International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

Adhesive bonding of aircraft structures

A. Higgins
British Aerospace Regional Aircraft, Woodford, Cheshire SK7 1QR, UK
Accepted 26 January 2000

Abstract
Adhesive bonding of aircraft primary structures has been in use for over 50 years and is still in use on current aircraft projects
as a direct alternative to riveting. Bonding of stringers to skins for both fuselage and wing construction and of metallic
honeycomb to skins for elevators, ailerons, tabs and spoilers are the main uses for adhesives. Details of the historical use of
adhesive bonding on commercial aircraft and how the adhesive materials developed are given. Assessment of bonded structures are
made by carrying out routine tensile lap shear (pr EN 2243-1) and peel tests (BS EN 2243-2 for metal to metal and BS EN 2243-3 for
metal to metal honeycomb) to determine the strength. In addition, early bond loads of a particular assembly are assessed for a long
period of time by tensile lap shear and pull test pieces based on the component adherend form. Quali"cation of new adhesives is far
more protracted and involves #uid immersion, accelerated ageing, high, low and cyclic temperature testing followed, if successful, by
structural fatigue and static buckling tests on bonded structure. The importance of the phenolic/polyvinyl formal adhesive Hexcel
Redux 775 to British Aerospace bonding programmes is noted.  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Phenolic; Epoxy; Redux 775; Aluminium alloys

1. Introduction
Adhesive bonding has been used in the manufacture of
primary aircraft fuselage and wing structures for over 50
years. As such, it is a direct competitor process to riveted
structures but not as dominant. The purpose of this
paper is not to explain the reasons why riveting is used
for the majority of primary structural build or to make
a case for more extensive use of adhesive bonding in
aircraft construction. It will instead explain the extent
and use of adhesive bonding by various constructors
from 1945 to the present.
The paper gives details and history of the main adhesives used in the construction of British Aerospace (BAe)
and predecessors commercial aircraft with some details
of adhesive bonding used by other aircraft manufacturers. A comparison of the physical properties of these
adhesives is included and the philosophies adopted in the
choice of materials and processes used at BAe is explained. Emphasis is given to the importance of assessing
long-term durability of bonded structures particularly

This paper is a redraft of the presentation given at the "fth Structural Adhesives in Engineering (SAE V) conference held at Bristol Jury's
Hotel on April 1}3 1998.

when considering new adhesives or changes in the manufacturing processes.

The information given in the paper relates to bonding
the major aluminium alloys used in commercial aircraft
structure (2014A, 2024, 7075 and 7150). Use of other
aluminium alloys and other metals could give rise to
di!erent properties, although given the correct preparation most metals can be bonded with adhesives to the
same degree of bond strength.
If a message is intended, it is to convey that adhesivebonded aircraft structures are stable and durable and
that this construction method has a lot to o!er for future
design programmes.
2. Adhesive materials used
Adhesive bonding is used mainly for attaching stringers to fuselage and wing skins to sti!en the structures
against buckling. It is also used to manufacture sti!
lightweight structures of metal honeycomb cores inside
metal skins for the #ight control component structures
(elevators, ailerons, spoilers, etc).
The adhesive materials used for these purposes fall into
three distinct groups. These are:
(a) Metal/metal } Hot cure

0143-7496/00/$ - see front matter  2000 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 3 - 7 4 9 6 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 0 6 - 3

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A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

