Air Conditioning Duct Systems

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the designs and components of duct systems used in air conditioning.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Explain how air duct systems are classified.
2. Describe air duct materials, system layout, fabrication and installation.
3. Describe air duct leakage.
4. List and describe the types of liners and dampers used in air duct systems.
5. Discuss terminal air distribution devices and the principles of diffusion,
induction, entrainment, and aspiration.

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INTRODUCTION
The main function of the duct system is to transmit supply and return air between
the air handling apparatus and the space to be conditioned.
In the design of ductwork there are some general rules that should be followed.
Air flowing through a duct will lose some pressure because of friction and
turbulence. The greater the quantity of air flowing through a duct of a given size,
the greater will be the pressure loss. It follows that the power required to deliver
a certain quantity of air will rise rapidly due to increased friction losses when the
size of the duct is reduced.
The designer must carefully consider the choice in duct size. Even though smaller
ducts will reduce the initial cost of a system, the resulting increase in power
requirement will raise the operating cost, often offsetting the initial saving.
Therefore, the choice in duct size depends upon balancing the first cost against the
operating cost of a system.

CLASSIFICATIONS
The supply and return duct systems are classified with respect to the velocity and
pressure of the air within the ductwork. The following are the general
classifications that are typical for air conditioning applications.
1. Low pressure - velocities less than 11 m/s (2100 ft/min) or static pressure

in duct not exceeding 0.50 kPa (2 inches of water)

2. Medium pressure - velocities ranging from 11 m/s to 25 m/s (4900 ft/min)

or static pressure in duct up to 1.50 kPa (6 inches of water)

3. High pressure - velocities greater than 25 m/s (4900 ft/min) or static

pressure in duct ranging from 1.50 kPa to 2.5 kPa (10 inches of water).
These will sometimes vary with the material used and the intended service. For
example, fiberglass duct is further classified for construction at pressures below
0.50 kPa as well as for positive and negative pressure service.
A low-pressure system is more conventional for small and medium size buildings.
The main advantage of low-pressure systems is the relative quietness of the air
movement. In large buildings, the space that would be required by the low
pressure class of ductwork to move large amounts of air would be excessive,
consequently medium and high pressure systems must be considered. The space
saving feature of the systems is partly offset by the following factors, which result
from the higher static pressures and air velocities:
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1. Higher operating cost.

2. Higher initial cost of air handling apparatus.
3. Higher initial cost for special equipment required to reduce the air velocity

before distribution to the air space.

4. Special control devices.
5. More careful and costly fabrication and installation of ductwork.
6. Costly noise suppressing devices required (acoustical duct lining or sound

attenuators).

DUCT MATERIALS
Ducts are usually fabricated of sheet metal, plastic, cement asbestos, or fibreglass.
The materials used in sheet metal duct are galvanized or black steel, aluminum,
stainless steel, and copper.
Galvanized steel is mainly used in ventilating and air conditioning systems where
the normal service involves only atmospheric contaminants, and localized water
carryover from cooling coils, humidifiers, air washers or outdoor air intakes.
Black steel heavy gage sheets are used for kitchen exhaust duct, for ducting
protected with waterproofing mastic coatings, or for drain pans.
Aluminum, stainless steel or copper are used where the cost is justified by the
need for maximum resistance to moisture.
Cement asbestos ducts are used for buried (underground) exhaust of corrosive
material such as from laboratory fume hoods. Local codes should be checked to
determine if the use of asbestos is permitted.
Fibreglass ducts are used in some low-pressure systems. They are very light
weight, have a low initial cost, are naturally silencing, and fitting can be made on
site. However they have low strength, are easily punctured, cannot be used to
handle air with high moisture levels or oil and grease such as found in kitchen
exhausts.

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TYPICAL DUCTWORK LAYOUT

Ducts are fabricated in sections, which are fastened together with special seams,
slips and locks. Fig. 1 shows a sketch of a low-velocity air distribution system
showing main components, ductwork details, and some of the commonly used
fittings.

