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IPA, 2006 - Carbonate Rocks and Reservoirs of Indonesia: A Core Workshop, 1992

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HOLOCENE CARBONATE SEDIMENTATION, PULAU SEUBU,

JAVA SEA - THE THIRD DIMENSION
Robert K. Park', Charles T. Siemer? and Alton A. Brown3
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the physiographic and climatic conditions under which the Pulau
Seribu coral reef system developed. Three shallow cores, from two of the islands, provide
insights into vertical variations in composition and diagenesis and into the coral island
growth history. The deepest borehole, 32.8 m, bottomed in stiff, siliceous carbonate
mudstone of apparent Pleistocene age. Age dating of selected coral debris at various depths
indicate that the vertical accumulation was largely achieved during the period 10,000-4500
yrs BP. This rate of 5-10 mm per year matches the initially rapid post Wisconsin sea level
rise. Since then coral island growth has been outward. The sediments are coral dominated
(50% or more) with only minor red and green algal material and a notable lack of fines.
The present island phreatic freshwater lenses are small. Overall cementation is limited but
does occur as spar calcite fill of coral calices, and meniscus high Mg calcite in near surface
beachrock. Marine cements include fibrous aragonite and stubby bladed high Mg calcite
and peloidal cryptocrystalline masses of both.' Limited evidence of aragonite dissolution is
present throughout the buildups. Top-down degradation of framework constituents is
underway which undoubtably will lead to the ultimate modification of primary depositional
fabrics. Porosities and pernieabilities are very high in the relatively unaltered Holocene
carbonate sediment, especially in the coral-rudstone rampart deposits which act as conduits
for seawater flushing and recharge of the coral-dominated carbonate buildups.
INTRODUCTION
General Statement
The fact that the Pulau Seribu coral reef system exists may be reason enough for some
to deem it worthy of study. Awareness of their rich diversity of coral species has existed from
some time (Umbgrove, 1947), but it was the discovery and subsequent production of several
hundred million barrels of oil from the underlying Early Miocene Baturaja carbonates that
focused the attention of the petroleum geology community on the Pulau Seribu. With that
incent'lve, geologists with interests in the development of Indonesian carbonate reservoirs have
certainly noticed the Holocene carbonate deposits; however, remoteness and the somewhat
difficult logistics have yet denied the &ea the depth of study accorded to some of the world's
classic areas of carbonate deposition.

&NJthtZSt SUmakd, J&t&

Con~ultant,Sedimento1y.g Division, P.T. Geoservim, Jakarta

' A R C 0 Exploration and Production Techno10g.v Company, Plko, Texas, USA

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The reasons for this study are simply stated. Almost half the cumulative production and
a sizeable proportion of the remaining oil and gas reserves in the Offshore Southeast Sumatra
and Offshore Northwest Java Production Contract areas, can be assigned to the Miocene
carbonates of the Baturaja and Parigi Formations. The more we understand the hows, whys,
and wherefores of their origins, the more effective will be our exploration and development
programmes. The key is process - of formation, of diagenesis, of preservation - and processes
are first best determined by an examination of the modern environment and its recent history.
Umbgrove (1947) comments on the rich diversity of species to be found in the coral reefs
of the East Indies but devotes most of his study to hydrology and climatology. Scruttons
excellent work (1976, 1978), derived from what may be called the first modern sedimentologic
investigation of the reef system, was based on sample data systematically collected from a series
of traverses across several of the islands and into the adjacent channel deeps. This, plus
Ongkosongos field guide (1988) provide a good description of the areal distribution of
sedimentary facies a i d document surface variations in composition and texture over parts of the
Pulau Seribu platform. Core data from the two coral islands examined in this study now add
a crucial third dimension necessary for a better understanding of the growth and depositional
history of the Seribu Platform carbonate buildups.

The questions to be answered are:

1) How did the platform form and when?
2) What is the platform made of?
3) What is happening and has happened to it?
4) What are the reservoir implications?
Equipment, Materials and Methodology

Two different rig assemblies were used to obtain the three full-diameter core sequences
that form the basis of this study. A Jacro 200 portable rotary rig assembly was used to drill the
first hole on Pulau Putri Barat. A 1.5 m-long core barrel with a surface-set diamond-face
discharge bit was used to cut a 4.75 cm diameter core from a 7.55 cm hole. Seawater was used
as a drilling fluid but this only exacerbated the poor recovery experienced in the largely
unconsolidated skeletal sands and interspersed coral rubble that make up the upper 20 m of cored
section. This rig did however take the hole to a total depth of 32.8 m and achieved excellent
recovery in the stiff, marine, mixed carbonate-siliciclastic mudstones and siltstones that
predominate in the lower 10 m.
After the poor experience with the rotary rig, a lightweight knockdown manportable type
diamond drill of the type much used for drilling seismic shot holes, was used for the drilling of
the two boreholes on Pulau Pabelokan. This Rig 135 model was equipped with an NQ3 split
inner tube core barrel, 1.5 m in length and fitted with an NQ3 surface set discharge bit which
cut a 4.75 cm diameter core from a 7.6 cm hole. No drilling fluid was used in this operation
and both recovery and drilling rate were much improved (hours versus days for the rotary rig).
The first hole (BH-1) in the centre of the island was taken to a depth of 11.5 m and bottomed
in relatively fine-grained skeletal sands. The second hole (BH-2), towards the edge of the
island, reached a total depth of 20.5 m, encountering mostly coarse coral rubble.
Once recovered, the cores were laid out in wooden boxes lined with plastic sheets, briefly
described, sealed and shipped to Jakarta for more careful examination. The mostly non-

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consolidated sediment cores required special handling in order to prepare them for photography
and description and to preserve them for permanent display. The objective was to allow
examination of the cores in the same manner that a consolidated limestone might be examined.
The larger coral fragments were individually cut into thin slabs (approx. 1 cm thick) and
cemented with epoxy into custom-designed plastic trays. Poorly consolidated sandy portions of
the cores (most of the core) were carefully resinated into place in the trays and brushed after the
epoxy hardened to provide a peel-like preservation. Core portions containing minor to moderate
amounts of carbonate mud and silt matrix generally became semi-consolidated through air
drying. These portions were slabbed dry, resin mounted and etched by washing and brushing.
Some portions of the core were also lightly etched with dilute (10%) HC1 to enhance visibility
of the rock fabric. Selected core samples were impregnated with blue-dyed epoxy and thin
sectioned for petrographic examination. In addition to the routine thin section preparation,
polished thin sections were prepared for cathodoluminescence study of the spar cements. This
was carried out at LEMIGAS (Jakarta) using a Technosyn Cold Cathode Luminescence model
8200 Mk I1 system. The catholuminescence stage is mounted on a Nikon petrographic
microscope equipped with a Microflex AFX-IIA photographic system. Operating conditions for
CL were set at 8-10 Kv with a 550-600 uA gun current.
Lithified reef flat and beachrock samples were collected where they crop out dong the
high water mark at localities on Pulau Gentang Besar and at the west end of Pulau Putri Barat.
These samples were also vacuum-impregnated with blue-dyed epoxy and thin sectioned. In
addition, selected coral material was sent to the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of the
Geological and Development Centre in Bandung for age dating. The equipment used was an
Oken 14C measuring device.
Thin sections of impregnated core and surface samples were examined using a
petrographic microscope and quantitative analyses obtained via systematic point counting (300450 points) of identified grain types using a mechanical stage and tally counter. The procedure
followed was to count until a total of 200 "framework" grains, plus an additional 100-250 points
(depending on rock fabric) of "non-framework" components, had been identified. Framework
constituents included mainly corals, red algae (both branching and encrusting), Halimedu,
molluscs (bivalves and gastropods), echinoderm plates and spines, and benthonic foraminifera.
Non-framework elements are mainly void space, matrix and cement, with both intergrain and
intragrainhkeletal occurrences of each. Some disturbance of intergrain void space within the
non-consolidated samples was inevitable, even so, the recorded high porosities of greater than
35% attest to the prevalent primary fabric of these sediments.
HOW WAS IT FORMED ?
Location, Chronology and Geography
The Pulau Seribu system, located in the Southwest Java Sea, comprises a number of coral
reef islands ranging in size from a few tens of meters across to lengths of greater than 1 km
(Panel 1). In the southern part of the chain even larger atoll-lagoon complexes may be found.
The islands (estimates of total number range from 130 to greater than 700 depending on criteria)
sit atop a 40 x 10 km-long, north-south trending platform, on the west flank of a fault-bounded
structural arch, the Seribu High. That structure forms the boundary between the hydrocarbon
producing Arjuna and Sunda basins.

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The present Java Sea is the product of an early Holocene transgression which was
initiated some 11,000 years BP. The Flores Sea had begun to spread westward and the Sunda
Straits were breached to form a link with the Indian Ocean to the west. The rate of sea-level
rise throughout the Holocene was quite rapid with the result that these two water masses were
united by about 9,500 years BP. Exposed Holocene reef terraces dated at up to 7000 years BP
around the Sunda Strait (Cassoudebat et al., 1985) and up to 9500 years BP along the Malaysian
coast on the margins of what was the remnant of Sundaland (Tija et al., 1975), all help to
confirm this. This is further corroborated by the 7900 yrs BP age of a coral fragment from a
depth of 19 m in the Pulau Putri Barat core, which was close to the time of the apparent onset
of carbonate/reef buildup in the Seribu chain.
By 8,000 years BP a connection to the South China Sea was forged and the transgression
began to stabilize at around 4,500 years BP. This is reflected in the published sea level curves
cited by Morner (1982) and shown here in Figure 1. Throughout the SE Asia and West Pacific
area, numerous authors (McLean et al., 1978; Tija et al., 1978; Logan, 1987; Ongkosongo,
1988) have documented a now well established pattern of a slight fall in sea level from a highest
Holocene level datedat around 4000 yrs BP, that is reconfirmed by our dating of coral (4440
yrs BP) from the relict reef rim exposed on Pulau Putri Barat, about 1 m above the present mean
sea level.
Holocene sedimentation provides only a thin veneer and the present bathymetry (Panel
1B) is largely a reflection of the antecedent topography established during the last glacial low
stand (van Bemmelen, 1970). Of particular interest is the major deep channel which separates
the Seribu Platform from the Java mainland, which v& Bemmelen interprets as a major
Pleistocene river system draining westward from Sumatra. This channel acts as a sediment trap,
effectively isolating the Seribu Platform from mainland derived siliciclastic fines. With the
breaching of the Sunda Strait, aggressive river capture diverted this to the south and reversed
the drainage in the eastern Java Sea area (van Tuyn, 1932 van Bemmelen, 1970). The Seribu
platform stands in the divide between these two early Holocene drainage systems.
- Since its inception, the Java Sea has remained shallow, being generally less than 50 m
deep and exceeding that depth only in those deeper parts inherited from the Pleistocene
topography. In addition, the larger islands of the archipelago have kept the sea relatively
isolated from the world ocean system to which it is connected by just a few narrow openings.
Given this geometry and high regional rainfall, fresh water run off from the surrounding land
areas assumes a significant role. High volume sediment discharge accounts for the rapid
progradation of the coastal plains throughout the Holocene which has effectively smothered reef
growth along many coastal areas. High rainfall and runoff also contribute to the lower than
average salinities that prevailed, and continue to prevail, in the Java Sea, where the current
range is less than 31 %O (winter) to 33%0 (summer).
The platform lies outside of the main SE Asia typhoon track and is also largely protected
from long period waves by the surrounding islands. Monsoonal storms do create much
choppiness but their short periodicity and low amplitude suggest they are unlikely to affect the
sea bottom, although a combination of storm and wave energy may do so. The strongly seasonal
prevailing winds track in diametrically opposing directions, west-northwest in the summer
months, east-southeast in the winter, but under both sets of conditions the associated wind driven
currents are focused through, and help maintain, the deep (up to 70 m), east-west trending
intraplatform channels (Panel 1) where current velocities of up to 4 knots have been measured.
Taken together, these factors account for the high turbidity reported by many divers in the area
but, notably, the suspended material is predominantly very fine skeletal carbonate with only
minor siliciclastics. The siliciclastic material that is found is very likely reworked material

