Hannah Bisbing

CAMS 400
12/14/16
Olympias the Great: Life and Influence

Olympias of Epirus, wife of Philip II and mother of the infamous Macedonian conqueror
Alexander the Great, was a woman largely ahead of her time in Macedonia. She was a woman
who played both a large public and private role in the royal household. Olympias was rather
motivated in her attempts to influence her husband and son in their political affairs - and to
potentially exercise power of her own. She was also a mother who fiercely guarded her
childrens lives and success, and was not afraid to get a little aggressive when she felt their
heritage and claim to royalty was threatened. Olympias lived a much more full and independent
life than most women in antiquity, given her particular character traits, tenacity, and genetic
connection to Alexander the Great.
Before delving into the life, character, and influence of Olympias, it is important to note
that any research about this woman - and women of ancient times in general - may be contested
since minimal hard evidence exists about the female experience in antiquity. Often times, women
were hidden out of public view and thus were unable to make known, significant contributions to
history. Furthermore, women were commonly not regarded as citizens or worthwhile members of
society, so their trace in written history is scarce or nonexistent. Ultimately, historical records of
Olympias may vary a bit due to differing source speculation and availability.
Olympias was the daughter of King Neoptolemus of Molossia, a region of ancient Epirus,
and an unnamed woman of unknown ethnicity and rank. She was a member of the Aeacid
family, who traced their heritage to Achilles via his son Pyrrhus and to Helenus, son of King

Priam of Troy.1 Having this claim to divine and heroic blood proved extremely beneficial for
Olympias status in the social hierarchy and for preserving Alexander the Greats right to the
Macedonian throne. Furthermore, other relevant familial ties include her brother Alexander, who
would later rule Molossia, and her uncle Arybbas, who was influential in her marriage to Philip
II.2
As was common for Macedonian women at the time, Olympias was known by several
different names at varying points of her life. These names include Polyxena, Myrtale, Stratonice,
and, of course, Olympias, the latter of which she is said to have taken upon marrying Philip II.
This custom was meant to reflect changing statuses and to act as a kind of title.3
In 357 BCE, Philip II of Macedon and Olympias met and got married. Though Plutarch
suggests that their marriage was romantic in nature in his account of Alexander, this marriage
was definitely a political one. Making a tie between Macedonia and Epirus was a strategically
planned move on both Philip IIs and Olympias uncle Arybbas account. Olympias and Philip
were first introduced at the cult gathering of the Great Gods at Samothrace. Their encounter was
likely not a random love-at-first-sight scenario, but rather a calculated decision to get betrothed
at a public festival in front of a large audience of elite individuals. 4 Out of this marriage, Arybbas
hoped to gain support from Philip and to expand his kingdom. However, Philip ultimately broke
his vague promises to Arybbas and took the land and prestige for himself.5

Diodorus Siculus. 19.51.1.

Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. Norman: U of Oklahoma, 2000. Print.
3
Carney, Women and Macedonia, 1.
4
Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. New York: Routledge, 2006. Print.
5
Justinus, Marcus Junianus., John Yardley, and Waldemar Heckel. Justin: Epitome of the Philippic History
of Pompeius Trogus. 7.12. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997. Print.

On the other hand, Olympias role in her marriage to Philip was to produce a male heir
that could potentially inherit the Macedonian throne. She was successful in her duty, giving birth
to Alexander III in 356 BCE and a daughter Cleopatra in 355/354 BCE. Alexanders birth story
is a contested one. Theories exist that his father could have been Philip II, Nectanebo of Egypt,
or Zeus, the latter of which was the most desired and broadcasted option, since it increased
legitimacy for Alexanders reign. One story claims that the night before her marriage was
consummated, Olympias had a dream where her stomach was struck by a thunderbolt and the
bed became engulfed in flames.6 The lightning bolt was said to be Zeus in disguise who came
down from Mount Olympus and impregnated her with Alexander.
Another mythical tale exists where Olympias shares her bed with a serpent. In the
Romance of Alexander, Pseudo-Callisthenes suggests that Nectanebo, a possible lover of
Olympias, possessed magical powers that enabled him to appear in serpent form whenever he
encountered Olympias.7 Plutarch also suggests that Zeus could have been the serpent. The oracle
of Apollo at Delphi once foretold Philip that he would see the god (Zeus) in the form of a snake
sharing his wifes bed.8 Unsurprisingly, Olympias told Alexander that his conception was,
indeed, divine and that he must prove himself worthy of said divinity.
Evidence suggests that Philip and Olympias both had wild and violent natures and did
not get along well whatsoever throughout their marriage.9 Some sources claim that Olympias
contempt towards her husband stemmed from her feelings of jealousy about belonging to his
royal harem; In fact, she apparently despised the other wives and children that lived in the same