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Figure 1
Low-velocity Air Distribution System

DUCTWORK FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION

Construction methods for various classes of ductwork are too involved to be
covered fully in this module. Construction details are found in the SMACNA
Standards (Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association).
The following points illustrate some of the standards.
1. Ducts must be constructed of approved gages (metal thickness) for the size

of duct. Ducts of large dimensions must be provided with stiffeners or be

diagonally creased to provide stiffness.
2. Ducts must be well supported and properly braced.
3. Ducts passing through nonconditioned spaces must be insulated to prevent

excessive heat loss or gain, and to prevent condensation.

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4. Ducts must be made as tight as possible to prevent air losses due to

leakage.
5. Changes in duct size should be gradual with a slope of 1 in 7.
6. Flexible connections must be provided at fan discharge and suction

openings. They are made of heavy canvas or neoprene coated glass fibre
cloth.
7. Adequate access openings must be provided for cleaning and inspection of

components or controls concealed inside ducts.

8. Mitre elbows in ducts may increase velocity.
9. Short radius elbows should be provided with turning vanes.
10.

Supply and return air branch ducts should contain dampers to permit
satisfactory air balancing of the system.

11.

Splitters and positive lock dampers should be used in all branch ducts.

12.

Fire dampers with fusible links set for about 70C (160F) must be
installed in ducts which pass through fire walls. See local codes for
specific details. An access opening is required in the ductwork to inspect
the fire damper, replace the fusible link, or ascertain that there is no
blockage which could prevent the damper from closing.

DUCT LEAKAGE LOSSES

Air leakages from ducts have been found to vary from 5% to 30%, depending on
the quality of the workmanship. These significant losses indicate the importance
of a thorough inspection of the duct system before it is covered with insulation or
furred-in walls or ceilings.
The effects of air leakages in supply air ducts differ from those in the return air
ducts.

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Supply Air Duct Leakage Loss

Air leakage from the supply duct will create a loss of cooling effect, which must
be carefully evaluated on the basis of the following conditions:
1. When all supply air duct is outside the conditioned space, assume 10%

leakage. This leakage is a total loss and must be added to the calculated
room sensible heat load. When only part of the supply air duct is outside
the conditioned space, include only that fraction of 10% as the leakage.
The fraction can be determined by the ratio of length outside the
conditioned space to total length of supply duct.
2. Losses due to air leakage from furred or insulated supply air ducts, within

the conditioned space, must be evaluated on the basis of judgement,

depending on whether the leaked air actually gets into the conditioned
space or whether it is lost.
3. Losses from bare supply air ducts within the conditioned space need not

be considered in loss calculations.

Return Air Duct Leakage

In return air ducts the process is the reverse of the one just described for the
supply air ducts; there is inward gain (or seepage) of hot moist air instead of loss
of cooling effect.
To evaluate the effects of return air duct leakage, use the following guide:
1. If the return air duct is outside the conditioned space assume 3% seepage.

When only part of the return air duct is outside the conditioned space,
apply judgment to evaluate what portion of the above 3% seepage should
be considered.
2. Seepage in return air ducts furred within the conditioned space or in a

furred space that is used as a return air path, may increase the load on the
air system in terms of volumes of air. However, it will not have to be
added to the amount of air needed to supply the cooled space.

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DUCT LINERS
Metal ducts are frequently lined with acoustically absorbent materials to attenuate
airborne noises in the duct. Duct liners consist of flexible or semirigid fibrous
glass blankets with a special surface coating on the side facing the air stream to
help withstand the erosive air velocities without deterioration.
To restrict spread of smoke, and fire through duct systems and to minimize
ignition sources, the duct lining materials must satisfy local building codes and
requirements of the National Fire Protection Association Standard #90A
(NFPA-90).
In some instances, the liner can also function as thermal insulation. If so, the
metal duct wall may serve as the vapour barrier. Acoustical liner should not be
used for the additional function of thermal insulation where the duct wall
temperature can fall below the dew point of the air flowing inside the duct. This
could occur if the duct is installed outside of the building or in unheated areas and
proper insulation should be used.