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derived from Pleistocene claystones and siltstones exposed on the sea floor, rather than material
carried in suspension from the mainland.
Sediment Accumulation
In this relatively isolated and protected area, which enjoys year-round ambieqt water
temperatures in the range 26.5.C to 30*C, a tidal range of 1.80 m k , and salinities slightly
fresher than normal sea water values, reef growth has thrived. Although the buildups are small,
the diversity of coral species is quite unparalled. This diversity appears to have developed at
the expense of frame building and binding red algae, a common feature of Caribbean and Pacific
reefs but notably of minor importance in the Pulau Seribu. Significant accumulations of skeletal
grainstones are confined to narrow beach strips around the exposed cays, but it should be noted
that the "lagoonal" sediments within some of the larger southern atolls, where water depths may
increase to as much as 10 m, have a hummocky mounded appearance typical of burrowing by
Callianussa. These sands, which comprise fine- to medium-grained skeletal debris, are devoid
of any primary physical sedimentary structures and contain only very minor mud matrix.
Generally, mud size material is all but lacking among the Seribu platform carbonate sediments.
Minor exceptions are found in the most protected inner back-reef flat areas where mangroves
and small 27zaZassiu meadows have become established. Although never luxuriant, such
mangrove and ThaZassia clusters do contribute to a dampening effect of the aready small wave
energies and allows some silt- and clay-size sediment to accumulate and be trapped by thin algal
mats. Grazers and bacteria tend to remove most of the filamentous algae, but some trapped
fines do find their way into the underlying coral rich sediments. For the most part, the buildups
are surrounded by locally derived fine-grained carbonate sands and silts which become intimately
mixed together with the coarser reef debris by the ubiquitous and pervasive action of borers,
burrowers and grazers. Despite the clear evidence of such activity, identifiable pellets are not
common in the sub-surface, presumably owing to rapid disintegration. Lack of early lithification
of this nature is another distinctive feature of the modern sediments of the Seribu Platform due
to a combination of limited exposure, prevailing high humidity and low salinities.
Scoffin (2987) cites the Pulau Seribu .island chain as an example of patch reef
development on an open platform but appears mistaken in his inference that they arise from a
rocky foundation. "Bedrock", as established by construction piling at Pulau Pabelokan and the
Pualu Putri Barat core, is no more than a stiff marine mudstone of apparent Pleistocene age.
Piling data further suggests that this substrate was not planar but had some relief, giving more
credence to the thesis of Umbgrove (1949) that the buildups initiated on bars of mud or silt,
sculpted by tidal or monsoonal currents and similar to those occurring in parts of the Java Sea
today;' Nor is there any well developed Holocene "reef cap" of the type identified and described
by Hopley (1982) as covering and stabilizing the more mature patch reefs of the Great Barrier '
Reef chain off Eastern Australia. However, it should be noted that the islands cored fall mainly
into his juvenile to early mature stages, in which the reef cap is areally more restricted but still
potentially quite thick.
At 28 m in the Pulau Putri Barat core there is a distinct colour change from grey above
to grey-brown below and a measurable reduction in grain size with the sediments assuming the
consistency of a moderately stiff clay. In composition it comprises a mixture of terrigenous clay
and carbonate fines, in which spicules (alcyonarian/sponge ?) feature prominently (Plate 6D).
These sediments accumulated in a nearshore setting, protected from wave action, in waters
charged with temgenous fines, which inhibited coral growth. These conditions prevailed during

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the early lag period which followed the initiation of the early Holocene flooding and were
perhaps analogous to those found along the present northern coastline of Java.
At 31.25 m in the Pulau Putri Barat core there is another sharp bpundary and the colour
changes once more to a distinctive yellowish brown. Scattered, highly recrystallized coral debris
persists to depths of at least 31.5 m and recrystallized molluscan debris occurs yet lower. While
this, and the prevalence of benthic foraminifera, indicate marine conditions, reworking cannot
be ruled out. None of the fauna recovered, macro or micro, proved definitive for age
determination but a detrital coral fragment from 31 m yielded a CI4 age of 40,000 yrs BP. As
this is approaching the limits of the age-dating procedure, the date must be regarded as a
minimum. Based on this information and the more indurated character of the sediment, the
boundary at 31.25 m is considered to represent a post Pleistocene unconformity surface.
The record from both islands from which core was obtained indicates that the Seribu
chain comprises carbonate buildups of 25-30 m thickness which developed on little more than
minor topographic features. Such topographic features were inherited from the Pleistocene, or
were molded by early Holocene storm and tidal currents, and have accumulated reefal carbonate
sediment since the time of initial post Pleistocene transgression some 10,000 years ago.
Schlager (1981) notes that AtlanWCaribbean reef/platform growth during the Holocene is
characterized by an initial catch-up phase during which sea level rise at first exceeds reef growth
but that, sbbsequently, reef growth outpaces sea level rise and the reef builds up quickly tosea
level. The history of the Seribu platform carbonates would seem to echo this pattern. The
terrigenous muddy skeletal sands which dominate the lower part of the section up to ca 20 m
depth, contain but a limited range of coral species and represent debris from the earliest patchy
reef growth 10000-7000 years BP, when the post Wisconsin glacial rise in sea level outpaced
carbonate banWreef development. From about 20 m depth to the surface, coral species
proliferate and skeletal grainstones and even rudstones become more in evidence. This marks
the transition to the period of dominance of reef growth as the rate of post glacial rise in sea
level slackens off (ca 4500 years BP). Thus, much of the vertical growth we see on the Seribu
platform appears to date from about 8000 yr to 4500 yrs BP, at rates in the range 5-10 mm/yr,
which accords well with the Schlager's (1981) data, and the growth profile matches closely that
for the Yucatan (MacIntyre et al., 1977). Since 4500 yrs BP sea level has been largely stable
and growth has been largely outward, leading to the coalescence and enlargement of the
buildups. This core record is, in essence, that of the lag effect associated with a rapid
transgression (Read et al., 1986), in which the subtidal component becomes well developed and
the cemented cap is thin.

WHAT IS IT MADE OF ?
A

The most notable feature of all surface and core samples examined in this study is that
they are coral dominated and mud deficient. Even within the surface grab samples from the
intra-platform channels and deeper platform areas where more clastic fines are in evidence, the
dominant skeletal component is coral. While this may seem logical and unsurprising it should
be remembered that many ancient so-called "reef", "reefal" and "near-reef" assemblages of the
Indonesian Tertiary are remarkably deficient in coral debris, including many of the Miocene
Baturaja carbonate sequences from the same area of Indonesia.
The upper parts of the Pulau Pabelokan and Pulau Putri Barat cores consist mainly of
coarse coral rubble and skeletal sands (Plates 1A-C, 3B-E, 5A-C). At Pulau Putri Barat,
because of poor recovery, only the uppermost 5 m and lowermost 12 m of record are considered

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reliable. This core contains variably sorted medium to coarse skeletal sand, comprised chiefly
of coral, molluscan and foraminiferal debris, and with minor red and green algae (PI. 2A-B).
In this and the underlying layer of coarse coral debris at 2.5 m, there is ample evidence of
meniscus cements and micrite envelopes (PI. 2B), all of which contributes to the lithification of
the crestal portion of the buildups. The coral rudstone layer (2.5-4.25m) is interpreted as the
inner wedge of a storm rampart deposit which accumulated in association with the highest
Holocene reef rim, presently exposed at a uniform level around the south and west shores of the
island. Below this, the recovered core consisted mostly of coral rubble. However, drilling
returns indicated that much of the "no-recovery" section comprised fine to medium skeletal sands
with rare pockets of silt size matrix carbonate material (Pl. 2C-D). Because of poor recovery
through these lightly compacted and uncemented sands, sample depths through this intermediate
section are questionable. Recovery improved below 25 m in some poorly sorted skeletal sands,
which are still largely uncemented but have variable amounts of carbonate mud matrix (Pls. lD,
2C). Glauconite and pyrite are minor but noteworthy components in this lower part of the buildup. The interval from 28-31 m is something of a transition zone in which reworked Pleistocene
terrigenous material is intermixed with carbonate fines, scattered coral debris (mostly Acroporu)
and a relative abundance of alcyonarian/sponge(?) spicules. These sediments probably
accumulated in the deeper slope areas between the early patchy buildups, where gorgonians and
sponges assumed dominance over scleractinian corals. Either depth or turbidity might create an
environment which is relatively more restrictive to corals than sponges. As water depths
increased and turbidity reduced, clarity was enhanced such that coral growth became dominant.
On this basis, the true base of the Pulau Putri Besar buildup can be placed at 28 m, this depth
being the boundary separating terrigenous-rich and terrigenous-deficient lithologies.
On Pulau Pabelokan, the first borehole (BH-l), near the centre of the island, initially
penetrated a thin root bed (Pl. 3A), then a skeletal sand dominated section, in which the sands
are again moderateIy well sorted and coral dominated (PI. 4A,B). The shallow rubble layer
encountered at 3.10 m contains massive coral heads, at least 20cm thick, as well as a variety of
branching Acroporu species (PI. 3D,E). All are heavily bored and appear partly recrystallized.
Bioturbated skeletal sands, comprising corals, molluscs, algae (Hafirneda)and foraminifers (PIS.
3F, 4F), persist to 11.5 m. Many of the coarser fragments are encrusted by red algae and
serpulids and include minor amounts of echinoid debris. Matrix is mainly carbonate mud and
cementation is largely restricted to fibrous aragonite linings in intraskeletal cavities (PI. 4C-E).
A second Pulau Pabelokan hole (BH-2) was drilled on the northern margin of the island
just above the present high water mark, beyond the present beach gravels. This section is
dominated by coarse coral rubble (PI. 5 ) and includes a mixture of massive and branching types
which clearly document the persistence of a beach gravel, or rampart facies, at this location
throughout much of the island's growth history. Matrix is completely lacking in the uppermost
. 2 m but sand-size matrix becomes increasingly common with depth, and below 8.0 m silt size
material becomes more common. This loose sediment fills intraskeletal cavities and borings as
well as cavities within the rubble framework itself (PIS. 6, 7). Sorting rapidly deteriorates with
depth although matrix is never more than 15 %. This pile of coral rubble is interrupted at 10
m by a 50 cm-thick moderately well-sorted, fine-medium skeletal sand (PI. 5D), which was
probably a back-reef flat or possibly a lower shore facies. Poorly sorted skeletal sands, in which
broken branches of Acroporu were the only immediately recognizable corals, persisted to TD
at 20.5 m (PI. 5E,F). The bulk of the sediment throughout the borehole sequence is comprised
of scattered coarse coral debris and molluscan fragments, most of which shows signs of
extensive boring. The matrix comprises silt-size carbonate fines, some the product of

