FUNCTIONS OF FRENCH CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

In 1789, the first sign of a radical attack on royal power happened. On the 23rd June, three days after splitting from the
Estates-General, a public promise made by the Third Estate not to disperse until the King had agreed to a constitution and a
limitation on his absolute powers was taken in the royal tennis court at Versailles; it was named the Tennis Court Oath. This
was the start of the dismantling of the ancien rgime. The summer of 1789 gave rise to an exciting proposal made by the
Assembly to break the feudal system. The August Decrees abolished: tithes payable to the Church, financial privileges, tax
exemptions, the feudal system, seigniorial courts, venality, personal subjection to a lord and corporate and provincial
privileges.
These decrees marked the end of noble power and the privilege of birth by establishing a society based on civil equality.
Such ideas were supported by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen in 1789 which stated men are born and
remain free and equal in right. Yet the National Assembly still set about the task of reforming France in late 1789. Though
most people waited in anticipation for reforms they hoped would improve their lives, many in the privileged classes prepared
themselves for the worst. The Assembly faced many difficult tasks in six main areas: local government, taxation and finance,
the economy, the legal system, the Church and the constitution.
The first reform programme addressed the issue of local government. As the August Decrees had swept away provincial
estates and municipal corporations, a local administration was vital to maintain food supplies, law and order and taxation.
France was divided into 83 dpartements which were then divided into 547 districts, these were further divided into 43,460
communes (or municipalities). The communes were divided into cantons or subdivisions. Officials were elected according to
new voting qualifications, partly based on wealth but also their merits. The change had involved thousands of new
participants in the national structure of government. Though results were patchy, the structure survived to be developed later.
Also, the changes in local administration reflected the decentralisation that had happened in 1789 as control from the centre
was loosened.
The legal system also was reformed in 1790 and was influenced greatly by the principles of the Enlightenment philosophes.
The law was to be fairer, accountable and open to all where in each canton there was to be a justice of the peace- dealing
with cases previously handled by seigniorial courts. There was to be a single legal system and new courts were introduced,
run by elected and experienced magistrates and judges. Furthermore, cases had to be brought to court within 24 hours and
Courts of Appeal were introduced. More humane sentences or punishments were to be had too. Instead of the medieval,
barbaric practices such as torture, hanging and branding, a new and efficient method of execution was brought in: the
guillotine. These reforms to the legal system were a remarkable step forward from the old, infamous French legal system of
cruelty, inefficiency and corruption.
Another reform programme was economic. One reform was the Le Chapelier law, named after the deputy who proposed it,
which forbade trade unions and employers organisations. Therefore collective bargaining, picketing and strikes were
declared illegal. In contrast, reforms such free trade were introduced. This meant trade could happen without the imposition of
taxes and duties on the goods- the main good being grain. Also, guilds and internal tariffs were abolished, so a national
market was created for the first time. This was further aided by the creation of a single system of weights and measures- the
decimal system- which applied to the whole of France.
A programme of reforms related to the economy dealt with taxation and finance. Indirect taxes- the gabelle, octrois, traitesand the state monopoly on growing, distributing and selling tobacco were abolished, as were the old direct taxes- such as the
taille and vingtimes- and tax farming. The new financial system, which came into effect in January 1791, established three
new direct taxes. The contribution foncire - a land tax from which there were no exemptions or special privileges was the
first. The second was the contribution mobilre- a tax on movable goods such as grain, payable by active citizens and the
patente which was a tax on commerical profits. These reforms were in line with the principle of equality as citizens would pay
in accordance to their ability to do so.
One of the more defining reform programmes of the National Assembly was the Church. The financial crisis had led to the
sale of Church lands and helped forge a link between the class of land proprietors and the revolution. The bourgeoisie had
therefore invested in the revolution by purchasing church lands. Once more, in line with the belief in liberty, equality and
popular sovereignty, a wide range of reforms were desired so the Church had the same status, but less power. Pluralism,
tithes and annates had been abolished which meant the end of Church privileges, as well as protestants being allowed to
receive equal civil rights and toleration. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy brought the Church and local administration
together. Each of the 83 dpartements would have a bishop and the Clergy were to be elected in future. Also, the Pope