Method of Securement
Liners are attached to the duct with a fire retardant adhesive and further secured
with pins and clips. The edges of the liner are covered with adhesive to prevent
peeling off and consequent fouling of coils, automatic volume controls, and
terminal devices. For the same reason, any breaks in the surface coating of the
liner that may occur during the installation are also covered with adhesive.
Spacing of fasteners and edge treatment of the liner vary according to the velocity
classification which corresponds approximately to the three velocity levels in low,
medium and high pressure ducting. For systems operation in the range of the
second velocity level (medium pressure), the edges of the liner may be protected
with adhesive and metal strips securely held in place with screws or pins and
clips. In some instances, it is necessary to use acoustical liner and perforated
metal inner liner when a system is operating in the range of the third velocity
level (high pressure).

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DAMPERS
The general function of dampers in an air handling system is to control the flow
of air. This may be achieved by manual operation, or with damper operators
which can provide either modulating or two position control.
Manual Dampers
Manual dampers are used to balance the air flow of an air handling system in
accordance with the specified design quantities. They are also used in smaller
systems to close the outdoor air intake to prevent freezing when the system is
switched off.
Modulating Dampers
Modulating dampers are used to produce changes in the volume of an air flow that
are proportional to a control signal. Modulating dampers are used in many
applications.
Mixing boxes use modulating dampers to proportion (i.e. modulate) the amounts
of two different air flows to maintain a selected mixed air temperature and a
constant total air flow. An example of this application is a mixing box which
modulates the proportions of outdoor air and recirculated air to maintain constant
temperature and volume of air being fed to an air handling system (Fig. 2(a)).
Face and bypass dampers are used to modulate the volume of air that goes
through a heating coil or cooling coil in series with a face damper, while throttling
the balance of the constant total air flow through a bypass damper around the coil
(Fig. 2(b)).
Modulating dampers are used in variable volume control systems to modulate the
volume of conditioned air necessary to meet the load requirements of a particular
space (Fig. 2(c)).
Two-Position Dampers
As the name implies, are controlled in such a way that they are in a fully open or a
fully closed position. For example, the two-position dampers installed in the fresh
air intake of a system will move to the fully open position when the fan starts and
will return to fully closed position when the fan stops (Fig. 2(d)).

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Outdoor and Recirculated Air

Mixing Parallel Operating Blades

Face and Bypass Damper Type

with Opposed Blades

(a)

(b)
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Variable Volume Control

(c)

Damper with Parallel Operating

Blades

BL_4_0_2.jpg
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(d)
Figure 2
Control Dampers

Relief Dampers
As illustrated in Fig. 3, the function of a relief damper is similar to that of a check
valve. It will allow the air to flow in one direction only. A relief damper consists
of a series of blades mounted in a frame; each fan blade pivots freely on its shaft.
The blades are interconnected with a linkage, which causes them to open or close
simultaneously. The relief damper is used as a check damper on exhaust systems,
to relieve excess pressure from a building and prevent backdraft of cold air when
there is no excess pressure inside the building.
This type of damper is often referred to as a backdraft damper, gravity shutters or
an atmospheric damper, depending on its application.

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Figure 3
Relief Damper
Damper Designs
The damper types most commonly used are single blade, parallel blade, and
opposed blade dampers.
Single-blade dampers are generally restricted to small sizes because of the
difficulty of securing proper operation with high velocity air.
Parallel blade dampers consist of two or more blades linked together in such a
way that all blades rotate in the same direction (Fig. 4(a). This type is often used
on mixing boxes where the two sets of dampers are mounted with the blades
directing the two air flows toward each other for good mixing, thus minimizing
the hazard of coil freeze-up due to cold air stratification (Fig. 2(a)). Parallel blade
dampers are best suited for two position damper operation such as fresh air intake,
where no throttling of the air flow is required.
Opposed blade dampers have the blades linked so that the adjacent blades rotate
in opposite directions (Fig. 4(b)). Opposed blade arrangements are superior when
modulation of air flow is required, since the air flow is more or less in proportion
to the blade position. Parallel blade dampers tend to divert the air but do little
throttling or modulating until the blades are nearly closed.