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mechanical abrasion, some the result of bioerosion (fish, sponge and lithophagid), and the
remainder of diagenetic origin (PIS. 6C-H, 7A,C).
Below 16.5 m recrystallization and cementation, particularly of the corals, becomes
noticeably more prevalent. Bladed and equant calcite crystals grow on earlier lime mud cement
and line skeletal cavities (PI. 6C-F). Locally, some of the matrix has a distinctly pelleted
appearance. Those peloids having distinct boundaries are almost certainly of faecal origin but
others have a more fuzzy appearance, comprising radiating nests of needle shaped crystals that
are more likely to be diagenetic cements (PI. 6H).
The core profiles show the Seribu Platform buildups to be largely made up of skeletal
sands and sandy reef rubble and rimmed by narrow active margins with steep outer slopes. The
upper slopes can be as steep as 60'-70' but tend to grade down to 45' as they merge with the
channel floors (Scrutton, 1978). The coring at Pulau Pabelokan suggests that at least some of
the islands display the classic "bucket" anatomy (cf. Schlager, 1981) comprising a reinforced
rim of frame building organisms with the interior sands largely uncemented (cf. comparable
relationships described by Land and Goreau, 1970). The interior sedimentary sequence is
intermittently interrupted by layers of coarse coral rubble (coral rudstone). The most notable
are those found at 1.5-3.9 m depth in Pulau Putri Barat and at 1.5-4.5 m in BH-1 and 4-9 m and
12-20 m in BH-2 in Pulau Pabelokan. Given their thickness, it is likely that these wedges
represent the remnants of earlier lowstands or hiatuses rather than a single storm episode. These
relationships are shown diagrammatically in Panel 2.
The vertical section in Pulau Pabelokan BH-2 is characterized by a predominance of
coarse coral gravels and rubble that clearly represent the core of the rampart accumulation,
which then wedges sharply towards the centre of the island (BH-1). The more sand-prone BH-1
section shows a slight upward coarsening from medium sand at 11 m to coarse/very coarse
skeletal sands at the surface. Bioturbation was probably extensive, although disturbance of the
unconsolidated sediments during coring precludes confirmation. In all of the core samples
examined, coral debris is the dominant framework grain constituent, rarely making up less than
50%. Branching and encrusting red algal material is ubiquitous, making up a consistent 10-15%
of the framework grain constituents throughout the section. The green alga, Halimeda, which
is locally prolific in surface sediments in and around the modern reef and reef flat areas, shows
more variability of distribution in the cores. Although present since the inception of carbonate
accumulation, Halimeda makes up only 5% of the framework assemblage in the lower parts of
BH-2, and in the rimhampart assemblage, but rises to 15% between 13-9 m, just below the main
storm rampart accumulation. In the "back-reef' area of BH-1, Halimeda comprises a significant
portion (up to 33% of grains) in the lower 6 m of the cored interval and is clearly a major
framework constituent of these more protected lagoon and reef flat sands. Molluscan debris,
bivalves and gastropods, form a bare 5 % throughout the rampart assemblage of BH-2, increasing
to as much as 10% only in the upper 3 m (above the storm rampart wedge). Even in the more
protected environment of BH-1 they remain but a minor framework component. Echinoderm
debris, plates and spines, is also a minor component, comprising 3-5% of the sediment
framework fraction. While virtually absent in the lowermost sections, echinoderm fragments
show a gradual increase upwards, peaking at 7-8% in the intervals 7-8 m in BH-I and 11-12 m
in BH-2, until overwhelmed by the massive storm rampart buildup. Subsequent recolonization
increased their contribution to the framework assemblage to 3-5% in BH-1, but the echinoderms
are still sparse to absent in the rampart and beach gravels of BH-2. The other framework grains
of note are benthonic foraminifers. Their distribution generally tracks that of the echinoderm
debris and they too were periodically overwhelmed by excessive storm activity. They comprise

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an ubiquitous background component forming 3-5%) locally rising to 10% and, in one sample
immediately above the storm rampart in BH-2, close to 15%.
A s 3 common for most modern reefal carbonate assemblages, primary pore space is
high, and in this respect the Seribu Platform carbonates are no exception. Total void space
rarely falls below 25% and can be as high as 45%. "Matrix" is a mixture of silt-size aragonite
and high Mg calcite, which are the combined products of biological and mechanical erosion, and
microcrystalline carbonate cement. Although there is a slight tendency for such matrixhemen t
to increase with depth, it cannot be overstated as to just how insignificant cementation is
throughout these buildups until one gets below 16 m, where recrystalization is more in evidence
and the amount of cement may increase to comprise as much as 45% of the deposit. Samples
from the near surface in BH-2 ( < 3 m) also show a high matrix content representing percolation
and filtration of fine material through the present rim and shore assemblage. Rim cements in
the form of needle aragonite is found lining intraskeletal cavities and some intragranular pore
spaces throughout the core sections (PI. 4D,E). Spar cement is particularly prevalent among
certain coral fragments (Pl. 7F), notably from the lower parts of the section but examples have
also been found from within the upper storm rampart layer (Pl. 8A). The cement fills coral
calices and several generations of growth can be identified (see discussion below).
Siliciclastic material is generally lacking through the carbonate rich section of the
buildups. Exceptions include some traces of glauconite in the lower part of BH-2 and in the
deeper (>25 m) sections of the Pulau Putri Besar core, where smectite-dominated clays and siltsize quartz are common, although even at TD (32.8 m) less than 15%.

DIAGENESIS: WHAT HAS HAPPENED TO IT ?

Perhaps the most striking feature of diagenesis in the Pulau Seribu cores is the
remarkable paucity of cementation throughout much of the buildups, near surface beachrock and
reef flats excepted. Other tropical areas of modern carbonate accumulation, such as in Belize,
are notable for extensive amounts of relatively recent cementation. One difference is that
associated sediments in Belize contain a much higher proportion of siliciclastic material,
including clay minerals. These reactive constituents may directly or/and indirectly have an
ipfluence on cementation. Such is not the case in the Pulau Seribu.
The actual "island" portion of the Pulau Seribu buildups remains quite small and as a result,
associated freshwater lenses are also small, if present all. Despite the relatively high recharge
(annual rainfall is 1.5 m per year) the islands appear to be just too small to support much of a
permanent freshwater lens. However, both of the Pulau Pabelokan cores show a distinct colour
change from brown to grey at a depth of 5.0 m, marking an Eh boundary which may contribute
to the luminescent banding in cements noted below. Because of poor recovery no such marker
was noted at Pulau Putri Barat but an existing water well draws brackish water from 2.5-3.0 m
depth and interstitial pyrite cement was noted below 20 m. Indications are that the current water
table fluctuates seasonally between 1.75 to 2.75 m below the present surface. The same is likely
to be true at Pulau Pabelokan and so the colour change noted is thought to represent the base
of the fresh/brackish water lens. This would make the lenses no more than 3 m thick in the
centre of the islands. The highly porous and permeable coral rich sands and gravels that make
up the islands facilitate tidal recharge and mixing and ensure a permanent brackish condition.
This accords well with computations proposed by Budd & Vacher (1991) to determine the
thickness of fossil freshwater lenses. For a modern reefal buildup they propose R (amount of
hence, the freshwater
recharge)lK (hydraulic conductivity) will be of the order of 104 to