Plutarch. Alexander, 2.
Ross, D. J. A. "Olympias and the Serpent."
8
Plutarch, Alexander, 2.
9
Salisbury, Joyce E. Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2001.
Online.
7

household, even plotting the slow poisoning of certain male offspring.10 Olympias was not
Philips only wife - nor was she his first. Rather, she was Philips fourth or fifth wife in
succession. However, she fought to hold the unofficial position of chief wife in the harem. While
formal titles and ranks did not exist in this polygamous situation, an unwritten social hierarchy
existed where Olympias asserted herself the head amidst the competition.11 She not only had a
male child with the king, but also birthed another child with him; Most other wives only had
singular offspring with royal blood. Alexanders growing importance very much influenced
Olympias status as well, which more than likely fluctuated throughout her life.12
Referencing the previously mentioned story of Olympias and the snake, this incident is
sometimes tied to Olympias devoutness to mystery cults and Dionysiac rituals. Both religious
piety and devotion to cult practices - including those to Zeus, Herakles, the Muses, and the
Mother of the gods - was standard among royal Molossian women of her time.13 Most women
were said to have been initiated into the Orphic religion and involved in the orgiastic rites of
Dionysus. Olympias was therefore likely not a rare example of female involvement in cult
activity (particularly maenadism) - nor was she notably excessive in her religiosity, as some
historians suggest.14 However, it is likely that Olympias did largely introduce this particularly
wild religious experience into Macedonian culture. She even taught other woman the art of snake
charming, much to their husbands dismay.15 Even Philip was a bit fearful of Olympias after
seeing her nonchalantly and harmoniously lounging in bed with a serpent.

10

Salisbury, Ancient World.

Carney, Olympias, 2.
12
Carney, Women & Monarchy.
13
Carney, Olympias, 4.
14
Carney, Women & Monarchy.
15
Salisbury, Ancient World.
11

The portrayal of the scary woman who could control snakes, perform spells, and enter
into divine submission was commonly thrust upon Olympias. Plutarch definitely plays into this
character trope in his Life of Alexander. According to Plutarch,
It was Olympias habit to enter into these states of possession and
Surrender herself to the inspiration of the god even wilder
Abandon than the others, and she would introduce into the festival
Procession numbers of large snakes, hand-tamed,
Which terrified the male spectators.16
Philip was apparently one of these terrified spectators. After seeing the snake in Olympias bed
chamber, Philip believed that his wife would cast some spell or charm upon him,17 and
therefore stopped sharing a bed with her. This was the first step in his eventual decision to
divorce her and to add another wife to his collection of women.
Olympias fiery temper, her involvement in maenadic cult rituals, and the claimed case of
adultery against her (from sleeping with Zeus) likely influenced Philips decision to dispose of
her and to marry Cleopatra Eurydice of Macedon, niece of the Macedonian general Attalus.18
Already jealous of the other wives in his harem, Olympias was extremely bitter and resentful
about being blatantly cast aside by her husband. Philip marrying another woman was offensive
enough to Olympias, let alone when the new bride's father made a toast at the wedding hoping
that a legitimate heir to the throne would be born out of the union.19 Whether this remark claimed
that Alexander was somehow illegitimate or that Cleopatra Eurydice's offspring would be next in
line for the throne is questionable. Indeed, Alexander and his sister were half Macedonian and

16

Plutarch, Alexander 2.
Plutarch, Alexander 2.
18
Justin. Epitome, 9.5.9.
19
Salisbury, Ancient World.
17

half Molossian, whereas any offspring of Cleopatra Eurydice would have entirely Macedonian
blood running through their veins.
Understandably, neither Alexander nor Olympias were pleased to acknowledge the
potential reality that a male heir could replace Alexander's right to the Macedonian throne. The
wedding toast was definitely received as a threat against Olympias and her family, which
sparked her desire to seek revenge. Ultimately, neither Philip nor Cleopatra fared well from this
union; Both had their murders plotted and executed by Olympias and her cohorts not long
afterwards.
Philips demise came first. After the unfortunate toast at the wedding ceremony, a string
of violent and deciding events unfolded. Alexander sent his mother back to her homeland of
Epirus, where she not only escaped Philips wrath, but also tried to make her brother Alexander,
the current ruler of the country, declare war on Macedonia.20 While the war proposition failed,
Olympias did construct other ways of getting back at Philip. She and Pausanias of Orestis, one of
Philips bodyguards who eventually assassinated Philip, recounted their stories of mistreatment
by Philip and began plotting against him. Pausanias was angry with Philip because he
continuously downplayed or completely ignored Pausanias accounts of being sexually assaulted
on numerous different occasions by Attalus, the father of Cleopatra Eurydice.21 Pausanias wrath
was heightened even more when Philip decided to marry the daughter of the man who sexually
assaulted him - without ever making an attempt to seek justice for him. Therefore, both he and
Olympias had a shared hatred towards Philip and Cleopatra/her family, and wished to right the
wrongs that had been committed against them.

