Psychrometric Properties of Air

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the psychrometric properties of air.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Explain the composition of air and define the terms, humidity, relative
humidity and dewpoint.
2. Define the terms: wet bulb temperature, dry bulb temperature, wet bulb
depression and psychrometer, and state the relationship between these terms
and relative humidity.
3. Define the specific volume and enthalpy of air.
4. Identify and interpret the psychrometric properties of air on a psychrometric
chart.

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INTRODUCTION
Psychrometry is the study of the behaviour of mixtures of air and water vapour. A
basic knowledge of psychrometry is necessary for the building operator to be able
to understand the purpose of certain processes in air conditioning and how these
processes produce conditions in a building which give the occupants maximum
comfort.

THE COMPOSITION OF AIR

Pure dry air is an invisible, odourless, and tasteless mixture of gases that
surrounds the earth. It consists mainly of oxygen and nitrogen together with traces
of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, argon, helium, and some other gases. However,
these trace gases may be ignored and the composition of dry air is generally taken
to be 23.2% oxygen and 76.8% nitrogen by weight and 21% oxygen and 79%
nitrogen by volume.
Completely pure and dry air does not exist in nature. Dust, smoke, bacteria,
pollen, and fumes are some of the contaminants most commonly found in the air.
Atmospheric air also contains moisture in widely varying amounts. Desert air
contains little moisture and is thus very dry. On the other hand, the air in some
coastal areas and in tropical forests is so moist that one can almost feel the
wetness in the atmosphere.
All these factors are of prime concern in air conditioning. Although the control of
the air temperature is a major purpose of comfort air conditioning, removal of
contaminants and control of moisture are certainly of nearly equal importance.

Humidity
Humidity is the term used to describe the presence of moisture in the air. It should
be recognized that moisture in the air is not in the form of droplets, but it is water
that has been evaporated into vapour, which is thoroughly mixed with the air and
occupies the same space. Water vapour in the air is thus actually low-pressure,
low-temperature steam.
The question can be asked: How can there be steam at atmospheric pressure
while the temperature is well below the boiling point of water? The answer is
that while the mixture of air and water vapour is at atmospheric pressure, the
water vapour itself is not. It is actually at an extremely low pressure. It is known
that the temperature at which water vaporizes gets lower when the pressure is
reduced, and water will vaporize into steam, even at temperatures down to 0C,
provided the pressure is low enough.
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The presence of water vapour in the atmosphere can be explained with Daltons
law of physics.
Daltons Law of Partial Pressures
Air, being a mechanical mixture of several gases and water vapour, obeys
Daltons law of partial pressures which states:
In a space filled with a mixture of two or more gases or vapours, each
constituent exerts a partial pressure, which is equal to the pressure
that the constituent would exert if it occupied the space alone.
Example 1:
Assume there is 1 kg of air at 21C (70F) and at atmospheric pressure (101.325
kPa or 14.70 psi), and the air is saturated with moisture. According to Table 1, the
water vapour at that temperature would exert a pressure of 2.4878 kPa (0.36 psi).
Since the total pressure of the air-water vapour mixture is 101.325 kPa (14.7 psi),
what will the partial pressure exerted by the air be?
Solution:
101.325 - 2.488

98.837 kPa (Ans.)

14.70 - 0.36

14.34 psi (Ans.)

or

NOTE:

The valves used in the following examples are taken from Table 1.

Absolute or Specific Humidity

Absolute humidity is the actual mass of moisture present in a specific amount of
air. In the SI system, absolute humidity is expressed in kilograms per kilogram of
dry air.
Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the ratio of the mass of moisture contained in a given amount
of air to the maximum amount of moisture this air can contain at that temperature.
It is usually expressed as a percentage.