(b) Metal/metal honeycomb } Hot cure

(c) Metal to metal } cold cure
2.1. Metal/metal * hot cure
The hot cure adhesive materials used by the aircraft
industry are mainly based on either phenolic or epoxy
resin systems.
2.1.1. Phenolic systems
Phenolic-based hot-bonded systems cure by condensation reactions which means that water vapour is generated during the cure. To prevent the bond line being
pushed apart by the vapour release, high pressures need
to be applied across the joint during the reaction period.
This in turn e!ectively limits the bond widths to approximately 300 mm if optimum glue line thickness is to be
achieved. Large-area bonding will be required to be designed to give `windowsa in the structure to allow the
expanding surplus resin to spew out.
The main structural phenolic adhesives used, with the
bonding conditions required are as follows:
Hexcel Composites Redux Film 775 This is the most
important of the metal-to-metal adhesives used for major
structural build applications. It is an unsupported "lm
made from a thermosetting liquid phenolic resin and
a thermoplastic powder, polyvinyl formal (PVF). The
PVF acts as a toughening agent to the otherwise brittle
phenolic adhesive. In the UK, Redux Film 775 was "rst
used in 1962 by DeHavilland on the 125 Business Jet.
Prior to the development of the "lm, adhesive bonding
with Redux 775 was carried out by applying the component resins separately. The treacle-like phenolic resin was
coated onto the two sets of prepared metal surfaces and
the PVF powder was sprinkled on top of this. The excess
powder was shaken o! and the two prepared surfaces
brought together and bonded in a hot press. This was the
so called liquid and powder technique. The historical
sequence of use is detailed later in the `Adhesives systems
used on aircrafta section.
Bonding with Redux Film 775 is carried out at
145}1563C with a bond line pressure maintained at
480}760 kPa.
Cytec FM47 This is a "lm adhesive supported by glass
"bre scrim and toughened with polyvinyl butyral. Bonding is carried out at 150}1753C with a bond line pressure
of 480}1380 kPa.
3M Co. AF31 This is an unsupported "lm adhesive
toughened with nitrile rubber. Bonding is carried out at
170}1803C with a bond line pressure of 310}620 kPa.
2.1.2. Epoxy systems
Hexcel Redux 308A (NA) This is an unsupported "lm
adhesive with spun rock wool added to control #ow
during curing and aluminium powder to increase toughness. Early versions used chrysotile asbestos as the #ow

modi"er and toughening agent but this was eliminated

for environmental reasons. Bonding is carried out at
170}1803C with a bond line pressure maintained at
310}380 kPa. This adhesive "lm is also used in bonding
the metal-to-metal #anges of metal-to-metal honeycomb
structures but has been used successfully to replace
Redux 308 adhesive for the metal-to-metal honeycomb
bonding as well. (See details of Redux 308 below)
Cytec FM73 This is a "lm adhesive supported by polyester knit fabric scrim which controls the #ow and glue
line thickness during cure. This adhesive requires the
adherend metal surfaces to be primed with Cytec BR127
chromated epoxy}phenolic primer. Bonding is carried
out at 115}1253C with a bond line pressure maintained
at 240}310 kPa.
3M Co. AF163-2 This is a "lm adhesive supported with
nylon scrim to control #ow and glue line thickness. It
also requires the metal surfaces to be prepared with
Cytec BR127 primer. Bonding is carried out at
115}1253C with a bond line pressure of 200}276 kPa.
Scrims act as carriers for the otherwise fragile raw
adhesive polymers enabling the "lm to be handled, cut to
shape and laid up easily. The scrim also serves as a
glue line control device and controls the adhesive #ow
during the curing phase. The use of scrim is a possible
weakness in a bonded structure in that it could provide
a wick for moisture ingress into the glue line. This is
considered to be likely with cotton fabric, polyester and
nylon scrims (to varying degrees) but not so likely with
glass scrim.
2.2. Metal/metal honeycomb bonds * hot cure
Only epoxy systems are used for these applications.
Epoxy adhesives form very mobile liquids as they reach
the cure temperature and would run out of joints in metal
to metal bonding situations if they do not contain #ow
modifying additives or scrim. If run out occurs, voids will
be present in the glue line. This mobility is an asset in
metal-to-metal honeycomb bonding since the #ow and
reticulation characteristics cause the adhesive to pull
back from the honeycomb cell centres and form a massive "llet at the cell wall to skin interface giving a stronger
bond.
Adhesives used are:
2.2.1. Hexcel Redux 308
This is an unsupported epoxy "lm with no #ow modi"ers and is bonded at 1803C at a pressure of 345 kPa.
2.2.2. 3M Co. AF3109-24
Another unsupported epoxy "lm adhesive with no
#ow modi"ers. It was regarded by BAe as a suitable
alternative to Redux 308, but quali"cation was never
completed for this material. It is also bonded at 1803C at
a pressure of 345 kPa.