20
21

Plutarch. Alexander, 9
Plutarch. Alexander, 10

While Pausanias was Philip's actual assassin, many historians believe that Olympias
encouraged Pausanias in his frustration and desire to get vengeance. She was the one who incited
him to perform the murderous act, both as retribution for Pausanias' rape and for Philip's betrayal
of her honor.22 It was also believed that Pausanias had been suborned by Olympias...and that
Alexander himself was not unaware of the plot to murder his father,23 which fit the idea that
Olympias primarily exerted passive power and control. This claim is further supported by the
fact that Olympias had horses ready for the assassins getaway.24 She even visited Pausanias
body after he had been killed for his act of treason. She was seen placing a golden wreath on
(his) head as he hung from the cross. Then, a few days afterwards she took Pausanias body
down, cremated him, poured the ashes on top of her husbands remains, and then made a proper
tomb for him. Olympias even made sure that funerary offerings were made to him every year by
inspiring superstition in the people.25
Shortly after Philips assassination, Olympias took action against Cleopatra Eurydice, her
infant daughter Europa, and - more than likely - her young son Caranus. According to Justin,
Olympias murdered her daughter while she was still in her mothers arms and then forced
Cleopatra Eurydice to hang herself.26 Alexander was aware of his mothers crime and was said to
have reproached her, but he was likely involved with the murders, too.27 There were other child
deaths cryptically mentioned throughout Justins work that Alexander may have executed,
largely due to the imminent threat to the Macedonian throne they each possessed.

22

Plutarch. Alexander, 10.

Justin. Epitome, 9.7.1.
24
Justin. Epitome, 9.7.9.
25
Justin. Epitome, 9.7.11.
26
Justin. Epitome, 9.7.12.
27
Carney, Olympias, 3.
23

Some sources say these deeds were done in private,28 thus making it impossible to
ascertain that Olympias actually committed any violent acts. However, others claim that the acts
were done so publicly that it seemed she was afraid that the crime(s) might not be clearly
demonstrated as her work.29
Olympias motivation to murder Cleopatra Eurydice and her children is often debated.
There are several different theories that each hold potential, including the pure desire for
revenge, the threat to Alexanders claim to kingship/ascension to the throne, and the wish to
preserve morality in the face of Pausanias rape by Attalus. Given her supposedly wildly jealous
nature, Olympias could have simply wanted to dispose of Cleopatra Eurydice like Philip did to
her. Justin is one of the only sources to explicitly mention ultio, or revenge. In his account, he
claims that it was with the sight of her rival hanging there that Olympias achieved the revenge
to which she had hastened by murder.30 However, it is more probable that Olympias and
Alexanders claim to royalty was the main threat at hand, rather than just sexual spite.
Being a royal woman attempting to get her child to the throne herself, Olympias did not
doubt the power, determination, and willingness to cause others harm that other royal women in
the same position held.31 This connects to the third point of motivation - avenging Pausanias.
According to Plutarch, both Attalus and Cleopatra had ordered Pausanias sexual assault.
Cleopatras participation in this plot gave Olympias yet another viable excuse to take action
against her, and to right the wrongs that she had bestowed upon Olympias and others. Olympias
was said to have felt no less resentment over her repudiation and the fact that Cleopatra had

28

Carney, Olympias, 3.
Justin. Epitome, 9.7.14.
30
Justin. Epitome, 9.7.12.
31
Carney, Olympias, 2.
29