would no longer have any say in accepting or rejecting bishops. The Oath of Loyalty in 1790 decreed that the clergy must
take an oath to the Constitution, which split the Clergy. There were now effectively two Catholic Churches in France; those
who had accepted the oath and those who had rejected it. This had effectively destroyed the revolutionary consensus that
had existed since 1789.
Perhaps the most significant reform was the 1791 Constitution. This had been one of the main aims of the Constituent
Assembly as they wanted to replace an absolute monarchy with a constitutional one. Though many details had been
previously worked out, such as the suspensive veto of the King, there were still some parts that were not agreed on until
September 1791. Under the terms of the constitution, the King had the right to appoint his ministers and military commanders
and was given a suspensive veto (this was limited from not being applied to financial or constitutional matters however). In
addition, he was dependent on the Assembly for his foreign policy- as he needed consent before he could declare war.
Finally, he agreed that his office was subordinate to the Assembly, as it passed laws that the King had to obey. The reforms
had redefined the position of the King and the Assembly.
From 1789 to 1791, the Constituent Assembly worked hard in an attempt to replace the governmental and administrative
structure of the ancien rgime. After two years of some success, a new system had been created and the Assembly
disbanded to allow elections to take place. The reforms promoted bourgeois interests, from the way the bourgeoisie came to
dominate local administration to their new found status as a result of the abolition of noble titles. However, the reforms had
still not done enough for the rest of the still deprived Third Estate. Also, the reforms had undermined the Roman Catholic
Church- something which the Clergy did not like as many lost out. In the end, the Assembly had restored a little of the French
populations faith in the government but it had a lasting impact in splitting France. In hindsight, it is easy to say that had the
Assembly handled things better, major hostilities yet to come could have been prevented. Although, at the time the French
citizens were still fed up and not feeling anymore satisfied with their country or the monarchy- regardless of what measures
the Assembly took. It was a sign that the mutual feeling of discontent would end the Monarchy in the troubled and bloody
years to succeed the reforms. What must not be forgotten though is, even two hundred years after the French Revolution, the
reforms of the National Constituent Assembly laid lasting and fundamental foundations to how France is run today.

REIGN OF TERROR
Reign of Terror, also called The Terror, French La Terreur, the period of the French Revolution from September 5, 1793, to
July 27, 1794 (9 Thermidor, year II). With civil war spreading from the Vende and hostile armies surrounding France on all
sides, the Revolutionary government decided to make Terror the order of the day (September 5 decree) and to take harsh
measures against those suspected of being enemies of the Revolution (nobles, priests, hoarders). In Paris a wave of
executions followed. In the provinces, representatives on mission and surveillance committees instituted local terrors. The
Terror had an economic side embodied in the Maximum, a price-control measure demanded by the lower classes of Paris,
and a religious side that was embodied in the program of de-Christianization pursued by the followers of Jacques Hbert.
After the death of Louis XVI in 1793, the Reign of Terror began. The first victim was Marie Antoinette. She had been
imprisoned with her children after she was separated from Louis. First they took her son Louis Charles from her (often called
the lost dauphin, or Louis XVII). He disappeared under suspicious circumstances. Then she led off a parade of prominent and
not-so-prominent citizens to their deaths. The guillotine, the new instrument of egalitarian justice, was put to work. Public
executions were considered educational. Women were encouraged to sit and knit during trials and executions. The
Revolutionary Tribunal ordered the execution of 2,400 people in Paris by July 1794. Across France 30,000 people lost their
lives.
The Terror was designed to fight the enemies of the revolution, to prevent counter-revolution from gaining ground. Most of the
people rounded up were not aristocrats, but ordinary people. A man (and his family) might go to the guillotine for saying
something critical of the revolutionary government. If an informer happened to overhear, that was all the tribunal needed.
Watch Committees around the nation were encouraged to arrest "suspected persons, ... those who, either by their conduct or
their relationships, by their remarks or by their writing, are shown to be partisans of tyranny and federalism and enemies of
liberty" (Law of Suspects, 1793). Civil liberties were suspended. The Convention ordered that "if material or moral proof
exists, independently of the evidence of witnesses, the latter will not be heard, unless this formality should appear necessary,
either to discover accomplices or for other important reasons concerning the public interest." The promises of the Declaration
of the Rights of Man were forgotten. Terror was the order of the day. In the words of Maximilien Robespierre, "Softness to
traitors will destroy us all."
Robespierre was the mastermind of the Reign of Terror. He was the leader of the Committee of Public Safety, the executive
committee of the National Convention, and the most powerful man in France.