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Table 1
Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air (Courtesy of ASHRAE)

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For example, assume that there is 1 kg of moist air at 21C (70F) and that it
contains 0.00519 kg of moisture. Table 1 shows that this air is capable of
containing a maximum of 0.015721 kg of moisture. Thus the air only contains 1/3
or 33% of the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold. It is then stated that
the relative humidity is 33%.
Because the amount of water vapour air can hold depends on the temperature of
the air, changes in temperature will result in changes in relative humidity,
provided the absolute humidity remains constant (no moisture is added to or taken
away from the air). The relative humidity will decrease when the temperature of
the air-water vapour mixture is increased and, conversely, the relative humidity
will increase when the temperature is decreased.
For example, a sample of air at 21C (70F) that has a relative humidity of 50%
will contain 50% of the maximum amount it can hold at that temperature; thus
there is 50% of 0.015721 or 0.00786 kg of water vapour per kg of dry air.
When this sample is cooled down to 12C (54F), the relative humidity will rise.
Since, at this temperature, the air is able to hold a maximum of 0.008766 kg of
moisture per kg of dry air, the relative humidity will now be:
0.00786
100 = 89.7%
0.008766

If this sample of air is heated to 32C (90F), at which temperature the air is
capable of holding 0.030793 kg of moisture per kg of dry air, the relative
humidity will decrease to:
0.00786
100 = 25.5%
0.030793

Dewpoint
If moist air is cooled down to the point where the amount of water vapour
contained equals the maximum amount the air will hold at the lower temperature,
the mixture has reached its dewpoint. At this point the relative humidity has
become 100% and the mixture is said to be saturated. Any further reduction in
temperature will cause some of the water vapour to condense since the moisture
holding capacity of the air decreases as the temperature is reduced.
The dewpoint can thus be defined as the temperature at which air
subjected to cooling becomes saturated and below which the water
vapour will begin to condense out of the moist air.

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The dewpoint of any mixture of air and water vapour depends entirely on the
relative humidity of the air. When the relative humidity is high, the dewpoint will
only be a few degrees below the temperature of the mixture; a mixture with a low
relative humidity will have a dewpoint well below the temperature of the mixture.
For example, referring to Table 1, air at 32C (90F) with a relative humidity of
66% holds 0.66 x 0.030793 = 0.0203 kg of moisture per kg of dry air. As can be
seen in Table 1, this is the maximum amount of moisture air can hold at 25.1C
(77F). The dewpoint of this mixture will then be 25.1C and lowering the
temperature below this point will result in condensation of part of the moisture.
Take another sample of air at the same temperature (32C) but this time with a
relative humidity of 33%. The air will hold 0.33 x 0.030793 = 0.01016 kg of
moisture per kg of dry air. Now the temperature of the sample must be dropped to
14.2C (58F) before it reaches its dewpoint.
A practical application of this principle is found in air conditioning. Suppose
outside air drawn into the system at approximately 28C (82F) has a relative
humidity of 75%. The moisture content of the air is then:
0.75 x 0.0242 = 0 0182 kg per kg of dry air
Assume that this air has to be delivered to various areas of a building at 21C
(70F) and a relative humidity of 48%. How is this achieved? The solution is
quite simple. At 21C and 48% relative humidity, air contains 0.48 x 0.0157 =
0.0075 kg of moisture per kg of air. A look at Table 1 shows that at approximately
10C (50F), air can hold a maximum of 0.0075 kg of moisture. By cooling the
28C outside air down to 10C, a large part of the water vapour will condense out
of the air until only 0.0075 kg per kg of air is left (100% relative humidity at
10C). If the condensate is drained off so that it cannot get back into the air, and
the air is reheated to 21C, the final condition is 21C air containing only 0.0075
kg of moisture per kg of air which corresponds to the 48% relative humidity
wanted. This example is typical of the way that air temperatures can be juggled in
air conditioning systems in order to lower the relative humidity of the supply air
when the outside air is too humid.

Dry-Bulb Temperature
When a liquid-in-glass thermometer is used to measure the temperature of the air,
the temperature sensitive element of the thermometer, the bulb, is dry. The
temperature of the air measured with an ordinary thermometer is called the drybulb temperature.