been preferred to her than Pausanias felt over his sexual abuse,32 so the action was as much self
indulgent as it was morally righteous to Pausanias.
Another highly contested aspect of Olympias life was the amount of power she actually
possessed and exerted. Her status and power fluctuated throughout her life depending upon
where she was living/ruling and what Alexander was doing. Being a Molossian, she was blessed
with a better life than many women in antiquity experienced; She had more legal rights and held
a more prominent role in the family than elsewhere in the Hellenic world.33 Hellenic culture
was very hostile towards women holding and exerting political power. Likewise, in Macedonia,
women were not able to possess or utilize any kind of influence in government. However, similar
to the women of the slightly more progressive Sparta, Macedonian women were able to own and
to control their own wealth. While women played prominent roles, they were more private and
within the royal household, rather than the public one (Prudentia).34 The only women who
were able to exert some influence were widows of royal men. Therefore, Olympias was a unique
case for a woman; She was not the average woman who was hidden from the public and
uninvolved in political affairs. Rather, Olympias seems to have exercised at least some element
of influence in both her husbands and sons reigns - especially throughout her sons.
While few instances of Olympias guiding Philips actions are known, one possible
example was the appointment of her brother Alexander of Epirus to king of Molossia. By
replacing Arybbas, her uncle, with Alexander and then marrying her daughter Cleopatra off to
him, the ties between Macedon and Molossia-Epirote became even closer. This not only helped

32

Justin. Epitome, 9.7.2.

Carney, Women & Monarchy, 3
34
O'Neil, James L. "Olympias: The Macedonians Will Never Let Themselves Be Ruled By a Woman."
Prudentia, 1999.
33

Philip in his international allegiance, but also gave Olympias more influence over and
accessibility to the Molossian-Epirote throne that she would later rule.35
Compared to the little evidence of Olympias during Philips rule, Olympias seems to
have played a much more prominent role during her sons reign. She often exercised control in a
more inconspicuous way, not by holding any specific positions in office; Her role was much
more passive, either because she could not legally be in a position of power or because slyly
influencing people without noticeable public attention proved effectual.
Olympias and Alexander were commonly described as having a rather close relationship,
perhaps an unhealthily close one. Elizabeth Carney even ventures to call this world conqueror a
mamas boy, given that he seemed to have had a better relationship with his mother than with
his father.36 However, this is not that surprising since Philip, indeed, was competition to young
Alexander. Furthermore, Olympias and Alexander had a symbiotic relationship where one
influenced the other - for better or for worse. If Alexander was weakened, then Olympias
suffered; likewise, if Olympias was weakened in some capacity, then one of his most valuable
sources of information was compromised.37 While Alexander was abroad on campaign,
Olympias would write him letters detailing the status of affairs back home and gossiping about
anyone who tried to gain more power through Alexanders absence.38
Beyond just writing letters, which was a significant portion of her political roles,
Olympias also held some semblance of power in Epirus and Macedonia. Alexanders absence
during his Asian campaign gave her the opportunity to exercise greater authority than would

35

Carney, Women & Monarchy, 3.

Carney, Olympias, 2.
37
Carney, Women & Monarchy, 3.
38
ONeil, Olympias.
36

have been possible if Alexander had remained in Macedonia. 39 There is evidence of Olympias
and Cleopatra receiving orders of grain in their names, meaning they were likely acting as heads
of state for a time - a rare case for women in Macedonia.40 There is also ample evidence that
Olympias presided over the courts during Alexanders imperial expansion, given that
Macedonian women had a visible and important court presence.41
However, a significant challenge to her authority existed: Antipater, the general who
Alexander appointed as regent of Macedonia during his campaign.42 Antipater and Olympias
supposedly did not get along well. Both exerted political power to an extent in Macedonia,
thereby sharing authority in a sense. However, they fought over how much power each should
possess. Alexander received angry letters from both Antipater and Olympias complaining about
the wrongdoings, stubbornness, and viciousness of the other.43 Olympias, for instance, would
write that Antipater was exceeding his powers and should not be trusted as the interim leader.44
Alexander was clearly in support of his mother, but a forceful and motivated woman such as
Olympias aroused opposition there (in Macedonia), especially among the people in charge.45
Most historical sources seem to be biased against Olympias and should therefore be interpreted
skeptically. Elizabeth Carney ventures to claim that the quarrels between Olympias and
Antipater may be entirely fictional, created as propaganda against Alexanders family by
Antipaters son Cassander who wanted to rule over Macedonia.46

39

Carney, Olympias, 3.
Christopher W. Blackwell, Athens and Macedonia, in the Absence of Alexander, in C.W. Blackwell, ed.,
Dmos: Classical Athenian Democracy. July 1, 2005.
41
Carney, Women & Monarchy, 3.
42
ONeil, Olympias.
43
Salisbury, Ancient World.
44
Carney, Women & Monarchy, 3.
45
ONeil, Olympias.
46
Carney, Olympias, 3.
40