A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

As mentioned earlier Hexcel Redux 308A/NA, the

metal-to-metal adhesive, can also be used for metalto-metal honeycomb bonding although the #ow modi"cation will lessen the honeycomb to skin "llet size
compared to Redux 308. Since Redux 308A/NA is required anyway for the metal to metal bonding of #ange
edges on these constructions, the convenience of having
to use only one type of adhesive for bonding the entire
structure makes it the popular choice for such parts.
2.3. Structural metal to metal * cold cure
There are numerous two-part curing epoxy systems
available. The Araldite series being particularly well
known. The two epoxy systems most used in aircraft
structural bonding are Hysol}Dexter EA9330.1 and 3M
Co. SW9323B/A-150 They are cured by catalytic reaction
when the base resin and the catalyst are mixed together.
At room temperature these adhesives require over seven
days to reach full cure but both reach 90% of full cure
strength within 48 h. Full cure can also be achieved by
heating the bonded structure at 60}703C for 4 h.
The EA9330.1 and SW9323B/A-150 adhesives contain
a small amount of 0.13 mm diameter glass beads to
control the thickness of the glue line. Prior to mixing, the
glass beads are contained in the catalyst and this makes
it easier to get an even dispersion of the beads into
the adhesive mix. If the beads are contained in the more
viscous base resin, during shelf storage they sink to the
bottom forming a hard caked layer which is di$cult to
mix and disperse. A certain amount of riveting is used in
conjunction with these adhesives and they are not as
durable as the hot bonded systems.

369

Table 1
Comparison of room temperature mechanical properties. Metal-tometal bonding of the main hot cure adhesives
Adhesive

Lap shear strength

(MPa)

Peel strength
(N/25.4 mm)

Redux 775
Redux 308A/NA
FM73
AF163-2
EA 9330.1
SW 9323B/A150

27}35
40}45
35}40
35}40
27}35
27}35

180}270
200}310
245}350
245}330
120}155
120}155

National speci"cations covering these adhesives are: DTD 5577

(UK), MMM-A-132A & MIL-A-25463 (USA).
Typical room temperature values for cold cure epoxy adhesives are:
Lap shear 27}35 MPa & Peel 130N/25.4 mm.

Table 2
Comparison of strength at service temperatures
Adhesive

Redux Film 775

FM47
AF31
Redux308A/NA
FM73
AF163-2
EA9330.1
SW9323B/A-150

Lap shear

(MPa min) at

(!553C)

(#803C)

20
20
16
30
30
30
12
12

10
9
14
25
25
25
6
16

3. Comparison of properties

bonded joints in service, the e!ects of #uids contacted in

service (i.e. water, fuel, oil, Skydrol, de-icing #uids, etc.) as
well as the e!ects of high humidity.

3.1. At room temperature

3.3. Durability of the adhesive bond

The most important category of structural adhesives is

that of the metal to metal hot cure types and a comparison of their room temperature mechanical properties are
shown in Table 1.