2-9

lens thickness, H, will approximate 1-3%of the island's width. For an island the size of Pulau
Putri Barat (400 x 200 m), H computes at 2-4 m and, given the high permeabilities in effect,
the lower figure is more likely. With the islands having only thin, slightly brackish phreatic
lenses, with limited recharge potential, mixing zone phenomena, such as dolomitintion, are only
likely to be poorly developed. No dolomite was observed in the core samples examined.
Relatively minor amounts of sparry calcite cement, noted above, was the only cement observed
in samples from the area of the fresh-brackish water lens.
Perhaps more important than the size of any phreatic lens are the persistent high ambient
temperatures and humidities. Under these conditions, the most common cements are 8-15 mu
fibrous aragonite needles, which are found lining many in tra-skeletal cavities and occasionally
external surfaces (Pl. 4D,E), and a cement with a bladed habit (P1:7C-E), thought to be high
magnesian calcite. Elsewhere, the dominant cement is a finely cryptocrystalline carbonate
mixture of both (Pls. 2A, 3C,D, 5D-F). Similar cements were described by Cassoudebat et al.
(1985) from fossil Holocene reef terraces along the west coast of Java, by Amieux et al. (1990)
in some beach rocks along the coast of Toga, by Friedman (1985) along the Red Sea coast, and
in some Panamanian reefs by Macintyre (1977). Cathodoluminescenceexamination of a number
of thin sections r evded that some of this material has a dull red to orange luminescence while
other areas have none (PI. 9C-F). Finely crystalline cements and matrix tend to comprise a
mixture df non luminescing aragonite and luminescent high Mg calcite. This latter exhibits
similar luminescent properties as the associated red algal debris, a feature which prompted
Friedman (1985) to conclude that much of it derived from reworked skeletal material. In the
beachrock samples, the high Mg calcite is clearly a cement having a well developed fine crystal
form. Cemented beach sands overlying exposed lithified reef colonies can be found at the west
end of Pulau Putri Barat, on Pulau Gentang Besar, and on other islands and is presumed equivalent or at least comparable in age to the beachrock described and dated at 3660 BP by Tija et
al. (1975) from peninsular Malaysia. The beachrock samples are well-sorted and graded
medium- to coarse-sand shell hash, identical in form and composition to the beach sands that rim
portions of the islands. Many grains show signs of partial micritization and incipient
neomorphic alteration to microspar (Pl. 9A-C). The whole remains extremely friable and
although exhibiting well developed isopachous fibrous rim cements in some areas (Pl. 9B-F),
is often held together by only poorly developed meniscus cements of cryptocrystalline carbonate
(Pl. 10A,C). Despite a vaguely pelleted appearance, SEM examination of the cement shows it
to be rather amorphous in character such that it might easily be dismissed as primary "lime
mud". Cathodoluminescence was more informative and revealed that some is high Mg-calcite
(luminescent) while other pockets are non-luminescent aragonite ((Pl. IOC-F). The latter was
generally found infilling skeletal chambers (Pl. lOB), rather than as a meniscus cement, and is
therefore seen as an earlier marine cement rather than one of vadose origin. John Kaldi
(unpublished data, personal communication, Sept. 1992) suggests, however, that much of this
cryptocrystalline carbonate cement may be comprised, in part, of a meshwork of algal filaments
and fungal hyphae which act as a filter to trap microscopic carbonate particles. The
development of the cryptocrystalline carbonate "matrix" via beachrock cementation processes
offers a possible clue as to the origin of the "carbonate mud" which is so abundant in the
underlying Tertiary carbonate buildups.
Samples from above and within the present
freshwater lens tended to exhibit only partial micritization of skeletal tests, most notably among
the corals (Pl. 2B). A few coral samples from relatively shallow depths (4.25 m; i.e. within the
freshwater lens) possess a well developed spar calcite cement (Pl. 8A), also noted by
Cassoudebat et al. (1985). Somewhat surprisingly, this cement exhibits a well developed
luminescent banding (Pl. 8B). Luminescent cements, as discussed in Scholle & Halley (1985),

2-10

have been variously depicted as developing at depths less than 500 m, 2,000-3,000 m, and as
deep as 4,000-7,000 m, but rarely looked for in the Recent because of the general lack of
luminescent behavior in modern sediments. However, Dr. Clyde Moore (personal communication, 1992) confirmed that similar banding has been recognized in some Caribbean reef sections
and Amieux et al. (1990) describe similar phenomena in their Togoan beachrock samples.
Elsewhere, a study of some recent temperate water cements by Adam & Schofield (1983)
demonstrates how rapidly such banding can develop. More recently Barbin et al., (1991)
reported on the luminescent behaviour of Recent biogenic carbonates in which it was suggested
that this property is independent of mineral composition, habitat, or way of life but rather was
linked to growth rate, ontogeny, bathymetry and salinity. The capillary zone between the water
table and the ground surface and, to a slightly lesser extent the phreatic lens, are highly sensitive
to fluctuations in water chemistry and particularly susceptible to variations in redox potential that
will affect Fe/Mn ratios and contribute to the type of lattice distortion that triggers luminescence
(Frank et al., 1988). Boto et al. (1982) discuss the probable linkage of Fe/Mn release to the
chelating properties of organic components within the soil zone and supported by the spectacular
luminescent banding found in some paleosols. The presence of pyrite and glauconite provide
clear evidence of the early availability of iron to the system. Subsequent compaction induced
release of iron and manganese from associated clays may add yet further confusion to the cement
stratigraphy. While rates of evaporation versus rainfall recharge remain one possible cause of
fluctuations in the water chemistry, short term features such as storms and tidal cycles are
another. Insofar as sea water is the ultimate source of the critical components, sea level
fluctuations may also influence chemical variability, especially as a cause of longer term effects.
A stillstand or sea level fall might have induced some of the changes recorded at Pulau
Putri Barat. Only one significant 1.25 m fall in sea level from ca 4500 years BP to present can
be documented, although Tija et al. (1975) argue for at least two, possibly three, intra-Holocene
hiatuses or falls. Whether this was the cause of the fluctuations in water chemistry responsible
for the luminescence signature is unclear, and precise timing of the banding also remains
uncertain. Any disruptions in the nearsurface capillary zone chemistry produced by any and
everything, from sea level fluctuations to volcanic fallout, may have created the aberrations
responsible for luminescent behaviour found preserved here. More striking than the rate of
change in cement chemistry recorded by Adam & Schofield (1983), is the serendipitous nature
of the circumstances which led to it - a salutary warning to not read too much into such data.
Corals provide the most common hosts to spar calcite cements and in many places more
than one generation is evident. Five samples through the Pulau Putri Barat core were examined
for luminescent banding. In addition to the sample from 3.45 m depth an intermediate depth
sample from 16.5 m showed only some poorly developed spar and vague banding while that
from a coral at 32.5 m showed some spectacular multiple banding (Pl. 8C-F). This lower coral
is close to a sample dated at 40,000 yrs BP and this cements history is probably a relict
Pleistocene paleosol feature. Nevertheless, the existence of similar luminescence behaviour both
at depth and near surface, suggests that the process is an ongoing one. Rates of growth are
susceptible to so many variables and while some corals exhibit spar cements, others do not;
others have spar cements in only a few calyx chambers, cryptocrystalline cements in yet others;
while some remain devoid of any infilling material at all. Perhaps the most important message
from this is that micro-environments, and especially permeability variations at the microscale,
can exert as much influence as general water chemistry on the morphology and rate of growth
of cements. What is striking about the core material is the relative absence of cementation
throughout the buildup, especially when compared to other tropical areas of carbonate accumula

2-1 1

tion (e.g., Belize). Apart from the near surface lithification of the reef rim and reef flat,
cementation is remarkably lacking.
Among the minor diagenetic components present, it is worth mentioning the appearance of
pyrite and glauconite. The former was found in Pulau Putri Barat below 20 m, providing some
tangible evidence of the changes in Eh with depth. It occurs as irregular interstitial masses of
very finely crystalline habit, but always makes up less than 2% of the bulk volume. Glauconite
was slightly more widespread but also found in only trace amounts and may be an indicator of
changing or evolving circulation patterns in and around the platform.

CONCLUSIONS - WHAT ARE THE RESERVOIR IMPLICATIONS ?

Reefal carbonate buildups of the Pulau Seribu system are characterized by initially high
rates of vertical growth of 5-10 mm per year followed by a period of outbuilding and areal
enlargement. This pattern of evolution is a response to the rate of sea level rise during the
Holocene; it may also have been true of similar bio-dynamic buildups that developed during the
Tertiary. Once island complexes such as these are established, even minor fluctuations in sea
level can expose large areas of reef flat which can develop a cemented veneer. Such "surface"
diagenesis hay include "micritization" of many of the framework grains and the production of
finely crystalline cements which are easily mistaken for recrystallized, primary carbonate mud.
Whether such surfaces will remain sufficiently distinct upon burial to be recognized seismically
may be doubtful but high resolution microresistivity devices such as the dipmeter might detect
them. These features may be enhanced or masked by early diagenesis, especially that associated
with a freshwater phreatic lens. Samples from the Pulau Seribu boreholes indicate that corallite
chambers, in particular, are common hosts to phreatic spar cements, the growth of which records
a pattern of periodic freshwater recharge throughout the buildup's history.
The sizes of the present islands are such that fresh water lenses are small and, to a
degree, ineffective but, as the islands coalesce through lateral growth, the potential for
significant freshwater vadose diagenesis of the type envisaged by Wight et al. (1982) will
increase. Similar effects will be achieved by major sea level lowering and associated karst
related features.
The Pulau Seribu buildups are notable for being so coral dominated, compared to other
areas of carbonate deposition. This is achieved largely at the expense of red and green algae.
The "bucket" geometry of marginal reef rim development surrounding a sand-filled reef center
seems to be confirmed by the Pulau Putri Barat and Pulau Pabelokan cores. The back reef flat
sediments are totally dominated by coral debris and a pattern of framework destruction and
"micritization" via biogenic agents, neomorphism and cementation has become established. Such
diagenetic processes obviously would have a long way to go to match the apparently coral
deficient accumulations that characterize many of the Miocene Baturaja buildups. Although the
Pulau Seribu platform offers a plausible modern analogue for many aspects of the Miocene
Baturaja deposition, the sheer volume of lime mud present in the Miocene remains enigmatic.
Cementation and the diagenetic breakdown of framework components noted here provide only
minor sources of fines, the bulk is almost certainly depositional from an environment not present
in the modern Seribu Platform.
Porosity in the Holocene reef-associated buildups is high throughout the cored interval
and, despite the diagenesis referred to above, intergranular cementation is limited. Minor
dissolution of aragonitic skeletal debris accounts for the slightly chalky habit of some of the

2-12

deeper occurrences of skeletal material. Marine fibrous aragonite rim cement is relatively
common, a more blocky high Mg-calcite form less so.
The absence of a major freshwater lens at present restricts the impact of such diagenetic
processes but, with time and the development of a larger freshwater lens, both this and mixing
zone phenomena may become better developed. What is apparent is that given the high
porosities and permeabilities that prevail throughout the buildups, fluid migration is largely
uninhibited and it is the micro- rather than macro-environment which is controlling the rates and
types of diagenetic reactions taking place. The inhomogeneities of fabric, porosity and
permeability that will result, and which are typical of many ancient carbonate assemblages
(including the Miocene Baturaja of Indonesia), will continue to influence the migration of fluids,
including oil and gas. Hiatuses in growth may be marked by zones of increased cementation,
possibly creating effective internal seals within buildups and which might create sufficient
velocity contrasts to be detected by seismic methods.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to thank the managements of Maxus Southeast Sumatra, Arc0
Indonesia, P.T. Geoservices and Arc0 Exploration and Production Technology for their support
of this project and also to Pertamina for permission to present this data. The Sedimentology
Division of P.T. Geoservices donated the materials and labor for preparing core samples for
display and analysis. P.T. Robertson Utania Indonesia also kindly donated time and support of
several of their staff and facilitated the acquisition of some analyses. Our thanks also to
LEMIGAS and Dr. Bernard Humphreys for access to and help with Cathodoluminescence work
and to the staff at the Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory of the Geological Centre for Research and
Development at Bandung for their prompt turn around on age dating. Rod Trigwell of Rod &
Boy Drilling was most helpful in discussing coring procedures. John Kaldi reviewed the paper
and offered many useful comments.

