for auditory nerve
pathways

involved in coordinating eye

movement & controlling pupil
diameter and lens shape
- SUBSTANTIA NIGRA regulate
general body movement
- Ascending tracts
RETICULAR FORMATION
- group of nuclei
- respiration, walking & chewing
- RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM
arousing & maintaining
consciousness and in regulating
the sleep-wake cycle (is
suppressed by general
anesthetics)
- Damage to this can cause coma
CEREBELLUM
- attached to brainstem by
cerebellar peduncles
- provide routes of communication
between the cerebellum & other
parts of the CNS
- maintaining balance & muscle tone
and coordinating fine motor
movement
- PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEURONS provide
information about position of
body parts
DIENCEPHALON
- between the brainstem & cerebrum
THALAMUS
- largest part of the diencephalon
- cluster of nuclei shaped like a
yoyo
- interthalamic adhesion
- where most sensory input that
ascend through the spinal cord &
brainstem projects
- influences mood & registers an
unlocalized, uncomfortable
perception of pain
EPITHALAMUS
- emotional & visceral response to
odors
- PINEAL GLAND endocrine gland
that may influence the onset of
puberty
HYPOTHALAMUS
- control of body temp, hunger &
thirst
- sensations (sexual pleasure,
rage, fear and relaxation after a
meal)
- nervous perspiration
- INFUNDIBULUM funnel-shaped
stalk

Control secretion of hormones

from the pituitary gland

CEREBRUM
- largest part of the brain
- LONGITUDINAL FISSUE right &
left hemisphere
- GYRI numerous folds
- SULCI intervening grooves
Frontal lobe
- voluntary motor
functions, motivation,
aggression, mood and
olfactory reception
Parietal lobe
- principal center
touch, pain, temp & balance
Occipital lobe
- visual input
Temporal lobe
- olfactory & auditory,
memory
- psychic cortex
abstract thought &
judgement
CENTRAL SULCUS
- separates frontal & parietal lobe
LATERAL FISSURE
- separates temporal lobe from the
ret of the cerebrum
INSULA
- fifth lobe
- deep w/in the lateral fissure
SENSORY FUNCTIONS
- sensory input to the brainstem &
diencephalon helps maintain
homeostasis
- PERCEPTION conscious awareness
of stimuli
ASCENDING TRACTS
- transmit information via action
potentials from the periphery to
various parts of the brain
- spino begins w/ the spinal
cord
- almost all neurons relaying
information to the cerebrum
terminate in the thalamus
- sensory tracts cross from one
side of the spinal cord or
brainstem to the other side of
the body
SPINOTHALAMIC TRACT
- pain & temp
DORSAL COLUMN
- touch, position & pressure
SPINOCEREBELLAR TRACT

information about body position

to the cerebellum
PRIMARY SENSORY AREAS
- where sensations are perceived
PRIMARY SOMATIC SENSORY CORTEX
- general sensory area
- located in parietal lobe
- pain, pressure & temp
VISUAL CORTEX
- occipital lobe
PRIMARY AUDITORY CORTEX
- temporal lobe
- where words are perceived
TASTE AREA
- insula
ASSOCIATION AREAS
- cortical areas adjacent to
primary sensory areas
- process of recognition
MOTOR FUNCTIONS
- maintaining body posture &
balance
INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
- occur w/o conscious thought
- reflexes
VOLUNTARY MOVEMENTS
- consciously activated to achieve
a specific goal
- stimulation of upper & lower
motor neurons
UPPER MOTOR NEURONS
- cell bodies in the cerebral
cortex
- form descending tracts to connect
to lower motor neurons
LOWER MOTOR NEURONS
- cell bodies in anterior horn of
the spinal cord gray matter or in
cranial nerve nuclei
PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX
- posterior of frontal lobe
- control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles
PREMOTOR AREA
- frontal lobe
- where motor functions are
organized before they are
actually initiated in the primary
motor cortex
PREFRONTAL AREA
- motivation & foresight to plan
and initiate movement
- well developed only in primates
DESCENDING TRACTS
- crossover of axons in the
brainstem or spinal cord to the
opposite side of the body

CORTICOSPINAL TRACT
- cerebral cortex to spinal cord
- direct (extend directly from
upper motor neurons in the
cerebral cortex to lower motor
neurons in the spinal cord)
INDIRECT TRACTS
- no direct connection exists
between the cortical & spinal
neurons
LATERAL COLUMN
- controlling goal-directed limb
movements (reaching &
manipulating)
LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL TRACTS
- controlling speed & precision of
skilled movements of the hands
RETICULOSPINAL TRACT
- maintaining posture, balance &
limb position
BASAL NUCLEI
- group of functionally related
nuclei
- CORPUS STRIATUM & SUBSTANTIA
NIGRA
- Planning, organizing and
coordinating motor movements &
posture
- resting tremor, parkinsons
disease, Huntington disease &
cerebral palsy
COMMISSURES
- connection between the two
hemispheres where they share
sensory information
CORPUS CALLOSUM
- largest commissure
- at the base of the longitudinal
fissure
LEFT HEMISPHERE
- more analytical
- math & speech
RIGHT HEMISPHERE
- 3D or spatial perception
- musical ability
SENSORY SPEECH AREA
- Wernickie area
- Parietal lobe
- Understanding & formulating
coherent speech
- Comprehension
MOTOR SPEECH AREA
- Broca area
- Frontal lobe
- Controls movements necessary for
speech
APHASIA