Both epoxy and phenolic adhesive bonded joints have

good resistance to #uid immersion tests but the phenolics
perform better in high temperature/high humidity or
warm (353C) wet ageing testing and this is borne out by
performance in service.
Long-term warm, wet, ageing studies [1] for up to two
years immersion has shown that Redux Film 775 bonding has the best performance followed by AF163-2 adhesive bonds. FM73 was slightly worse than AF163-2 while
Redux 308A was signi"cantly worse than these. The
two-part cold cure epoxy adhesives are the least able to
withstand warm, wet, ageing.
A recent study conducted by BAe Sowerby Research
Centre at Filton [2] concluded that `Results from accelerated environmental tests on CAA (chromic acid
anodised) aluminium adherends with Redux 775 (as well
as AF163-2) has shown that in the absence of primary

3.2. At aircraft service temperature range

Subsonic aircraft are designed to perform within
a temperature range of #80!553C and the properties
of the adhesives at these temperature have to be considered by Designers. Typically the lap shear strength of
the adhesives at these extremes of operating temperature
are shown in Table 2. Faced with these "gures it is
tempting to conclude that the epoxy systems are superior
to the phenolic systems. However, structural engineers
considering adhesive bonding for primary structures
need also to concern themselves with the durability of the

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A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

bond line corrosion, that good stability of the interface

between oxide and adhesive in the presence of water at
353C is obtained for periods of at least up to, and probably more than, 4 yearsa. This con"rms the various
studies carried over the past 20 years especially at the
Hat"eld site of BAe. The experience at Hat"eld was that
Redux 775 was even more durable on aluminium surfaces
that had been prepared by alumina blasting and chromic/sulphuric acid pickling (with no primer) as used for
the Comet aircraft structures. Redux 775 bonding to
CAA aluminium surfaces was not used until 1962. The
epoxy systems bonded to pickled aluminium surfaces
were not successful and needed the corrosion protection
given by CAA and chromated epoxy primer. (See section
on `Surface preparation proceduresa).
The high durability of Redux 775 is legendary. This is
shown by the successful disbond free performance of
primary structure on aircraft that have been in service for
over 25 years. In addition, forensic studies [3] carried out
by Alec Beevers at Oxford Brookes University on old
pieces of Comet structure as part of the assessment for
the Nimrod 2000 programme concluded **Mechanical
properties of the joints removed from old Comet bonded
panels showed little or no evidence of loss of (mechanical
strength) performance during their 30 year life++. He also
concluded that there was no loss of durability of the old
Comet joints.
When new adhesive systems are being assessed the
static properties are therefore, not the main criteria. For
aircraft, structure durability is of greater importance and
warm, wet, testing by soaking in water at 353C for long
periods or high humidity testing (at 95% RH and 703C) is
used to determine this. Usually the testing is carried out
back to back with a proven existing adhesive for comparison.

4. Adhesive systems used on aircraft [4}6]

4.1. BAe Aircraft bonded with Redux 775

Liquid & powder system

DeHavilland
DOVE
Vickers
VISCOUNT
DeHavilland
HERON
DeHavilland
COMET
(Used as the basis for NIMROD AWAC)
Vickers
VANGUARD

VC-10
TRIDENT

1962
1962

Film system
DeHavilland
Hawker Siddeley
Hawker Siddeley
British Aerospace

125
TRIDENT
146
RJ series

1962
1975
1981
1989

(The DH125 business jet became the Hawker Siddeley

125, then the BAe 125 and in 1992 the Raytheon Hawker
Business Jet. The HSA146 became the BAe 146 and is
now developed to the BAe RJ series. An RJ 85 is shown in
Fig. 1. This has bonded fuselage and wing structure
in much the same way as the Comet structure shown in
Fig. 2. [7].
Even the aircraft listed above were preceded by
wood/metal and metal/metal constructions bonded with
Redux 775 (Hornet and Sea Hornet). This adhesive was
available before any of the epoxy "lm adhesives were
developed and the long history of dependable use is its
most important attribute.
4.2. Other aircraft bonded with Redux 775
Aircraft

First #own

Liquid & powder system

Fokker F27 Friendship
Fokker F28 Friendship
Fokker 50 Turbo-Prop
Fokker 100 Regional Jet

