Tseng 1

Tseng, Vivian
81215349
The History of Concrete
Throughout history, different cement-like mixtures were used to build
structures. In 6500 BC, the Syrians used limestone to build permanent fire pits [1].
In 3400 BC, Mesopotamian houses were built using wet gypsum and crushed
bricks

[2]

. In 2600 BC, the Egyptians built the pyramids using lime and burnt

gypsum [1]. In 220 BC, China used a mixture of lime and sticky rice flour to begin
building the Great Wall of China [3].
But perhaps, the best-known historical use of concrete was by the
Romans. The Romans used cement that consisted of pozzolana volcanic ash
and water to build many of their
famous

landmarks

[4]

The

Romans also used admixtures. It

was found that adding organic
materials like milk, blood, and
animal fat would strengthen and
The Roman Colosseum
http://en.aiolusnews.com/science/ancient-roman-concrete-aboutrevolution/

increase

the

workability

of

pozzolan cement. Researchers have dated the earliest use of this cementitious
mixture to the Porticus Aemelia in 193 BC [5]. All of their buildings were built out of
this pozzolan concrete, including the Aqueduct of Segovia, the Colosseum, and
the Pantheon. When the Roman Empire was overthrown around 400 AD, the use
of concrete was lost for more than a thousand years [6].

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In 1756, John Smeaton created a hydraulic lime using powdered brick

and pebbles, used here as a course aggregate, to build the Eddystone
Lighthouse in Cornwall, England

[7]

. This is the first known modern use of

concrete. In 1779, Bryan Higgins created stucco to be used in building houses

and finishing walls [8]. Hydraulic lime was continuously changed and improved on,
but there was no significant developments made in concrete until the creation of
Portland cement.
Joseph Aspdin developed the first Portland cement in 1824. This cement
was

given

the

name

because

it

resembled limestone found in Portland,

England. In his patent, he stated that he
started with a limestone powder and
mixed it with water and clay. This
mixture was then baked and crushed
into a fine powder. Water could be

Portland oolite limestone found in Portland, England

http://www.southampton.ac.uk/~imw/Portland-IsleGeological-Introduction.htm

added to it in order to create a strong cement [9]. But in his patent, exact ratios
and methods were not mentioned. It wasnt until 1887 the Henri Le Chatelier
established ratios of lime to make Portland cement. He named the components
of the cement Alite, Belite, and Celite and discovered that the hardness of the
cement was due to the formation of microscopic crystals in the reaction between
the lime and water [10].
The first known use of reinforce concrete was in flowerpots. In 1867,
gardener Joseph Monier wanted to create a flowerpot that was durable. He

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decided that clay would break too easily and wood weathered badly, so these
materials were not usable. He began making cement pots but discovered that
when the soil expanded, the pots cracked easily. In order to strengthen the
containers, he put iron mesh into his pots and created the first reinforced
concrete, ferroconcrete. He advertised his invention widely at the 1867 Paris
Worlds Fair, which led to a spread in the use of reinforced concrete in various
applications. In 1875, William Ward built the first structure made of reinforced
concrete [11].
The next significant development
was the use of iron rebars to create
reinforced

concrete.

In

1889,

Ernest

Ransome built the Alvord Lake Bridge in

San Francisco, California. He twisted
square iron bars in create reinforcement
for the bridge, which is still standing today.
Eric Ransomes reinforced concrete
http://99percentinvisible.org/episode/episode-81-rebarand-the-alvord-lake-bridge/

Soon, applications of this method began

showing up in many buildings [12].

In 1890, people began experimenting with additives to Portland cement

when it was discovered that adding gypsum to the cement delayed the setting
time [13].
In 1930, the first skyscraper was built using Ransomes reinforced
concrete. At 15-stories high, the Ingalls Building was the first of its kind [14].

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In the 1930s, admixtures were added to

concrete in order to retard or accelerate the
setting process. But it wasnt until the 1950s that
a widespread-use of admixtures was seen. In
1979, the first corrosion-inhibiting admixture was
introduced in order to prolong the life of steel
reinforcement.

In

1996,

shrinkage-reducing

admixtures were created in order to decrease

cracking issues after curing [15].
In

the

1970s,

glass

fibers

were

introduced to concrete to create the modern

Ingalls Building
http://www.concretecontractor.com/concreteconstruction-projects/ingalls-building/

concrete. It was discovered that these fibers were a lightweight reinforcement

that would strengthen the concrete even further because it was able to withstand
tensile forces in the concrete and help hold concrete together better [16].
In the last few years, a research company called TU Delft has
conceptualized and began developing a self-healing concrete. This concrete
utilizes calcite-precipitating bacteria meant to give concrete healing properties,
decreasing the chances of crack formation and corrosion of steel reinforcement,
and ultimately decreasing the costs of maintaining structures

[17]

The creation of modern concrete has revolutionized the building of

structures, and ultimately changed civilization. It has allowed the construction of
the worlds tallest buildings. Throughout history, even though the formula for
concrete has varied over time, concrete has proved time and time again to be an

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effective building material. Even in incredibly modern times, concrete mixtures

have changed an improved significantly since the first modern use of concrete in
John Smeatons Eddystone Lighthouse. Concrete is constantly changing to find
better and better combinations of materials to make stronger, longer lasting
concrete.

Sources Used
1. http://nabataea.net/cement.html
2. http://home.lu.lv/~harijs/Macibu%20materiali%20,teksti/Gramatas%20Seno%20Laiku
%20Vesture%20%28%20Elektroniski%20%29/Ancient%20East/Mesopotamia/McIntosh.
%20Ancient%20Mesopotamia.%202005.pdf
3. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/7785842/Great-Wall-of-Chinasstrength-comes-from-sticky-rice.html
4. http://www.nachi.org/history-of-concrete.htm
5. http://archive1.village.virginia.edu/spw4s/RomanForum/GoogleEarth/AK_GE/AK_HTML/PO004.html
6. http://www.ushistory.org/civ/6f.asp
7. https://targetstudy.com/knowledge/invention/118/concrete.html
8. https://books.google.com/books?
id=v1JVu4iifnMC&pg=PA7&lpg=PA7&dq=bryan+higgins+cement&source=bl&ots=Yfs9W3V_
wQ&sig=OjKlYVyaNLC_YPueuMFl-3oyjI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Pz4dVYDkAtKxyASqpYHoCQ&ved=0CD4Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=brya
n%20higgins%20cement&f=false
9. http://todayinsci.com/A/Aspdin_Joseph/AspdinJoseph-Cement.htm
10. http://www.auburn.edu/academic/architecture/bsc/classes/bsc314/timeline/timeline.htm
11. http://www.wired.com/2009/07/dayintech_0716/
12. http://99percentinvisible.org/episode/episode-81-rebar-and-the-alvord-lake-bridge/
13. http://www.cemexphilippines.com/CementBasics/HistoryCement.aspx
14. http://www.ejse.org/Archives/Fulltext/200101/01/20010101.htm
15. http://precast.org/2014/01/chemical-admixtures-concrete-whats-next/
16. http://www.concretenetwork.com/glass-fiber-reinforced-concrete/

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17. http://www.citg.tudelft.nl/en/research/projects/self-healing-concrete/