absent or defective speech or

language comprehension
- common cause : stroke
AUDITORY ASSOCIATION AREA
- where the word is recognized
ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAM (EEG)
- record the brains electrical
activity
- no particular pattern
- brain waves
ALPHA WAVES
- awake but in quiet, resting state
w/ eyes closed
BETA WAVES
- occur during intense mental
activity
DELTA WAVES
- deep sleep
THETA WAVES
- experiencing frustration or
certain brain disorder
WORKING MEMORY
- task-associated memory
- lasts only a few seconds to
minutes
- frontal cortex
- seven bits of information
SHORT-TERM MEMORY
- retained for a few minutes to a
few days
- increase synaptic transmission
- susceptible to brain trauma
LONG-TERM MEMORY
- become permanent by consolidation
(gradual process involving
formation of new & stronger
synaptic connections)
DECLARATIVE MEMORY
- explicit memory
- retention of facts
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
- reflexive memory
- development of motor skills
MEMORY ENGRAMS
- memory traces
- long-term retention
LIMBIC SYSTEM
- influences long-term declarative
memory, emotions, visceral
responses to emotions, motivation
& mood

MENINGES
- surround & protect the brain and
spinal cord

dura mater
- most superficial &
thickest
- the folds help hold the
brain in place
- adheres tightly to the
cranial bones
- EPIDURAL SPACE (between
dura mater & vertebrae)
injection site
arachnoid mater
- very thin & wispy
- SUBDURAL SPACE (between
dura mater & arachnoid
mater) very small amt of
serous fluid
pia mater
- very tightly bound to the
surface of the brain &
spinal cord
- SUBARACHNOID SPACE
(between arachnoid mater &
pia mater) filled w/
cerebrospinal fluid & blood
vessels

VENTRICLES
- fluid-filled cavities
LATERAL VENTRICLE
- each cerebral hemisphere has this
relatively large cavity
THIRD VENTRICLE
- smaller, midline cavity located
in the center of the diencephalon
FOURTH VENTRICLE
- located at the base of the
cerebellum
- connected to the third ventricle
by CEREBRAL AQUEDUCT
- it is continuous w/ the CENTRAL
CANAL of the spinal cord
- opens into the subarachnoid space
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)
- protective cushion around the CNS
- produced by the CHOROID PLEXUSES
- fills the brain ventricles,
central canal of the spinal cord
& subarachnoid space
ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS
- masses of arachnoid tissue
HYDROCEPHALUS
- the accumulation of CSF creates
increased pressure that dilates
the ventricles and compresses
brain tissue
- results in irreversible brain
damage

CRANIAL NERVES
- there are 12
olfactory (S)
optic (S)
oculomotor (M)
trochlear (M)
trigeminal (B)
abducens (M)
facial (B)
vestibulocochlear (S)
glossopharyngeal (B)
vagus (B)
accessory (M)
hypoglossal (M)
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)
- motor neurons that carry action
potentials from the CNS to the
periphery
- innervates smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle and glands
- largely controlled unconsciously
PREGANGLIONIC NEURON
- extends to the adrenal gland
POSTGANGLIONIC NEURON
- the hormone secreting cells of
the adrenal medulla
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- for physical activity and stress
- preganglionic cells bodies :
lateral horn of the spinal cord
gray matter ; between T1 and L2
- fight or flight
SYMPATHETIC CHAIN GANGLIA
- connected to one another
- form a chain along both sides of
the spinal cord
SPLANCHNIC NERVES

axons of preganglionic fibers

that do not synapse in the
sympathetic chain ganglia
COLLATERAL GANGLIA
- located near target organs
- consists of celiac, superior &
inferior mesenteric ganglia
- where pre & postganglionic
neurons synapse (target tissues
in abdominal & pelvic regions)
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
- activates involuntary functions
- during resting conditions
- preganglionic cell bodies :
lateral part of the central gray
matter of the spinal cord; spinal
nerves S2 S4
- III, VII, IX, X
- Rest and digest
TERMINAL GANGLIA
- axons of the preganglionic
neurons extend through spinal or
cranial nerves
- located near effector organs in
the head or embedded in the
thorax, abdomen & pelvis
ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- plexuses w/in the wall of the
digestive tract
sensory neurons : digestive
tract : CNS
sympathetic &
parasympathetic neurons :
CNS : digestive tract
enteric neurons
- capable of monitoring &
controlling the digestive tract
independently of the CNS through
local reflexes
- independent subdivision of PNS
that is integrated w/ ANS