Antipaters distaste for Olympias grew as time wore on and as Alexander seemed to
ignore his letters of criticism - for Alexander once said that "one of his mother's tears would
wash out the complaints of a ten thousand letters.47 Their dispute worsened when Antipater tried
to get Perdicas, the acting regent to Alexander IV (Alexander and Roxannes son), to marry his
daughter Nicaea. At the last second, Olympias intervened and offered the hand of her daughter
Cleopatra, who had formerly been married to Alexander of Epirus, which Perdicas accepted.
This action caused a small civil war to break out, which Antipater won, and made Olympias flee
to Epirus.48
In the end, Alexander began to view Antipater in a similar manner to his mother, whether
this was justifiable or not.49 This obviously made Antipater extremely frustrated, for he passed
this anger down to Cassander who became influential after his death. On his deathbed, Antipater
warned the Macedonians never to let a woman rule over them, which Cassander took seriously.50
After Alexanders death, he plotted to finally get rid of his wild and inappropriately powerful
mother, who had ventured back into Macedonia by this point in time. Though she willingly
surrendered to Cassanders forces and struck a bargain for her life, Olympias did not fare well in
the end.51 Cassander rallied the people whose relatives Olympias had killed, begging them to
denounce the womans atrocities and to execute her.52
Being the brave and rather masculine woman she was, Olympias greeted her executioners
on her own accord while dressed in her most exquisite royal garb. While the soldiers who had

47

Plutarch, Alex. 39.

Carney, Olympias, 4.
49
Carney, Women & Monarchy, 3.
50
Salisbury, Ancient World.
51
Carney, Olympias, 6.
52
Justin. Epitome, 14.6.7.
48

been sent by Cassander were a bit taken aback by this noble display, they executed their mission
and ran Olympias through with a spear. The description Justin gives of her death scene
absolutely sums up Olympias character and class:
She did not
Run from the sword, nor from their blows, nor did she scream like a
Woman. She faced death the way courageous men do, upholding the
Glorious reputation of her ancient family; you could recognize Alexander
Even in his mothers death.53
Also according to Justin, Olympias and Alexanders remains were ordered to be held in the
citadel of Amphipolis,54 known also as the Kasta Tomb, in central Macedonia. This tomb was
the largest ever excavated out of Greece and dwarfs the tomb of Philip II at Vergina in
comparison,55 perhaps indicating her successors opinions of this unique woman of antiquity.
Olympias was a historically noteworthy woman who managed to exert a considerable
amount of influence over the political state of Macedon during her lifetime through her links to
Philip II and Alexander the Great. She was commonly described as having a wild and fiery
temperament, which she utilized to protect her childrens - and her own - claim to the
Macedonian throne. Olympias seemed to have made a number of enemies throughout her life
and periods of reign, given her unfortunate downfall by Cassander and his troops, but she also set
an example for Macedonian and Greek women after her. She was one of the first women to hold
and to execute power in Macedonia, a place where women were usually hidden from public
affairs and deemed unfit to possess any real authority. Ultimately, Olympias was of great benefit
to her son Alexanders success in his campaigns and for the expansion of the Macedonian

53

Justin. Epitome, 14.6.11.

Justin. Epitome, 14.6.13.
55
Mser, Kate. "Greece's Largest Ancient Tomb: Amphipolis | All Media Content | DW.COM | 09.09.2014."
DW.COM. N.p., 9 Sept. 2014. Web. 21 Nov. 2016.
54

Empire. Furthermore, she also provided a much needed glimpse into the female experience and
potentiality that had never before been included to such an extent in historical record.

Bibliography:
Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. New York: Routledge,
2006. Print.
Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly. Women and Monarchy in Macedonia. Norman: U of Oklahoma,
2000. Print.
Christopher W. Blackwell, Athens and Macedonia, in the Absence of Alexander, in C.W.
Blackwell, ed., Dmos: Classical Athenian Democracy (R. Scaife, ed., The Stoa: a consortium
for electronic publication in the humanities[www.stoa.org]) edition of July 1, 2005
Diodorus Siculus. Online.
Justinus, Marcus Junianus., John Yardley, and Waldemar Heckel. Justin: Epitome of the
Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. Oxford: Clarendon, 1997. Print.
Mser, Kate. "Greece's Largest Ancient Tomb: Amphipolis | All Media Content | DW.COM |
09.09.2014." DW.COM. N.p., 9 Sept. 2014. Web. 21 Nov. 2016.
O'Neil, James L. "Olympias: The Macedonians Will Never Let Themselves Be Ruled By a
Woman." Prudentia, 1999.
Rufus, Quintus Curtius, John Yardley, and Waldemar Heckel. The History of Alexander.
Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England: Penguin, 1984. Print.
Salisbury, Joyce E. Encyclopedia of Women in the Ancient World. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO, 2001. Online.