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Parallel Blades
(a)

Opposed Blades
(b)

Figure 4
Automatic Dampers
Damper Air Leakage
There are no certified ratings to indicate the amount of air leakage through
automatic dampers because of the number of variables. The values shown in
Table 1 can be used as a guideline for a good quality dampers with rigid frame
and blades, good interlocking mating edge blades with no sealing material, and
seals at both ends of the blades, to approximate the leakage that occurs at various
pressure differentials across the closed damper.
Static Pressure Differential

Air Leakage Range

kPa

in. of Water

m 3 /s
m2

ft 3 /min
ft 2

0.38

1.5

0.075 to 0.165

15 to 33

0.5

2.0

0.11 to 0.215

22 to 43

0.75

3.0

0.2 to 0.315

40 to 63

Table 1
For the same type of dampers with neoprene foam or felt edge sealing material,
50% of air leakage values in Table 1 can be used.

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Neoprene and felt edges are not recommended for applications where rain or
snow could freeze and damage the sealing materials or prevent the dampers from
operating.
For the same type of damper with inflatable fabric, reinforced rubber edge sealing
materials use 25% of above values.

FIRE AND SMOKE DAMPERS

Fire Dampers
To prevent the spreading of fire and smoke, the National Building Code requires
that supply and return ducts of air conditioning systems be equipped with fire
dampers at the point where they pass from one area to another. This applies to
horizontal as well as vertical ducts.
A fire damper consists of a steel casing equipped with a single or multiple blade
steel damper which fits tightly in the casing when closed. Normally, the damper is
kept open by a chain and fusible line. In the event of fire the link melts and the
damper drops shut. Fire dampers of the single and multiple blade design are
illustrated in Fig. 5. They are installed to close in the same direction as the
moving air streams.

Figure 5
Fire Dampers
Smoke Dampers
A smoke damper is a device to resist the passage of smoke. It is arranged to
operate automatically and is controlled by a smoke detector. A fire damper or a
damper serving other functions may be used for this purpose, if its location lends
itself to the multiple functions. A combination of fire and smoke damper shall
meet the requirements of both.
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LOUVRES
Stationary air louvres are used in fresh air intake openings to minimize the
amount of water and snow entering into the air handling system. The extent to
which this is achieved depends on the design of the louvres, the face velocity of
air flow, the wind velocity, and other factors. It is seldom possible to completely
eliminate all the water or snow, nor is it necessary. Fig. 6 illustrates two types of
louvres fabricated louvres and extruded aluminum louvres.

Figure 6
Louvres
Fabricated Louvres
Fabricated louvres are available in standard metals: galvanized steel, painted steel,
aluminum, copper and stainless steel. A screen (2 cm mesh) is added to stop most
foreign materials such as paper, trash, and birds. In some locations an insect
screen must be used to cope with the presence of mosquitoes. An insect screen
must be accessible for easy cleaning, and it is usually removed during the winter
season to prevent clogging with frost or wet snow. The type of screen required
and the mesh are often specified by codes.

Extruded Aluminum Louvres

Extruded aluminum louvres offer a wide variety of blade design and a sturdy
construction. Various attractive architectural effects can be achieved to meet the
aesthetic requirements of a building.
The requirements for bird and insect screens also apply for this type of louvre.

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Pressure Drop and Air Velocity

The pressure drop due to the airflow through the louvres very seldom exceeds
0.06 to 0.09 kPa (0.25 to 0.375 in water gage). The louvres are selected to handle
air quantities corresponding to the average velocity recommended by the
manufacturers which is usually around 1.85 m/s (360 ft/min).
The maximum allowable velocity is around 2.55 m/s (500 ft/min), beyond which
point the ingress of water and snow may become unacceptable. These velocity
values are based on the gross area of the louvre frame.