REFERENCES
ADAMS, A.E., and SCHOFIELD, K., 1983, Recent submarine aragonite, magnesia calcite,
and hematite cements in a gravel from Islay, Scotland: J. Sed. Petrol., v. 53/2, p. 417-421.
AMIEUX, P., BERNIER, P., DALONGEVILLE, R., and MEDWECKI (de),V., 1989,
Cathodoluminescence of carbonate-cemented Holocene beachrock from the Togo coastline (West
Africa): an approach to early diagenesis: Sedimentary Geology, v 65, p. 261-272.
BARBIN, V.K., RAMSEYER, J.P., DEBENEY, E., SCHEIN, M., ROUX and D.
DECROUEZ, 199 I , Cathodolurninescene of Recent biogenic carbonates: an environmental and
ontogenetic fingerprint: Geol. Mag., v. 128/1, p. 19-16.
BOTO, K., and ISDALE, P., 1985, Fluorescent bands in massive corals result from terrestrial
fulvic acid inputs to nearshore zone: Nature, v. 315, p. 396-397.

2-1 3

BROWN, B.E., HOLLEY, M.C., SAY'RANI, L., and LE TISSER, M., 1983, Coral reef
assemblages of reef flats around Pulau Pari, Thousand Islands, Indonesia: Atoll Research Bull. ,
no. 81, p. 1-17.
\

BUDD, D.A., and VACHER, H.L., 1991, Predicting freshwater lens thickness in paleoislands: J. Sed. Petrol., v. 61/1, p. 43-53.
CASSOUDEBAT, M.S., EL LATIEF, and FEDIAEVSKY, 1985, Early Diagenesis of a
Holocene reef terrace, Merak-Anyer, North West Java Island, Indonesia: Proc. IPA 14th Ann.
Conv. p. 23-27.
FRANK, J.R., CARPENTER, A.B., and OGLESBY, T. W., 1982, Cathodoluminescence and
composition of calcite cement: J. Sed. Petrol., v. 52, p. 631-638.

FRIEDMAN, G.M., 1985, The problem of cements in classifying carbonate rocks, especially
reefs: Schneiderman, N., and Harris, P,M. eds., Carbonate Cements: SEPM Spec. Publ. No.
36, p. 117-121.
HOPLEY, D., 1982, The geomorphology of the Great Barrier Reef: John Wiley & Sons, New
York.

LIGHTY,R.G., 1985, Preservation of internal reef porosity and diagenetic sealing of submerged
early Holocene barrier reef, SE Florida Shelf: Schneiderinann and Harris, eds., Carbonate
Cements: SEPM Spec. Publ. No. 36, p. 123-151.
LAND, L.S., and GOREAU, T.F., 1970, Submarine lithification of Jamaican Reefs: Jour. Sed.

Petrol., v. 40, p. 457-462.

LOGAN, B.W., 1987, The MacLeod evaporite basin, W. Australia: AAPG, Mem. 44, 140 pp.
LONGMAN, M. W. ,- 1980, Carbonate diagenetic textures from near surface diagenetic
environments: AAPG Bull., v. 64, p. 461-487.
MACINTYRE, I.G., 1977, Distribution of submarine cements in a modern Carribean fringing
reef, Galeta Point, Panama: Jour. Sed. Pet., v. 47, p. 503-516.
MACINTYRE, I.G., BURKE, C.A., AND STUCKENRATH, R., 1977, Thickest recorded
Holocene reef section, Isla Perez core hole, Alacran Reef, Mexico: Geology, v. 5, p. 10541072.
McLEAN, R.F., STODDART, D.R., HOPLEY, D., and POLACH, H.A., 1978, Sea level
change in the Holocene on the Northern Great Barrier Reef: Phil. Trans. Roy. SOC.London,
V. 291, p. 167-186.
MILLER, K.G., and FAIRBANKS, R.G., 1985, Cainozoic S " 0 record of climate and sea level:
S. African Jour. Science, v. 81, p. 248-249.

2-14

Schwartz, M.L., ed., The Encyclopedia of

MOWER, N.A., 1982, Sea level changes:
Beaches and Coastal Environments: Hutchison Ross Publ. Co., Straussburg, p. 722-733.
ONGKOSONGO, O.S.R., 1988, Pulau Seribu Guidebook: IPA, 17th Ann Conv., Field Guide.
PRELL, W.L., 1982, Oxygen and carbon isotope stratigraphy for the Quaternary of Hole 502B:
Evidence for two modes of isotopic variability: Init. Repts. of the DSDP, v. 68, p. 455-464.
READ, J.F., GROTZINGER, J.P., BOVA, J.A., and KOERSCHNER, W.F., 1986, Models
for generation of carbonate cycles: Geology, v. 14, p. 107-110.
SCHLAGER, W., 1981, The paradox of drowned reefs and carbonate platforms: Geol. SOC.
Amer. Bull., Pt. 1, v; 91, p. 197-211.
SCHOLLE, P.A., and HALLEY, R.B., 1985, Burial diagenesis: Out of sight, out of mind:
Schneidermann, N., and Hams, P.M. eds., Carbonate Cements, SEPM Spec. Publ. No. 36, p.
309-334.
SCOFFIN, T.P., 1987, An introduction to carbonate sediments and rocks: Blackie & Son,
Glasgow, 274 p.
SCRUTTON, M.E., 1976, Aspects of carbonate sedimentation in Indonesia: Proc. IPA, 5th
Ann. Conv., p. 179-193.
SCRUTTON, M.E., 1978, Modern reefs in the West Java Sea, in: Proceedings of the 1976
Carbonate Seminar, (special volume), IPA, p. 14-41.
TIJA, H.D., FUIJI, S., and KIGOSHI, K., 1978, Radiocarbon dates of Holocene shorelines in
Peninsular Malaysia: Proc. Reg. Conf. Geol. Min. Res. SE Asia: Bandung, Indonesia, p. 223227.
UMBGROVE, J.H.F., 1947, Coral reefs of the East Indies: Bull. Geol. SOC.Amer., v. 58,
p. 729-778.
VAN BEMMELEN, R.W., 1970, The Geology of Indonesia (2nd Ed): Publ. Martinus Nijhoff,
The Hague.
WIGHT, A;W.R., and HARDIAN, D., 1982, Importance of diagenesis in carbonate exploration
and production, Lower Batu Raja carbonates, Krisna Field, Java Sea: Proc. IPA, 11th Ann.
Conv., p. 210-235.

2-15

EUSTATIC CURVES FOR SOUTH CHINA SEA AREA

+5m

0.

-5m

okan

-10m

a
01
L
U

Q,

z
-15m

--

Fairbridge 195 1

----

-20m

Ters.

1973

Momer

1976

Tooley

1974

Jelgersma 1 9 6 6
1 1 1 1

-25m

I'

Tija

0
'c

1903

C14Dates thls study

-30m

C"

Time I03 yrs. BP

Curves for p a s t 10,000 yrs. compiled from

several authors by Momer( 1982 ) and
Ongkosono ( 1984 )

DESCRIPTION'
SKELETAL (CORAL) SAND [GRAINSTONE): with Local
Mlcrocrystalllne Carbonate Matrix/Cement (Beachrock?) and
Abundant Peaty Organic Matter at Top; Moderately-Sorted,
Medium- to Coarse-Grained; Composed Mainly of Coral
Fragments (65% of Framework) with Common Mollusc, Red
Algal and Haiimada Fragments; Abundant Peaty Plant Matter
In Upper 0.2 m; Locally Moderately Indurated with Mlcrocrystalline Carbonate. Mud/Cement; Variable Porosity (Highly
Disturbed by Coring).

GRAIN SIZE
OrVVviFMd

CORE
DEPTH

FRAMEWORK
SEDIME.NT/ROCK
GRAINS
FABRIC
(Cum.%)
<Cum.%)
50
100 0
.50 '
100

IM) .
O

Unld RedAla

Hal

MoK /
Foram

Coral

Coral Fragment

-2
Hallmeda
Red A l g A
Coral

Mollusc'
Forari

Coral Fragment

MxJICem
Void

Fmwk

Skeleton
Matrix I

Sparry Cement
Rim Cement
\ Matrix
\
Vmwk
Void Space
/
Skeleton
Rim
Cement

-5

Rim Cement
Matrix

Coral Fragment

Skeleton
Void Space /

-10
-11

Void Space

CORAL RUBBLE I.RUDSTONE) WITH PROBABLE INTERSTRATIFIED SKELETAL (CORAL) SAND [GRAINSTONE1:
Extremely Poor Recovery with Sand/Mud Matrix Washed Out;
Mainly Coral Gravel Remaining; Variety of Branching and Small
Massive Type Corals, Most Fragments Highly Bored; Coral
Material Non-Recrystallized but with Minor Aragonillc Rim
Cement and Intraskeletal Carbonate Mud Matrix; Variable
Intraskeletal (Corallite) Porosity Ranging from 15 to 45%;
Local Sandy Zones Display Abundant Coral Fragments along
with Common Molluscan, Red Algal and Hallmeda Fragments
and Very Minor Echlnolderm Fragments and Small Benthonlc
Foramlnilera; Sediment Non-Consolidated; ProbableGradatlonal Basal Contact with Downward Increase In Sandy Matrix.

\
Skeleton

Coral Fragment
\

Unld

Rim
Cftinftnl

Mollusc
Hallmeda
RodAIg \

Coral

Fmwk
Foram

-18

old Space

Mollusc

Coral

Fmwk
\

Echlrf/
Foram

Matrix

-22

23

SKELETAL (CORAL/ALGAL) SAND [GRAINSTONE]: Very

Poorly-Sorted with Large Coral Fragments; Pebbly, Fine- to
Very Coarse-Grained; Composed Mainly ol Coral Fragments
(70-80% of Framework Fraction) wjth Minor Molluscan, Red
Algal and Halimeda Fragments and Very Minor Echlnolderm
Fragments and Small Denthonlc Foraminifera; Also'Presence
of Sponge Spicules, Glauconite and Quartz Silt; Apparent NonOrganized Rock Fabric (Disturbed by Coring?);' Variable
*Amount of Carbonate Mud Matrix (10-25%) but Non-Cemented (Although Lightly Coherent In Air-Dried State); Intergraln/
Intraskeletal Porosity (10-25%); Basal Contact Poorly Preserved but Apparently Relatively Sharp.