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Wet-Bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb temperature is the temperature indicated by a thermometer having its
bulb covered by a water-wetted wick, which is exposed to a stream of rapidly
moving air. The wet-bulb thermometer therefore, in effect, measures the dry-bulb
temperature and subtracts from that the cooling effect of evaporation.
Wet-Bulb Depression
The rate of evaporation of the moisture in the wick depends on the humidity in the
air. If the air is dry, and thus has a low relative humidity, evaporation will be fast
and the wet-bulb thermometer will show a temperature considerably lower than
the dry-bulb temperature. If the air is quite moist, and thus has a high relative
humidity, evaporation will be slow and the wet-bulb temperature will only be
slightly lower than the dry-bulb temperature.

BL_1_0_1.jpg
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The difference between the dry-bulb temperature and the wet-bulb temperature is
called the wet-bulb depression.
Psychrometers
Psychrometers are instruments used to determine the relative humidity of the air
by simultaneous measurement of the dry-bulb as well as the wet-bulb temperature
of the air.
A common instrument used for this purpose is the sling psychrometer. It consists
of a dry-bulb and a wet-bulb thermometer mounted on a wooden or metal back
which pivots on a handle. To measure dry- and wet-bulb temperatures, the wick
on the wet-bulb thermometer is wetted and the instrument is rapidly whirled
through the air.
After about 30 seconds, the whirling is stopped and the two thermometers are
read. It should then be whirled again for another 30 seconds, and again the
thermometers should be read. Whirling should be continued until two consecutive
sets of readings are the same. If the wick becomes partly dry during whirling, it
may be necessary to dip it into water again and start the procedure over.
Preferably, distilled water should be used to wet the wick. When tap water is
used, it will be necessary to renew the wick frequently since the minerals left by
the evaporating water will harden the wick. Coated wicks give a higher than
actual wet-bulb temperature.
Another type of psychrometer is an aspirating psychrometer, which does not
require whirling of the thermometers in order to get the required air flow over the
sensitive bulbs. Instead, a built-in, battery-operated fan draws the air over the
bulbs. The thermometers are illuminated for easier reading.
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After determining the dry- and wet- bulb temperatures with a psychrometer, the
corresponding relative humidity of the air can be found in a table similar to Table
2 or on a psychrometric chart, discussed later in this module.

Table 2
Relative Humidity in Percent
For example, if the dry-bulb thermometer indicates 21C (70F) and the wet-bulb
thermometer 14C (57F), the wet-bulb depression will be 7C (13F). To find the
relative humidity in the table, follow the horizontal 21C dry-bulb temperature
line until it intersects with the vertical 7C wet-bulb depression line. The value
given at this point is the corresponding relative humidity in this example of 46%.
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The newest version of psychrometer used is an electronic type that automatically

gives a reading of the relative humidity, eliminating the need to go to a chart.
These units are very compact and much easier to use than the older types.

Specific Volume of Air

The specific volume of air is the volume of 1 kg of air at atmospheric pressure
expressed in m3. This volume changes with changes in temperature as can be seen
in the third and fourth column of Table 1. An increase in temperature will
increase the volume per kg of air due to expansion, provided the pressure remains
constant.
Humidity in the air will also increase the volume. Column 4 in Table 1 shows that
the volume of saturated air at a specific temperature is distinctly higher than the
volume of dry air at the same temperature as indicated in Column 3.
The volume of air is also affected by pressure. The volume per kg of air decreases
when the pressure is increased and increases when the pressure is reduced.
Since air handling equipment, such as fans, are rated in terms of air volume
handled, it is necessary to set a standard value for the temperature and pressure of
the air; otherwise equipment with equal air handling capacity could be rated
higher or lower when different values are used. The standard used is the volume
occupied by 1 kg of dry air at 21C (70F) and at atmospheric pressure at sea
level (101.325 kPa or 14.7 psi). This is called standard air. The table shows that
the volume of standard air is 0.833 m3 per kg of dry air.
Fan ratings are expressed in litres per second (L/s) or in cubic metres per hour
(m3/h) as sometimes published by some fan manufacturers. (Note: L/s x 3.6 =
m3/h).
In the Imperial system, fan ratings are expressed in cubic feet per minute (CFM)
(Note: CFM x 0.472 = L/s).