1955
1967
1985
1988

Film system
Fokker 50 Turbo-Prop
Fokker 100 Regional Jet

1995
1995

4.3. Aircraft bonded with hot cure epoxy

British Aerospace aircraft and their predecessor aircraft manufacturers as well as Fokker aircraft have used
Redux 775 in liquid and powder and "lm form for making primary aircraft structure. Other manufacturers have
used epoxy adhesives. The historical record is as follows:

Aircraft

Vickers
Hawker Siddeley

First #own

1945
1948
1950
1951
1959

Aircraft

First #own

Adhesive used

Boeing 727
1963
Cytec FM1000
Boeing 737
1967
Cytec FM1000
Handley Page (joined to BAe in 1980)
Jetstream 31
1967
Cytec FM1000
Jetstream 31
1982
' Hexcel Redux 308A
Jetstream 31
1991
' 3M AF163-2 (a)
Jetstream 41
1991
3M AF163-2 (a)
SAAB 340
1983
Cytec FM73 (a)
Airbus A300
1972
Cytec FM123-2
Airbus A300
' Cytec FM123-5
Airbus A300
' 3M AF126
Airbus A300
1982
' Cytec FM73 (a)
Airbus A300
1991
' 3M AF163-2 (a)
Airbus A310
1982
Cytec FM73 (a)
Airbus A310
1991
' 3M AF 163-2 (a)

A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

371

Fig. 1. A BAe RJ85 Regional Jet in British Airways livery. Fuselage and wing are adhesively bonded structure.

Fig. 2. Sketch of the DeHavilland Comet showing the areas of structure bonded with Redux 775.

(a) Indicates that Cytec BR127 chromated primer was

used at the bonding surfaces.
'Indicates that the adhesive was changed to the
material shown at the date shown (where known) in the
`First Flowna column.

4.4. Other uses of Redux 775

A notable use of Redux 775 adhesive bonding was in
the construction of panels for Hovercraft [8]. These
marine craft have experienced exposure to extreme

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A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

climatic conditions from the Arctic to the Persian

Gulf/Red Sea areas. Hovercraft ferry services are
still used to cross the English Channel and the Solent
(Portsmouth to Ryde in the Isle-of-Wight). The performance of this adhesive in the aggressive marine
spray conditions experienced by Hovercraft has been
excellent.

5. Surface preparation procedures

5.1. Historical development
Prior to 1975 the adherend preparation for all hot
cured epoxy bonded structures was by degreasing and
pickling. This was also the preparation used for Redux
775 bonded structures prior to 1962 when preparation was changed to CAA to improve the overall corrosion protection. At BAe Redux 775 was also only
applied to non clad aluminium surfaces which was not
the case with all epoxy hot cure adhesives as used in the
main by European and USA constructors. The presence
of cladding risks corrosion from edges along the clad
layer at the bond line and this may have been a causal
factor in the disbond failures experienced with early
epoxy bonded structures. After only a few years service
there were several instances of critical failures resulting
from disbonding of 1203C cure epoxy adhesives. No
disbonding events have occurred with Redux 775 bonded
structures.

Studies in the USA (PABST program reported in 1978)

[9] concluded that to avoid disbonding (using epoxy
adhesives) aluminium structure was required to be
anodised and coated with a chromated epoxy/phenolic
primer. It is a great pity that the PABST study did not
include a parallel comparison of the service and test
performance of the existing Redux 775 bonded structures
in use at that time.
Some aircraft constructors lost con"dence in structural
adhesive bonding because of the experiences with 1203C
cure epoxy adhesives on pickled substrates and did not
use the technology on subsequent design programmes.
Others changed to 1803C cure epoxy or the newer modi"ed 1203C cure epoxy systems using anodising and
chromated epoxy/phenolic primer coatings as the adherend surface preparation. Epoxy adhesive bonded
structures based on these later systems have experienced
aircraft service for over 17 years (FM 73) and 8 years
(AF163-2) and appear to be durable and successful.
5.2. Current procedures
BAe currently uses the following sequence in preparation of aluminium alloys for bonding with Redux Film
775:
E
E
E
E

Vapour degrease or alkaline clean

Vacu-blast (dry alumina)
Vapour degrease or alkaline clean
Chromic/sulphuric acid pickle (603C)

Fig. 3. BAe RJ fuselage panel with stringers bonded to skin & doublers bonded to skin around window lights using Redux 775 (BAe Aerostructures
Filton).