During the Terror, the Committee of Public Safety (of which Maximilien de Robespierre was the most prominent member)
exercised virtual dictatorial control over the French government. In the spring of 1794, it eliminated its enemies to the left (the
Hbertists) and to the right (the Indulgents, or followers of Georges Danton). Still uncertain of its position, the committee
obtained the Law of 22 Prairial, year II (June 10, 1794), which suspended a suspects right to public trial and to legal
assistance and left the jury a choice only of acquittal or death. The Great Terror that followed, in which about 1,400 persons
were executed, contributed to the fall of Robespierre on July 27 (9 Thermidor).

During the Reign of Terror, at least 300,000 suspects were arrested; 17,000 were officially executed, and perhaps 10,000
died in prison or without trial.

INTERNAL REFORMS OF NAPOLEAN

Napoleon used to name himself the child of Revolution and he was a supporter of the principles of Revolution, viz., liberty,
equality and fraternity, but he laid greater stress on equality than liberty.In fact, he reestablished the ancient regime of Louis
XIII's time, and with all the rights of Judiciary and Executive vested in him, he used to live in the palace of Tuileries like the
absolute Bourbon kings.
Equality
Napoleon took away the liberty of the people but provided then equality. He completely abolished the distinction between the
lower class and the upper class. Anybody could get the highest post in the government on the basis of merit.Napoleon used to
appoint his servants from all sections like Cromwell. He got the cooperation of Jacobins Girondists both and pardoned the
emigres. Consequently forty thousand families came back to France.
Beautification and Art
Napoleon was a great lover of art and he encouraged it a lot. H wanted to beautify the city of Paris and for this purpose he had
se several artistic objects to Paris from Italy. Seeing the need of the country, Napoleon carried out some constructive works.
He built many wide roads in Paris and shady trees were planted on both sides of these roads. The Royal palace of Versailles
looked much more beautiful than ever during the regime of Napoleon.
The Legion of Honour
Napoleon established the Legion of Honour in order to inject feeling of honour among the French people. The people were ad
to it on the basis of their merit and not on that of hereditariness.
Those who influenced Napoleon by their ability, courage or by any other work of outstanding quality were given the title of
Legion of Honour.
He also developed a new kind of nobility by awarding pieces of land to his well wishers. In fact, both these were against the
principles of Revolution because it gave birth to new classes.
But Napoleon thought that the instituting of the Legion of Honour was necessary to encourage his supporters.
Economic Reforms
The economic condition of France had deteriorated rapidly during the course of Revolution. The taxes were not realised
properly. The trade and commerce and agriculture were badly affected.
The assignats were being devalued rapidly. The government of France was almost on the verge of bankruptcy. Napoleon paid
his earnest attention to reforming the ailing economy. First of all, he cut down the state expenditure and the responsibility for
collecting taxes was made over to the central government.
It proved to be beneficial for the government as well as for the tax-payers. To increase the credit of France he established a
Bank of France. Hayes writes about it, "It is one of the soundest financial institutions in the world."
He abolished the guild system and prohibited the merchants from making fresh guilds, because according to Napoleon
Bonaparte these guilds were the centres of corruption and indiscipline.
In order to settle the disputes between the merchants and the labourers, an Industrial Committee was formed by Napoleon,
but the merchants had their majority in this committee.
Napoleon never endeavoured to bring about economic equality in France. He used to say that the principle of equality in every
sphere was not practicable.
Educational Reforms
During the consulate period, education was nationalised by Napoleon. The payment of the salaries of the trained teachers in
various schools was made by the government but the teachers and the students had to swear fidelity towards the country.
The courses of Paris University and the affiliated colleges were decided by the government. Some limitations were placed on
the study of politics, philosophy and history.
Napoleon used to think that the study of these subjects raised several problems in the smooth way of life. The following
schools were flourishing in France during the reign of Consuls:
(i) Primary Schools:

These schools were under public control and the communes looked after their management through prefects and subprefects, but the state had no control over them.
(ii) Grammar Schools:
The Secondary or the Grammar Schools were under the supervision of the Central Government; and Latin, Greek and French
were taught in these schools.
(iii) High Schools:
They were meant for higher education. They were established in big towns, and the courses in these schools were decided by
the government and appointments of the teachers were also made the government.
(iv) Vocational Schools:
Vocational schools were established vocational training, and military schools were also opened to imp military training to the
students. A Normal School was also started the training of the teachers.
(v) Paris University:
All the educational institutions controlled by the University of Paris. It was essential to pass the Higher Secondary
Examination to get admission in the University.
Religious Reforms (Concordat)
The National Assembly of France had framed a civil constitution for the clergy who had created a breach with the Pope but
Napoleon wanted to narrow down these differences due to the following reason
1. The clergy and the vast majority of the French people were dissatisfied. Not only France but most of the European countries
had a great reverence for the Pope; hence, Napoleon wanted to befriend the Pope.
2. There were a number of Bishops in France who propagating against the Revolution in the country. They getting
honorarium from the British Government. Napoleon wanted to patronise them for the safety of the country but could not be
done without the active cooperation of the Pope.
After a prolonged discussion he succeeded in arriving at agreement on 15th July, 1801 which is known as the Concordat in the
history of Europe. The following were the terms of this agreement
(i) The Pope agreed to the decision of the revolutionary period that the property of the Church which was confiscated during
the course of Revolution would not be given back.
(ii) The educational institutions would be controlled by the state. No official of the Church was to be allowed to open
educational institution without the prior permission of state.
(iii) No clergyman was to be allowed to leave his parish.
(iv) All the Bishops would be appointed by the Pope from the proposed list of the state. The lower clergy were to be appointed
by the Bishops.
(v) All the officials of the Church would receive their salary and take an oath of loyalty to the government.
(vi) The clergymen who were imprisoned during the course of Revolution were to be released; and those who had fled France,
were to be permitted to return to France.
(vii) Catholicism was declared the state religion and the right of public worship was granted to the Catholic Church.
Thus the Church became a part of the state due to the Concordat, and Napoleon received the favours of his opponent Church.
He did never approve the atrocities perpetrated by the miscreants in the name of liberty.
Napoleon held the view that the French Revolution was an outcome of social maladjustment and economic inequality. He,
therefore, curtailed liberty and chose equality.

TENNIS COURT OATH

On 20 June 1789, the members of the French Estates-General for the Third Estate, who had begun to call themselves
the National Assembly, took the Tennis Court Oath (French: Serment du Jeu de Paume), vowing "not to separate, and to
reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established." It was a pivotal event in the
early days of the French Revolution.
The Estates-General had been called to address the country's fiscal and agricultural crisis, but immediately after convening in
May 1789, they had become bogged down in issues of representationparticularly, whether they would vote by head (which
would increase the power of the Third Estate) or by order.
[1]

On 17 June, the Third Estate, led by the comte de Mirabeau, began to call themselves the National Assembly. On the
morning of 20 June, the deputies were shocked to discover that the chamber door was locked and guarded by soldiers.
Immediately fearing the worst and anxious that a royal attack by King Louis XVI was imminent, the deputies congregated in a
nearby indoor jeu de palme court in the Saint-Louis district of the city of Versailles, near the Palace of Versailles.
There, 576 of the 577 members from the Third Estate took a collective oath "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever
circumstances require, until the constitution of the kingdom is established". The only person who did not join was Joseph
Martin-Dauch from Castelnaudary, who would only execute decisions made by the king.