Enthalpy of Air
An important property of air used in air conditioning calculations is the heat
content of air, usually called the enthalpy of the air. Since air consists of a mixture
of dry air and water vapour, which are components with different thermodynamic
properties, the amount of heat in a certain volume of dry air at a specific
temperature and the heat in an equal volume of moist air at the same temperature
will vary considerably.

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The heat content of dry air is calculated with 0C (32F) as the base. To raise the
temperature of this air only sensible heat is required. Since the specific heat of air
is approximately 1.006 kJ/kgC, the heat content of air at 21C will be 21 x 1.006
= 21.126 kJ/kg (21.127 kJ/kg in Table 1).
Humid air contains moisture, which is actually low pressure steam or water
vapour. This vapour contains the sensible heat of the liquid plus the latent heat of
evaporation plus the sensible heat (superheat) to raise the temperature of the
vapour from its boiling point to the temperature of the air-water vapour mixture.
For example, referring to Table 1, the heat content of 1 kg of saturated air at 21C
does not only consist of the heat of the dry air, 21.127 kJ/kg, but it also contains
the total heat of the water vapour in the mixture. Since 1 kg of saturated air at
21C contains 0.0157 kg of moisture and the total heat of vapour at this
temperature is 2540 kJ/kg (from steam tables), the heat content of the vapour in
the mixture is 0.0157 x 2540 = 39.878 kJ and the total heat of 1 kg of saturated air
at 21C is the sum of the heat in the dry air plus the heat in the vapour, thus
21.127 + 39.878 = 61.006 kJ (61.035 kJ in Table 1). This is more than double the
amount of heat in 1 kg of dry air.
With the aid of Table 1 the heat content of air at any temperature and with any
percent of relative humidity can be calculated.
Example 2:
Find the heat content of moist air with a dry-bulb temperature of 23C (73.4F)
and a relative humidity of 40%.
Solution:
From Table 1, the heat content of the dry air at that temperature is
23.140 kJ/kg
Also from Table 1, the heat content of the vapour at 100% relative humidity, thus
saturated is
45.301 kJ/kg
Since the relative humidity is only 40%, the heat content of the vapour in the air is
0.40 x 45.301 = 18.12 kJ/kg
Then the total heat of the moist air is
23.14 + 18.12 = 41.26 kJ per kg of air (Ans.)
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The table can also be used to calculate the heat that has to be supplied when the
air temperature and/or relative humidity has to be raised or the heat that has to be
removed to lower the temperature and/or relative humidity.
This module is meant for operators of air conditioning systems and not for
designers and no attempt will be made to teach the student how to calculate the
enthalpy changes that take place when temperature and relative humidity are
changed as the air passes through an air conditioning system. However, the above
theory is meant to make the student aware of the fact that in an air conditioning
system, the heat supplied by the boiler during winter operation is not only used to
raise the temperature of the air but that a considerable amount of this heat is often
used to raise the relative humidity of the air to a comfortable level. Also, the total
heat absorbed by the refrigerating system during summer operation is not only
withdrawn from the air by lowering its temperature, but that a large part of this
heat may have been absorbed from the water vapour, causing this vapour to
condense in order to remove excess humidity.

THE PSYCHROMETRIC CHART

On the preceding pages, the various properties of mixtures of dry air and water
vapour and some of the methods of calculating the relative humidity, dewpoint,
and enthalpy of these mixtures have been covered. These calculations are often
tedious and time consuming, even with the use of tables. However, with the use of
the psychrometric chart, most calculations can be eliminated and determination of
unknown values of air-vapour mixtures in relation to known values is made easier
and faster.
The psychrometric chart is a graphical illustration of the various properties of airvapour mixtures and their relationship. The chart is invaluable to the design
engineer because it will enable air conditioning problems to be solved in a
relatively easy way. It is also of value to the building operator in that it will
permit the performance of air conditioning systems to be checked under operating
conditions.
Various psychrometric charts are available. These charts differ slightly in the way
the information is presented but basically they are the same. Two psychrometric
charts are attached to this module for the use of the student. The values on one of
the charts are expressed in Imperial units, the units on the second chart are those
used in the SI system. At first glance, the complete psychrometric chart seems to
be an imposing network of criss-crossing lines; however, it provides all the
information about the properties of air that are needed to analyze or design an air
conditioning system.