-24
-25
-26

Qtz
Hallmeda
Glaue
\Mollu

Echln

-27

FERRUGINEOUS(FeO-STAINED),SILTY/SANDYMUDSTONE
WITH SCATTERED RECRYSTALLIZED CORALS AND CARBONATE ROCK FRAGMENTS: Very Poorly-Sorted, Mud Matrix
with Silty/Very Fine-Sand with Scattered, Gravel-size Coral Fragments; Possible Stratification (Disturbed by Coring); Composed
Mainly of Terrigenous Clay and Quartz Silt/Sand with Recrystallized Coral Fragments and Crystalline Carbonate Rock Fragments; Highly Iron Stained to a Yellowish-Brown Llmonltic Color;
Soft to Moderate Induration in Air-Dried State.

-28
-29

Sp Splc.Coral

ilauc
SILTY/ARGILLACEOUS AND GLAUCONITIC, SKELETAL
(CORAL) MUD [WACKESTONE]; Very Poorly-Sorted with Large
Coral Fragments 'Floating" In a Mud 'Matrix"; Composed of
Matrix (20-50% of Rock), Which is a Mix of Terrigenous Clay
and Upward-Increasing Carbonate Mud, Framework Fraction
(40-65% of Rock), Which Contains Abundant Quartz Silt/Very
Fine-Sand (10-15% ol Framework) Along with Abundant Coral
Fragments (45-70% ol Framework) and Variety of Other Skeletal
Fragments (Mollusc, Red Algal, Halimeda, Echinoderm, Foranrilnlfera); Notable Occurrence of Sponge Spicules and Glauconite
(Both up to 6% ol Framework Fraction); Non-Organized and
Non-Cemented (Although Lightly Coherent in Air-Dried State);
Coral Fragments Non-Recrystallized; Minor Pyrite (1-2%); 5-10%
Porosity (Intergrain/lnlraskeletal); Basal Contact Sharp.

Mat
i

rlx

\
Fmwk

Red'AIg
\
Hal
Hallmeda
\
Mol

Qlauc
Uni.d

Coralv

yt

V SpSpic

'old
pace .
/ Matrix

U>" e Fmwk .
Terr.
Matrix

Pyr

Echln

-30

31

'old
pace

Unld

Coral

\
32

Qtz

Carb Frag

Carb Cam

O'VO VF Md

FIGURE 2. Lithologic description oi tore material from the borehole on Pulau Putri Barat
(Besar). Core recovery was poor throughout much of the non-consolidated (i.e., nonrecrystallized and non-cemented) coral-rubble/sand portions of the vertical sequence. A
summary of the quantitative (modal analysis) petrographic data from selected samples is
provided by the columns on the right.

FRAMEWORK
SEDIMENT FABRIC
GRAINS *
(Cum. %)
(Cum. %)
50
50
I
Ither
Fc

DESCRIPTION

SKELETAL (CORAL) SAND IGRAINSTONEI: Moderately Wellto Well-Sorted, Rounded t o Well-Rounded, Medium- to CoarseGrained; Composed Mainly of Coral Fragments (70-80% of
Framework) with Common Mollusc and Red Algal Fragments;
Non-Stratified, but Probably Disturbed by Coring: Non-Lithified; 35-40% lntergrain Porosity, Only Minor Carbonate Mud
Matrix and Local Microcrystalline Carbonate Cement (at 2.5
m); Note Tar Balls and Tar Stain (Contamination) in Upper 2
Meters; Mangrove Roots at Top and Fragments at 2.5 m.

-.----2-

CORAL RUBBLE IRUDSTONEI: Poorly Sorted; Composed of a

Variety of Branching and Massive Type Coral Fragments
Ranging up t o 20 cm Across (Some Large Coral Fragments
Apparently in Growth Position); Fragments Extensively Bored;
Fabric Highly Disturbed by Coring; Non-Lithified; Selected
Coral Fragments Display 3545% lntraskeletal Porosity, 510%lntraskeletal Carbonate Mud Matrix Fill and 2-8% Aragonitic Rim Cement.

(CORAL)'

.EC

Coral'Fragments

IGRAINSTONEI:

SKELETAL
SAND
Poorly- t o Very
Poorly-Sorted, Angular ,to SubanguJar, Very Fine- to MediumGrained; Composed Mainly of Coral Fragments (45-75% of
Framework) with Abundant Halimeda (Decreasing Upward
from 33 t o less than 5%) and Red Algal Fragments (7.12%);
Apparent Lack of Stratification (Burrowed?) but Disturbed by
Coring; Non-Lithified; 3040% Intergrain Porosity, Minor
Carbonate Mud Matrix lup to 10%)and Only Local Aragonitic
Rim Cement Within Coral Fragments.

Algae.

:..':

Void
space

."
5

.*.
.:'

..
-.
.
I

Hallmeda

FIGURE 3. Lithologic description of core material from Borehole-1 (BH-1) on Pulau

Pabelokan. Core material is essentially non-consolidated (i.e., non-recrystallized and noncemented). A summary of the quantitative (modal analysis) petrographic data from
selected samples is provided by the columns on the right.

..
CORE
GRAIN SIZE DEPTH

DESCRIPTION

FRAMEWORK
GRAINS
(C.um. %I

5P

SEDIMENT/ROCK
FABRIC
(Cum. %I
50
1

e LOCS.

CORAL RUBBLE [RUDSTONE]: Poorly-Sorted; Composed of a

Variety of Branching and Massive Type Coral Fragments
Ranging up to 10 cm Across; Fragments Extensively Bored;
Fabric Disturbed by Coring; Non-Lithified; Selected Coral Fragments Display up to 45% Intraskeletal Porosity, up to 35%
lntraskeletal Carbonate Mud Matrix and Minor Amounts of Rim
(Aragonite?) and Sparry Calcite Cements; Some Coral Fragments are Partly Recrystallized (Reworked 'Older" Material?).

'

corai

SKELETAL (CORAL) SAND [GRAINSTONE]: Very PoorlySorted, Angular t o Rounded, 'Pebbly", Fine- to Very CoarseGrained; Composed Mainly of Branching and Massive Type
Coral Fragments (65% of Framework),. which Range from
Sand size to as much as 8 cm across; common red algal
Fragments (10-20% of Framework); Apparent Non-Organized
Rock Fabric (Disturbed by Coring); Mostly Non-Lithified but
Lightly Coherent in Air-Dried State; 3 0 4 5 % lntergrain Porosity; Minor Intergrain and lntraskeletal
Carbonate Mud Matrix.
-.
- ..
..
. ..
-- -.. ,
SANDYIMUDDY, SKELETAL (CORAU RUBBLE~[RUOSTONEl~
Very PooGy-Sorted with Muddy, Fine- to Very Coarse-Sand
'Matrix' and-lrrbgularCoral Fragments up to 5 cm Long; Composed Mainly of Branching and Massive Type Coral Fragments
(70-75% of Framework) with Common Red Algal Fragments
(10-20%) and Mollusc Fragments (5%); Non-Organized and
Mostly Non-Lithified (Although Ughtly Coherent in Air-Dried
G
State); 20:30% Intergrain and lntraskeletal Porosity; 12-18%
Intergrain and lntraskeletal Carbonate Mud Matrix and Minor
Aragonitic Rim Cement Associated with Coral Fragments. . - --

SKELETAL(CORAUALGAU SANDIGRAINSTONE]: Moderately-Sorted, Angular, Very Fine- t o Medium-Grained; Composed

Mainly of Coral Fragments (50-60%of Framework) with Com(12.14%);
mon Red Algal Fragments (12-18%) andTraces of Glauconite; No Apparent Stratification (Burrowed?)
but Probably Coring Disturbed; Non-Lithified with Greater
than 40% lntergrain Porosity and Very Minor Carbonate Mud
Matrix; Note That Precise Vertical Distribution is Unknown,
with Only 50-60 cm-Core Recovery of Sand Between Coral
Rubble Below and Above.
SANDY/MUDDY CORAL RUBBLE IRUDSTONE]: Very PoorlySorted with Abundant Irregular Coral Fragments up t o Greater
Than 5 cm Across; Composed Mainly of Branching and Small
Massive Type Coral Fragments (70-100%; Some Samples are
Entirely Coral); with Common Red,Algal Fragments (up t o
18%); Trace of Glauconite; Non-Organized and Non-Lithified
(Although Lightly Coherent in Air-Dried State); 20-30%
Intergrain and lntraskeletal Porosity and 530% lntergrain and
lntraskeletal Carbonate Mud Matrix (No Obvious Carbona!e
Cement).

RECRYSTALLIZED AND CEMENTED CORAL RUBBLE [

STONE]: Very Poorly-Sorted, SandylMuddy Rubble
Irregular Coral Fragments up to Greater Than 5 cm Across;
Composed Mainly of Coral Fragments (7045% of Framework)
with Common Red Algal Fragments (5-15%) and Jidimda (510%); Very Minor Glauconite; Non-Organized; Skeletal Fragments Commonly Highly Recrystallizedand lnfilled with Intraskeletal, Sparry Calcite Cement (10-25% or rock); Partly
Recrystallized Carbonate Mud Matrix and Microcrystalline
Calcite Cement (10-40%; fncfudes Both Intergrain and lntraskeletal); Only 2-20% lntergrain and lntraskeletal Porosity.

-,

'.

,
.

I'

.
G

$parry .
:alclte
:ement

.
Q::ch&

Mld

FIGURE 4. Lithologic description of core material from Borehole-2 (BH-2) on Pulau

Pabelokan. Core recovery was poor throughout much of the non-consolidated (i.e., nonrecrystallized and non-cemented) coral-rubblekand portions of the vertical sequence (down
to about 16.5 rn). A summary of the quantitative (n~odalanalysis) petrographic data from
selected samples is provided by theTTunk on the right.

PLATE 1. Selected core photographs from Pulau F'utri Barat (Besar); Borehole-1, sample
depths 0.0 to 32.2 m. All photos are of the same scale as that shown by the
scale bar in D.
A. 0.0-0.1 m: Uppermost portion of core composed of brownish, peaty carbonate sand. The
moderately sorted, coral-rich sand contains abundant brownish plant matter.