A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

E Chromic acid anodise (40 v)

E Lay up and bond within 24 h
Fokker Redux 775 bonding preparation used a slightly di!erent procedure by coating the anodised surface
with Redux 101 primer and oven curing this prior to
bonding. This phenolic primer is not corrosion inhibited
but does allow a longer open (storage) time for surface prepared detail parts before the adhesive bonding
operation.
SAAB preparation for FM73 bonding for their 340
programme was also similar up to chromic acid anodising but they then coated the surfaces with BR127
chromated epoxy/phenolic primer before bonding.
BAe Jetstream aircraft bonding with AF163-2 adhesive
follows the BAe preparation procedure above but is also
followed by application of BR127 primer prior to bonding.
Preparation for metal-to-metal honeycomb bonding
follows the same sequence as detailed for the BAe process
above for the skin panels but the aluminium alloy honeycomb panels are simply solvent degreased.
Preparation for cold cure bonding at BAe, which is
carried out currently with 3M SW9323B/A-150 adhesive
paste is the same as for Redux 775 bonding, including the
open time constraints between anodising completion and
application of the adhesive.
If a detail in preparation at BAe exceeds the prescribed open time between anodising and bond lay-up, it
is a requirement that the anodising surface is re-

373

freshed (unsealed) by immersion treatment in Alocrom

1200.

6. Bonding operations
Most hot bonding is carried out in large autoclaves
although some hydraulic steam heated presses are still
used. The size of the structures that are bonded for the
BAe RJ are shown in Figs. 3}7 and Figs. 3 and 4 show
the adhesive "lm lay-up procedure in action at Hat"eld.
The 80' autoclave used for bonding wing skin panels at
The Aerostructures Corporation in Nashville Tennessee
is shown in Fig. 8 with detail of the lay-up room shown in
Fig. 9.

7. Assessment of bond quality

The tests used by BAe to assess individual bonded
panels are based on `Componenta test pieces representing the bonded structure and `Routinea standard
lap shear and peel test pieces. Lap shear testing is based
on the single overlap test in accordance with the
AECMA speci"cation prEN 2243-1 (edition P2),
while metal to metal peel is assessed by the #oating roller
method of BS EN 2243-2:1991. Metal to metal honeycomb peel tests are by the climbing drum method of BS
EN 2243-3:1992. At BAe the test piece adherends used for
these `routinea tests are of unclad 2014A aluminium

Fig. 4. BAe 146 fuselage panel being laid up at the BAe Hat"eld Herts. site. Stringers and doublers laid in the tooling interface up, cut to size Redux 775
"lm laid over the bonding faces.

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A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

Fig. 5. Fuselage skin being laid over the stringers and doublers. At Hat"eld this assembly was bonded in a steam-heated press.

Fig. 6. BAe RJ lower wing panel with stringers bonded to skin & doublers bonded to skin around manholes using Redux 775 (The Aerostructures
Corp. Nashville).

alloy and surface preparation mirrors that of the component parts that are being bonded. Similar tests are imposed
by other aircraft constructors. The component tests are
made from the same material used in the bonded structure
and several di!erent test piece con"gurations could be

required to represent the variation in material thickness or

bond lay-up (e.g. triple layers, etc). These are assessed by
straight pull o! and by tensile lap shear testing.
Non-destructive tests used by BAe for Redux 775 assessment of individual bond loads are

A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

375

Fig. 7. BAe RJ upper wing skin panel with stringers bonded to skin using Redux 775 (The Aerostructures Corporation Nashville).