Louvre Location
It is important to locate air intake louvres away from exhaust air streams,
especially toilet, laboratory, or kitchen exhausts so that these exhausts do not
enter the louvres. In addition, when an air intake louvre is located near a roof, it
must be mounted sufficiently above the roof to minimize the pick up of roof dust
and high temperature air during the summer. It is also important to consider that
snow may pile up and subsequently enter the louvres. This height is determined
by the annual snowfall with a minimum of one metre recommended as a
mounting height for most areas.

TERMINAL AIR DISTRIBUTION DEVICES

The main object of air distribution devices is to introduce the supply air into the
conditioned space to produce and maintain comfortable conditions within the
occupied zone of these spaces. The occupied zone is normally considered to be up
to the two metre (six foot) level and to within a metre or so (a few feet) of the
walls. Usually, no attempt is made to maintain design conditions in the upper part
of these areas or close to the outside walls. These spaces are often used to mix the
conditioned supply air with the room air.
It is the function of the terminal devices to:
1. Distribute the air to the spaces.
2. Provide uniform space temperatures.
3. Control or counteract the effects of conduction, radiation, and convection.
4. Provide adequate air motion to prevent local still pockets of air without
excess drafts.

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The terminal distribution devices accomplish these functions using diffusion,

induction, entrainment and aspiration.
In diffusion the air is introduced through the outlet into the space in a manner
designed to result in rapid mixing of supply air with room air, reducing both the
temperature difference and the velocity before the air enters the occupied zone.
The resulting air velocity in this zone should be between 0.125 and 0.355 m/s (25
and 50 ft/min).
In induction, entrainment, or aspiration the supply air and room air are mixed
either before the conditioned air leaves the outlet or immediately after.
Supply air outlets of air conditioning systems can be located in the ceiling, inside
wall, or outside perimeter of the conditioned space.
The term grille designates a wall outlet which has one or two sets of louvre blades
either horizontal, vertical, or both. The blades can be fixed or adjustable to
provide the desired air deflection pattern.
The term register designates a grille that has an integral manually adjustable
damper for the purpose of controlling the air flow.

RETURN AIR OUTLETS

Return air outlets are simple grilles or registers with a large free area, chosen to
blend into the decor, and sized to minimize air noise. Fig. 7 shows a typical return
register for vertical wall installation.

Figure 7
Return Air Register

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NOISE ATTENUATION
Air conditioning equipment such as fans, air turbulence in elbows, and high
velocity mixing valves can create a high level of noise in the system. Even when
temperature, humidity, and air movement in a building are carefully controlled,
the comfort of the occupants can be seriously affected when the noise level
created and transmitted by air conditioning equipment exceeds the background
noise level of these spaces. Since it is usually not possible to eliminate all the
sources of noise, other means must be used to dampen (attenuate) noise before it
can reach the occupied spaces.
Normally, ductwork will attenuate some of the noise produced by fans but this is
usually insufficient. By lining the ducts with porous sound absorbing material
further attenuation can be achieved. One of the most effective locations for sound
absorbing lining is in the suction and discharge plenum of the fan. Additional
attenuation can be provided by lined straight ducts, which also gives the
additional advantage of thermal insulation.
Where available duct length is insufficient to provide the required attenuation,
prefabricated in-duct sound absorbers or duct splitters can be used. Some of these
absorbers are illustrated in Fig. 8. These units split the air duct into several
smaller air passages. They are constructed with an outer shell of perforated sheet
metal and the channels are formed by sound absorbing material. Their sound
dampening ability is excellent over the entire sound frequency range, from low to
high pitched sounds. However their additional resistance to air flow will increase
operating costs.

Figure 8
Sound Absorbers

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