B. 0.4-0.5 m: Core fragments of moderately-cemented carbonate sand composed of mediumto coarse-grained, coral-rich carbonate sand cemented with microcrystalline carbonate mud (see
P1. 2A). This lithology may represent a relatively recent beach rock or lithified reef flat deposit.
C. 2.30-2.35 m: Typical highly-bored fragments of branching and small massive corals
representative of much of the upper 10-15 meters of the core. Such core material also is
representative of the poor recovery throughout most of the upper 25 meters from which most
of the sandy and muddy matrix has been washed away. Fragments illustrated here are not in
original depositional position. The porous coral fragments at this level have not yet undergone
recrystallization and cementation, except for minor aragonitic rim cement.

D. 26.3-26.5 m: Moderately-sorted, medium- to very coarse-grained, coral-rich carbonate sand.

Sand contains a moderate amount of carbonate mud matrix but is non-cemented. Skeletal
fragments such as coral and molluscs also are non-recrystallized,
E. 28.10-28.25 m: Probable contact of moderately-sorted, medium- to coarse-grained carbonate
sand (above) with muddy, very-poorly-sorted, skeletal wackestone/mudstone (below). Lower
lithology also displays significant levels of glauconite, quartz silt and sponge spicules, as well
as probable abundant temgenous clay mixed with carbonate mud (see Pls. 2C-E); coral
fragments remain non-recrystallized.
F. 28.50-28.65 m: Very poorly-sorted, coral-bearing wackestone/mudstone from lower portion
of "modem" coral-reef buildup. Abundant, mostly branching-type coral fragments are shown
surrounded by slightly-silty and argillaceous carbonate mud. Also common within this lithologic
unit are sponge spicules, quartz silt and glauconite (see PIS 2C-E). Coral and molluscan
fragments are non-recrystallized and non-cemented.
G. 31.10-31.25 m: Femginous (iron oxide-stained), slightly calcareous and silty mudstone from
the probable Pleistocene sequence that underlies the "modern" coral-reef buildup of Pulau Putri
Barat. The core appears to have been deformed during coring. Skeletal fragments have been
highly recrystallized.

H. 32.00-32.15 m: Ferruginous (iron oxide-stained), silty mudstone with abundant highlyrecrystallized coral fragments and calcareous rock fragments ( s k for example PIS. 2F-H). Also
note the minor amount of lignitic plant material in the lower part of the photo. Such core
material appears to represent the probable Pleistocene sequence underlying the "modern" Pulau
Putri Barat coral-reef.

PLATE 2. Thin section photomicrographs from Pulau Putri Barat (Besar); Borehole-1,
sample depths 0.40-31.30 m.

A. 0.40 m: Low-magnification, cross-polarized light view of probable beachrOck sample from

upper part of core. Note the abundant, relatively non-altered coral fragments and the abundant
brownish, microcrystalline carbonate matrix/cement. Such microcrystalline carbonate material
probably formed as a cementing material during beachrock formation (see also Pls. 9D-F). The
irregular pattern of cracks resulted from drying of the core material.
B. 1.40 m: Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of highly-recrystallized coral material.
Note the lack of skeletal microstructure and light-colored sparry calcite filling intracoral areas.
Such recrystallization and cementation of coral material is not common in such shallow-depth
zones; this fragment probably was reworked from older, cemented and recrystallized portion of
the exposed reef flat. Macroporosity of this sample, measured in thinsection is about 25%.

C. 25.35 m: Very low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of very poorly-sorted, matrixrich skeletal' wackestone-type lithology from the lower part of the "modern" coral-reef buildup.
Note the non-recrystallized and non-cemented coral fragments and the abundant matrix, which
contains )moderate amounts of quartz silt and sponge spicules.

D. 29 .O m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of matrix-rich skeletal wackestonetype lithology. Notable features of this unit are the abundant, elongate sponge spicules,
greenish-brown glauconite "pellets" and quartz silt grains. Also note the echinoid spine at the
upper left.
E. 28.6 m: High-magnification, cross-polarized light view of silty and highly-argillaceous
matrix. Note the high-birefringent nature of the matrix, which is indicative of terrigenous clay.
Also note the common small benthonic foraminifera; including one (central left) filled with
pyrite.
F. 3 1.2 m: Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of very-silty, ferruginous (iron oxidebearing) mudstone typical of the probable Pleistocene unit that underlies the "modern" Pulau
Putri Besar coral-reef buildup. Porosity illustrated here (blue epoxy) is due mainly to sample
drying and handling.

G . 31.2 m: High-magnification, cross-polarized light view of very-silty, mudstone. Note the

typical high-birefringent nature of the terrigenous clay material and the abundant silt/very fine
sand-size quartz grains.

H. 31.3 m: Low-magnification, cross-polarized light view of coral fragment which has been
extensively recrystallized. The coarse. poikilotopic calcite-crystal fabric is indicated by the
various shades of crystal extinction. A remnant corallite skeletal fabric is visible, but all
intraskeletal porosity has been occluded during recrystallization.

PLATE 3. Selected core photographs from Pulau Pabelokan; Borehole-1, sample depths0
to 10.55 m.

A. 0.0-0.12 m: Uppermost portion of core illustrating mangrove roots in unconsolidated, wellsorted carbonate sand. The medium- to coarse-grained, coral-rich sand is mounted in epoxy
resin.

B. 1.00-1.11 m: Portion of core from upper, well-sorted carbonate sand illustrating "contact"
of upper tar-stained (surface contamination) sand. The non-organized (i. e., non-stratified) nature
of the sediment is due, in part, to disruption by coring and handling. Note the well-sorted
nature of the rounded to well-rounded, coral-rich sand in the lower part of the photo.
C. 2.43-2.52 m: Portion of core from upper, well-sorted carbonate sand with large coral
fragment (left center) and lithified "clast" (bottom) with brownish mangrove fragments. The
lithified sediment at 2.5 m has been cemented with microcrystallinecarbonate "mud" matrix (see
Plate 4C).

D. 3.53-3.64 m: Large coral fragments from the coral rubble portion of the core (3.1-4.6 m;
Fig. 2). )The large, massive-type coral fragment in the upper portion of the photo appears to
have been cored in growth position. Smaller branching and massive type corals, shown in the
lower portion of the photo, are not in original depositional position. .All coral fragments have
been extensively bored. The porous coral fragments have.not yet undergone extensive recrystallization; however, some fragments do display intraskeletal carbonate mud matrix and aragonitic
rim cement (see Plate 4D).

E. 4.07-4.17 m: Typical, highly bored fragments of branching and small massive corals within
the coral rubble portion of the core (3.1-4.6 m). Fragments are not in original position and any
matrix material that was present in the sample has been washed out during the coring process.
The porous, aragonitic coral fragments have not yet undergone extensive recrystallization, but
some fragments display intraskeletal carbonate mud "matrix" and aragonitic rim cement (e.g.,
see Plate 4D).
F. 10.44-10.55 m: Portion of core typical of the poorly-sorted, very fine- to medium-grained
carbonate sand in the lower portion of the core (4.6-11.0 m). The non-consolidated, angular,
coral and algal sand (Pi. 4F) appears non-stratified, due probably to bioturbation and disruption
during coring.

PLATE 4. Thin section photomicrographs from Pulau Pabelokan; Borehole-1, sample

depths 2.1 to 9.0 m.

A. 2.1 m: Low-magnification, cross-polarized light view of well-sorted, medium- to coarsegrained carbonate sand impregnated with blue-dyed epoxy. Note the well-rounded nature of
most skeletal fragments, including the coral, mollusc, and echinoid fragments shown here. Also
note the relatively common lump-like fragments of carbonate mud which probably have been
derived from the extensive fragmentation and abrasion of coral fragments containing intraskeletal
carbonate mud. The repacked and impregnated sediment illustrated here displays an intergrain
porosity of 35-40%.

B. 2.1 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of rounded skeletal grains in a wellsorted carbonate sand. Identifiable fragments include coral, bivalve mollusc, rotalid, small
benthonic foraminifera and reworked "lump" of carbonate mud. Note the extensive
microborings (irregular hairline features) within the coral fragments, and the larger borings
around the bivalve fragment. The brownish halo around the grains is a tar residue within the
contaminated sediments of the upper few meters of the core.

C. 2.5 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of microcrystalline carbonate

mud/cement in the lithified sediment sample shown in Plate 3C. The intergrain microcrystalline
carbonate is due either to minor recrystallization of carbonate mud matrix or(and) precipitation '
of microcrystalline carbonate cement. Porosity (blue-dyed epoxy) is a result mainly of
incomplete cementation, but may be partly due to leaching of skeletal grains(?).

D. 3.4 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of porous coral fragment with

intraskeletal carbonate mud matrix and intraskeletal, aragonitic rim cement. The coral skeletal
microstructure appears relatively unaltered, except for extensive microborings throughout. Note
also the intraskeletal macroporosity of the corallite areas (blue).

E. 3.4 m: Very high-magnification, cross-polarized light view of aragonitic rim cement within
a coral fragment (see photo D).
F. 9.0 m: High-magnification view of poorly-sorted, very fine- to medium-grained carbonate
sand. Skeletal fragments illustrated here include coral, commonly with extensive microborings,
Halimedq, small benthonic foraminifera, echinoderm, and mollusc. Intergrain porosity (blue)
within such impregnated, unconsolidated sand ranges commonly from 30% to 40%.

PLATE 5. Selected core photographs from Pulau Pabelokan; Borehole-2, sample depths
4.56 to 18.88 m.
A. 4.56-4.71 m: Very poorly-sorted mix of skeletal (coral/algal) sand and large branching and
massive type coral fragments. The unconsolidated sediment has been partly impregnated with
epoxy to preserve the poorly-organized fabric. Coral fragments are porous and unaltered.
Overall the sediment displays 30-45 % intergrain and intraskeletal porosity.

B. 5.19-5.35 m: Very poorly-sorted, relatively unorganized mix of carbonate sand, mud and
gravel-size coral fragments. Rock fabric has been relatively undisturbed by coring and appears
representative of typical coral reef rubble accumulation. Total porosity (intergrain plus
intraskeletal) of such unconsolidated sediment ranges up to greater than 40%.

C. 7.64-7.78 m: Sandy/muddy skeletal (coral) rubble composed of gravel-size fragments of

branching corals and "matrix" of carbonate sand composed mainly of coral and coralline red
algal fragments. This relatively undisturbed core segments displays typical unorganized fabric
of coral reef rubble. Total porosity (intergrain plus intraskeletal) ranges up to 30 % . Carbonate
mud matrix (mainly intraskeletal) is common. Aragonitic rim cement is present within some
coral fragments.
D. 10.22-10.37 m: Moderately-sorted, very fine: to medium-grained skeletal (coral/algal)
carbonate sand displaying a massive-appearing fabric. Such a non-stratified fabric may be due
to burrowing, but probably has been highly disturbed by coring. This non-lithified sand displays
intergrain porosity of up to 40%.