Fig. 8. The autoclave used for Redux 775 bonding of wing panels at The Aerostructures Corporation Nashville showing the location of the lay-up
room at left rear.

E Calibrated Fokker Bond testing (ultrasonic shear

wave) to assess variation in bond strength along the
bond lines (including detection of disbonds).
E Ultrasonic measurement of glue line thickness (Novascope).
Most constructors using hot-bonded epoxy systems check
bonded panels by `Ca scan ultrasonic to check for voids.

8. Quali5cation of new adhesives

The methods for assessing new structural adhesives for
aircraft use or changes to adhesive manufacturing procedures are more complex. The tests involve:
#uid immersion for 1000 h in
E Aircraft fuel (JP4 at 403C)

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A. Higgins / International Journal of Adhesion & Adhesives 20 (2000) 367}376

Fig. 9. Detail of the lay-up room at The Aerostructures Corporation Nashville.

E Hydraulic #uid (Skydrol at 703C)

E Anti-icing #uid at 403C
E De-ionised water at 233C
Immersion in water at 35}403C for up to two years,
testing at three monthly intervals.
High humidity/hot exposure for 1000 h (95}100% RH
at 703C).
Salt spray exposure for 750 h (5% neutral sodium
chloride at 353C.
Lap shear strength at !553C and #703C.
This procedure has been used to assess recent developments of Redux 775 when a new source of PVF powder
was introduced which required "lm made with it to be
re-quali"ed. In addition, a new "lm making facility at
Hexcel was quali"ed using the test procedure on "lm
made on that facility.
Any completely new adhesive or change in the primary
base metal of a bonded structure is also assessed by
fatigue and compression testing of fully bonded structure
before use on an aircraft. The attachment of stringers to
skin for Fuselage or Wing structure is to strengthen the
skin against buckling. Compression testing veri"es the
e!ectiveness of this and in such a test the tensile strength
across the adhesive joint is critical in maintaining the
structure as the buckling point is reached. If successful in
passing this criteria the bonded structure will then be
assessed in a series of cyclic stress tests to determine the
fatigue performance.
The expense of such testing programmes makes it
unlikely that new adhesives would supplant an adequately performing existing material. This fact probably

suppresses structural bonding adhesive materials development and only new design programmes or special
needs such as improved higher service temperature performance, as will be required for aircraft #ying 'mach 1
speeds, will spur such development.
Note Refs 1 & 2 are not in the public domain but are
available from the author.

References
[1] Various BAe internal studies of long term warm/wet immersion of
adhesive bonded lap shear test pieces of Hexcel Redux 775, Hexcel
Redux 308A, Cytec FM73 and 3M Co. AF163-2 adhesives.
[2] Dixon D. Prediction of lap shear and peel strength of adhesive
bonds, and update on results of accelerated environmental
testing. BAe Sowerby Research Centre, Report No:JS 13729, May
1997. p. 3.
[3] Beevers A. Project 3, Environmental durability of adhesive bonds,
Report No.9 Forensic studies of adhesive joints - Part 2 Bonded
aircraft structure. September 1995. p. 33.
[4] Evans GB. 40 years of structural adhesive bonding. * Chartered
Mechanical Engineer 1985, p. 23}27.
[5] De Bruyne NA. Redux in aircraft Ciba Company Inc. 1955, Available from Hexcel Composites, Duxford.
[6] Aero Research Technical Note, Redux * The "rst 12 years. Bulletin No. 149, Hexcel Composites Duxford.
[7] Aero Research Technical Note, The structure of the DeHavilland
Comet bulletin No. 165, Hexcel Composites Duxford.
[8] Reavey DG. Marine experience of structural adhesives in
Hovercraft. SAMPE Journal 1981; pp 18}21.
[9] USA Air Force. Primary Adhesive Bonded Structure Technology
(PABST) program * Technical Report AAF/DL/TR76-141
Dec.1976. p. 223}246.