THE FALL OF BASTILE

Louis XVI was worried by the action of the Third Estate and threatened to dissolve the Estates General after the tumultuous
events surrounding the Tennis Court Oath. Rural and urban uprisings throughout France at this time saved the Third Estate
from the King's intervention. The most famous of these uprisings is the Fall of the Bastille, which occurred on July 14, 1789.
The increased mob activity in Paris had resulted in the formation of a permanent committee to keep order. This organized
popular force broke into a royal armory and collected arms and then stormed the Bastille, incited by a rousing speech
delivered by Camille Desmoulins on July 12, 1789.
He directed the people of Paris to gather as many weapons as possible in order to save themselves from tyranny of the king.
His venomous speech impressed the mob enormously. They started shouting slogans, looting the people in the streets of
Paris and collecting weapons from wherever they could. By 14th of July they could be able to collect a number of weapons
along with two big canons.All these armed persons were in search of gun-powder. At this juncture some one from the mob
directed them that there was enough of gun-powder and bombs in the fortress of Bastille which was a prison the political
accused.The mob advanced towards the fortress of Bastille and raided it. De Lawney was in charge of this fortress and his
soldiers fought very bravely against the crowd for some time.About two hundred people were killed in this struggle, and at last
De Lawney had to surrender before the mob because there was no more ammunition in the fortress to continue the
resistance.The infuriated mob cut down the in charge of the castle along with this brave soldiers and speared their severed
heads paraded them in the streets of Paris. They destroyed the fortress completely and released all the prisoners.
The fall of the fortress of Bastille has a great importance in the history of Europe. It was a victory of liberal values over the
absolute monarchy.It created an atmosphere of horror and terror in the hearts of the absolute monarchs in Europe, and they
began to think of their own fate.

CONCORDAT OF 1801
Concordat of 1801, agreement reached on July 15, 1801, between Napoleon Bonaparte and papal and clerical
representatives in both Rome and Paris, defining the status of the Roman Catholic Church in France and ending
the breach caused by the church reforms and confiscations enacted during the French Revolution. The Concordat was
formally promulgated on Easter day, 1802.
In the agreement the first consul (Napoleon) was given the right to nominate bishops; the bishoprics and parishes were
redistributed; and the establishment of seminaries was allowed. The pope (Pius VII) condoned the actions of those who had
acquired church property, and by way of compensation the government engaged to give the bishops and curs suitable
salaries. The government added to it unilateral provisions of Gallican tendencies, which were known as the Organic Articles.
After having been the law of the church of France for a century, it was denounced by the French government in 1905, when
by the Separation Law church and state were sundered.
The main terms of the Concordat of 1801 between France and Pope Pius VII included:

A declaration that "Catholicism was the religion of the great majority of the French" but not the official state religion, thus
maintaining religious freedom, in particular with respect to Protestants.
The Church was to be free to exercise its worship in public in accordance with police regulations that the Government
deems necessary for the public peace. The authority to determine if a public religious observance would violate the
public peace, resided with each mayor who had the power to prohibit a public ceremony if he considered it a threat to
peace his commune.
The Papacy had the right to depose bishops, but this made little difference, because the French government still
nominated them.
The state would pay clerical salaries and the clergy swore an oath of allegiance to the state.
The Catholic Church gave up all its claims to Church lands that were confiscated after 1790.
Sunday was reestablished as a "festival", effective Easter Sunday, 18 April 1802. The rest of the French Republican
Calendar, which had been abolished, was not replaced by the traditional Gregorian Calendar until 1 January 1806.

The Concordat was abrogated by the law of 1905 on the separation of Church and state.