E. 13.29-13.43 m: Poorly-organized,.sandy/muddy coral rubble deposit with abundant branching

coral fragments. Total porosity (intergrain plus intraskeletal) of this non-cemented deposit
ranges up to 30 % .
F. 18.73-18.88 m: Coral rubble deposit of highly-recrystallized and cemented skeletal fragments
composed mainly of coral and coralline (red) algal fragments. The lack of definition of skeletal
structure is due to extensive recrystallization. Such alteration appears related to its position
below the fresh-water table, within the phreatic zone, which occurs at a depth of about 16.3 m.
Total porosity of sediments within this zone (16.3-20.5 m core depth) has been significantly
reduced mainly by sparry calcite cementation.

PLATE 6. Thin section photomicrographs from Pulau Pabelokan; Borehole-2, sample

depths 1.6 to 12.8 m.
A. 1.6 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of coral fragment illustrating blocky
carbonate cement lining and partly filling corallite void. Such cement is anomalous within this
portion of the core sequence. Blue represents intraskeletal porosity; white areas are isolated
corallites not filled with blue-dyed epoxy.
.

B. 6.0 m: Very-low magnification, plane-polarized light view of poorly-sorted, medium- to very

coarse-grained carbonate sediment composed mainly of angular coral fragments, some of which
have been partly filled with carbonate mud. Note also Halimeda and benthonic foraminifer, and
coralline (red) algal fragments. Total porosity (intergrain and intraskeletal) of such uncemented
sediment samples ranges up to greater than 40%.

C. 8.5 m: Very-low magnification, plane-polarized light view of very poorly-sorted carbonate

sediment composed mainly of large, porous coral fragments. Some coral fragments have been
partly infilled with carbonate mud, but most are unaltered. Total porosfty (mostly intraskeletal)
of such sediments ranges up to greater than 40%.
i

D. 8.5 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of carbonate sediment illustrating

relatively large fragments of coral, which is partly infilled with carbonate mud in upper left,
Halimeda and coralline (red) algae.
E. 12.8 m: Very low-magnification, plane-polarized view of; porous coral-rich sediment (reef
rubble). Note the extensive intraskeletal porosity of the coral fragment in the upper half of the
view. Moderate amounts of brownish-appearing carbonate mud matrix also are present within
the coral fragment (upper left) and between large coral fragments (across central lower portion).
Total porosity of such non-cemented carbonate sediment ranges up to greater than 40%.
F. 7.5 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of coral fragment partly infilled with
dark brown-appearing carbonate mud matrix.
G. 13.4 m: Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of bored coral fragment. The angular
silt-size carbonate fill within the borings is grazing debris produced by parrot fish. The
remainder of the matrix is carbonate "mud" which is vaguely pelleted. Relict porosity is
highlighted by the blue-dyed epoxy.

H. 20.3 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of skeletal sand with a carbonate

"mud" matrix. The obvious pelleted character could reflect a fecal origin but fuzzy boundaries
suggest that these are cements with the darker cores representing the nuclei. The mostly coral
debris is still remarkably unaltered.

PLATE 7. Thin section photographs from Pulau Pabelokan; Borehole-2, sample depths
16.3 to 18.8 m.

A. 16.3 m: Very low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of coral fragment that has been
moderately recrystallized and partly infilled with sparry calcite cement. Note that the
microstructure of the coral skeleton is less distinct than in unaltered coral fragments (see Plates
4 and 6). The very light crystalline material is sparry calcite which has partly infilled corallite
voids. Moderate amounts of dark brown-appearing carbonate mud also is visible and probably
is due to early partial corallite fill with carbonate mud. Remnant intraskeletal porosity is filled
with blue-dyed epoxy.

B. 16.3 m: High-magnification, cross-polarized light view of central portion of view illustrated

in photo A. Note the recrystallized coral skeletal material at lower left and upper right.
Microstructure of such recrystallized skeletal material is less distinct than that in unaltered coral
skeletal material (see Plates 4 and 6). The recrystallized skeletal material displays both remnant
microstructure and calcite crystal fabric with large calcite crystals in optical continuity. Original
corallite porosity is shown here to be almost completely filled with recrystallized carbonate mud
(dark brown; m) and coarse-crystalline spany calcite.
I

C. 16.5 m: Very low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of lithified coral rudite. The
coral fragment shown at lower right has been recrystallized and mostly infilled with sparry
calcite cement. The dark brown-appearing material in the left of the view is moderately
recrystallized carbonate mud,'some of which may have been original matrix. Secondary
mold/vug type pores are illustrated which appear to have resulted from the dissqlution of skeletal
material (center and lower left). They have been partly filled with sparry calcite cement.
D. 16.5 m: Low-magnification, cross-polarized light view of upper left portion of view shown
in photo C. The dark, snake-like feature at shown at right is a coralline (red) algal branch.
Benthonic and probable encrusting foraminifera are shown at center left edge. Note the
moderately recrystallized carbonate mud (dark brown), which probably is a combination of
carbonate mud matrix and microcrystalline cement. Mold/Vug pores (blue), probably resulting
from the dissolution of skeletal material, are shown to be partly to completely infilled with
sparry calcite cement.
E. 18.8 m: Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of lithified skeletal carbonate. The
most obvious skeletal fragments displayed are corals, Halimeda and foraminifers. The sediment
appears to have been lithified mainly by microcrystalline carbonate (dark brown) which probably
resulted from recrystallization of carbonate mud or/and precipitation of microcrystalline cement.
Numerous skeletal grains have been dissolved with resultant molds filled with light-colored
sparry calcite. Partial moldic/vuggy porosity is filled with blue-dyed epoxy.
F. 18.8 m: High-magnification, cross-polarized light view of lithified carbonate sediment in
which most skeletal grains have been dissolved, with resultant molds filled with sparry calcite
cement. In some cases, the original skeletal microstructure is partly preserved (e.g., fragments
at center, lower right and central upper portion). Also note-that the surrounding microcrystalline
carbonate "matrix" has been moderately recqstallized to microspar. Such "matrix" may have
been a result of recrystallization of original carbonate mud matrix or/and the development of
microcrystalline carbonate cement.

PLATE 8. Thin section photomicrographs from Pulau Putri Barat (Bear) borehole (BH-1)
showing phreatic spar cement stratigraphy. Depths 3.25 to 32.5 m.
A. 3.25 m: Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of center of coral calyx showing well
developed second generation equant spar calcite cement. An ear& .rim cement is also
visible while the host coral is unaltered.

B. 3.25 m: High-magnification cathodo luminescent view of the central portion of A (box).

Two orange bands are clearly evident but no corresponding features are seen in plane light.
C. 32.5 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of spar calcite cement within coral
calyx.

D. 32.5 m: Same view as in C, but under cathodo luminescence, showing a complex carbonate
cement growth history. At least eight pale to bright orange bands are visible. The exterior of
the crystal shows no conformance to the internal crystal faces and the present boundaries are
imposed by mutual interference from adjacent crystals. This cement character probably is
analogous to the poikilotopic calcite crystal habit displayed in Plate 2H.

E. 32.5 m: High-magnification, plane-polarized light view of another area of sparry calcite

cement.

F. 32.5 m: Same view as in E, but under cathodo luminescence, showing more complex history
of cementation with well defined dogtooth outlines growing on earlier non-luminescent carbonate
.

"mud" cement.

PLATE 9. Thin Section Photomicrographs of Lithified Reef Flat and Beachrock from
Pulau Gentang Besar.
Lithified Reef Flat -- Photos A-C.
Beachrock -- Photos D-F.

A. Very low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of carbonate sediment which has been
cemented mainly by intergranular microcrystalline carbonate (dark brown-appearing). Skeletal
fragments displayed here include coral, bivalve and gastropod fragments. Remnant porosity,
probably due to incomplete' cementation, is shown by the blue epoxy-filled pores.
B. High-magnification, cross-polarized light view illustrating the extensive microcrystalline
carbonate cement. Probable recrystallized coral fragments are shown at center and lower right.
Finally, a late-stage, aragonitic(?) rim cement is shown partly filling several irregular pores
(central lower and upper left portions of photo). Remnant porosity is shown by bluish-black
areas.

C. Very high-magnification, cross-polarized light view of the microcrystalline carbonate cement

that is so abundant in this lithified reef flat sample. A portion of a partly recrystallized mollusc
fragment is shown along the lower edge of the view. The crystalline nature of the microcrystalline carbonate suggests that it may be forming as a cement, rather than as recrystallization of
preexisting "elastic" carbonate mud.
D. Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of coral-rich carbonate beachrock which has
been cemented by microcrystalline carbonate and rim cement. Most of the skeletal fragments
displayed in this view are coral fragments. The dark brown-appearing, microcrystalline
carbonate appears to have formed as a cement, rather than by recrystallization of carbonate mud
"matrix". A thin rim of aragonitic(?) cement is shown lining most of the irregular pores.
E. High-magnification, cross-polarized light view of carbonate beachrock cemented with
microcrystalline carbonate and rim cement. Skeletal fragments shown include coral and
gastropod fragments. Remnant irregular pores are bluish black.
F. Very high-magnification view of microcrystalline carbonate cement and rim cement probably
composed of radial aragonite crystals which partially fill an irregular pore (bluish black).

PLATE 10. Selected photomicrographs of beachrock from Pulau Putri Barat (Besar)
showing cementation.
A. Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view showing meniscus micrite cement lightly
binding framework skeletal grains (red algae, coral and mollusc).

B. Very low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of coarser layer showing micrite geopetal
fill of serpulid tube encased by encrusting red algae.
C. Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of moderately coarse layer in beachrock
showing well-developed meniscus cement. Note .also radial stubby high-Mg calcite cement, top
center, that is possibly a relict of earlier marine cementation.
D. Same view as C, but under cathodoluminescence. Meniscus cements have a moderately
bright orange-red luminescence suggesting it is probably composed of high-Mg calcite. The
bladed cements display a slightly duller luminescence. The coral fragment (center) and other
skeletal debris are all non-luminescent.
,

E. Low-magnification, plane-polarized light view of heavily bored coral in which borings have
been filled with micrite.

F. Same view as E, but under cathodoluminescence showing micrite with strong orange-red
luminescence, which probably indicates a high-Mg calcite composition.