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As far as the building operator is concerned, a thorough knowledge of the plotting

process of the chart is not a necessity. Therefore, the interpretation of this chart
will be restricted to some of the simpler applications of use to an operator.

How to Read the Psychrometric Chart

In order to be able to use a psychrometric chart properly, a person should first
become familiar with the meaning of the various lines and scales on the chart. The
following skeleton charts show the lines and scales representing seven properties
of air-water vapour mixtures. After studying these charts, the student should have
little difficulty finding the identical lines and scales on the actual psychrometric
chart.
1. Dry-Bulb Temperature
The dry-bulb temperature is the air temperature as read on an ordinary
thermometer. Dry-bulb temperatures are plotted as vertical lines extending from
the dry-bulb temperature scale along the horizontal axis on the bottom of the
chart.

Figure 1
Dry-Bulb Temperature Lines
2. Wet-Bulb Temperature
The air temperature as read on a wet-bulb thermometer placed in a current of air
or whirled through the air. Wet-bulb temperatures are plotted as lines that
originate on the wet-bulb temperature scale, along the saturation line, and slope
downward to the right.

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Figure 2
Wet-Bulb Temperature Lines
3. Dewpoint Temperature
The dewpoint is the temperature of air at saturation or the temperature to which
the air must be cooled before condensation will begin. The dewpoint is plotted
along horizontal lines. The dewpoint temperature scale is the same as the wetbulb temperature scale along the saturation line. On many charts, however, the
scale is placed along the vertical axis of the chart.

Figure 3
Dewpoint Temperature Lines
4. Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual amount of water vapour present in the
air to the amount of water vapour the air can hold when saturated. Relative
humidity is plotted on lines curved upwards from the lower left to the right side of
the chart.

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Figure 4
Relative Humidity Lines
5. Specific Humidity
Specific humidity is the actual moisture content of air. It is plotted along
horizontal lines. The moisture content scale is along the vertical axis of the chart.

Figure 5
Specific Humidity Lines
6. Specific Volume
Specific volume is the volume of the air-water vapour mixture per unit mass of
dry air. The specific volume lines originate on the volume scale along the
horizontal axis and they slope steeply upwards to the left of the chart.

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Figure 6
Specific Lines
7. Enthalpy or Total Heat Content
The total heat content is the sum of sensible and latent heats of the air and of the
moisture contained in it at any given condition. Enthalpy values are found by
drawing a line through the required point on the chart parallel to the lines of the
enthalpy scale.

Figure 7
Enthalpy Values
These seven properties of an air-water vapour mixture can now be combined on a
single skeleton chart as is illustrated in Fig. 8. This chart now shows the
relationship of the various properties of a specific air-water vapour mixture as
indicated by the reference point P.

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Figure 8
Skeleton Psychrometric Chart
Units of Measurement
The values of the various properties of air-water vapour mixtures graphically
presented on the psychrometric chart are expressed either in Metric (SI) units or
Imperial units. Table 3 shows the units used in each of these systems.
Property
Dry-bulb Temperature
Wet-bulb Temperature
Dewpoint Temperature
Relative Humidity
Specific Humidity
Enthalpy
Specific Volume

Imperial System
F
F
F
%
Grains/lb of dry air
Btu/lb of dry air
cu ft/lb of dry air

Metric (SI) System

C
C
C
%
g/kg or kg/kg of dry air
kJ/kg of dry air
m3/kg of dry air

Table 3
Units of Measurement on Psychrometric Chart

Thus if the dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of the air are measured in a room,
they can be plotted as a point on the psychrometric chart. All the other
characteristics of the air can be read on the appropriate scale.

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