Diploma in Civil Engineering

PREPARED BY :
NORINI BINTI SHAMSUDIN
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Apply appropriate fluid concept to

determine parameters that act in
hydrostatic device and act on immersed
surface

At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:

Define velocity and flow rate

State Continuity equation

Calculate the velocity and flow rate using Continuity equation

for
a. tapered pipe
b. branched pipe

At the end of this chapter, student should be able to:

Apply Bernoullis equation , its application and relationship to

following parameters
a. Relate pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential

energy in terms of head

b. Principle of conservation of energy
c. Calculate flow rate through:
i.

Uniform pipe

ii. Tapered pipe

iii. Venturi meter
iv. Small and large orifice

DEFINE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE

Diploma in Civil Engineering

The average speed of an object is defined

as the distance traveled divided by the
time elapsed.
It is generally denoted by v.
Unit = m/s

v=

s = distance travel
t = time

DEFINE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE

Diploma in Civil Engineering

The quantity of a liquid, flowing per second

through a section of a pipe or a channel.
Also known as rate of discharge or simply
discharge. It is generally denoted by Q.
Unit = m3/s

Q = Av

A = Cross-sectional area of the pipe

v = velocity of the liquid

STATE CONTINUITY EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

If an incompressible
liquid is continuously
flowing through a
pipe or a channel
(whose cross-sectional
area my or may not be
constant) the quantity
of liquid passing per
second is the same at
all section

Figure 6.1. Continuity of a liquid flow

1 = 2 = 2

CALCULATE THE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE USING CONTINUITY EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Water is flowing through a uniformly

tapered pipe having end diameters of
150mm and 50mm respectively. Find
the discharge at the larger end and
velocity at the smaller end, if the
velocity of water at the larger end is
2m/s

CALCULATE THE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE USING CONTINUITY EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Water is flowing through a pipe of

100 mm diameter with an average
velocity of 10 m/s. Determine the rate
of discharge of the water. Also
determined the velocity of water at the
other end of the pipe, if the diameter of
the pipe is gradually changed to
200 mm

CALCULATE THE VELOCITY AND FLOW RATE USING CONTINUITY EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Figure 6.2

A pipe AB branches into two pipes C and D as

shown in figure 3.2. The pipe has diameter of
0.45m at A, 0.3m at B, 0.2m at C and 0.15m at D.
Find the discharge at A, if the velocity of water at
A is 2 m/s. Also find out the velocities at B and
D, if velocity at C is 4 m/s.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

EXERCISE 6.1
1. The water is flowing through a pipe line of 100 mm
diameter with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. Determine the
discharge through the pipe. [Ans. 0.0118 m3/s]
2. Find the size of pipe, which has to discharge an oil, at
the rate of 2 m3/s and of specific gravity 0.8 with a
velocity of 3 m/s . [Ans. 0.92m]
3. What is the flow rate of water in l/s for a 0.2m
diameter pipe, if the average velocity of flow is 1.5m/s.
if the pipe reduces to 0.1m din diameter at another
section. What is the velocity of flow at that section?
[Ans. 47.1 l/s; 6 m/s]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

4. Water runs through a water main of cross-sectional area

0.4 m2 with a velocity of 6 m/s. Calculate the velocity of
the water in the pipe when the pipe tapers down to a
cross-sectional area of 0.3 m2. [Ans. 8 m/s]
5. Water enters a typical garden hose of diameter 1.6 cm
with a velocity of 3 m/s. Calculate the exit velocity of
water from the garden hose when a nozzle of diameter
0.5 cm is attached to the end of the hose. [Ans. 30.6
m/s]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

6. A water tank has 3cm diameter at

inlet A, 4cm diameter outlet at B
and 3cm diameter controllable inlet
at C (Figure 6.3). if the velocity of
water at the inlet A is 2 m/s and the
velocity of flow going out at B is
1.85 m/s. Calculate the velocity at
the inlet C? [Ans: 1.85 m/s]
7. A pipe 0.6m in diameter branches
into two pipes of diameters 0.4m
and 0.3m (Figure 6.4). The average
velocity in main pipe is 4.5 m/s.
Determine the velocity in the 0.3m
diameter pipe if the average velocity
in the 0.4m diameter pipe is 3.5m/s.
[Ans: 11.88 m/s]

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

8.

9.

A pipe PQ branches into two pipes

R and S shown in Figure 6.5. The
pipe has diameter 400mm at P,
300m at Q; 250mm at R and
200mm at S. Determine the
discharge at P if the velocity at P is
2m/s. Also determine the velocities
at Q and R, if the velocity at S is
4m/s
[Ans: 0.25 m3/s; 2.86m/s; 2.48m/s]

Water flows through a pipe PQ 1200mm

diameter and 3.5m/s and the passes through
a pipe QR 1500mm diameter. At R, the pipe
branches. Branch RS is 800mm in diameter
1
and carries of the flow in PQ. The flow
4
velocity in branch RT is 3m/s. Calculate the
rate of flow in PQ, the velocity in QR, the
velocity in RS and the diameter of RT.
[Ans: 3.96m3/s; 2.24m/s; 1.97m/s; 1.12m]

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

BERNOULLIS EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Bernoullis theorem states that for a perfect

incompressible stream, the total energy of a particle
remains the same, while the particle moves from one
point to another.
It is assume that there are no losses due to friction in the
pipe.
2

Where,

2
=
2

BERNOULLIS EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

The Bernoullis equation as

expresses above can be
applied between any two
points, 1 and 2 (or 2 and 3
or 1 and 3) as shown in
Figure 6.7 in a steady flow
of an incompressible fluid
as

12 1
22 2
1 +
+
= 2 +
+
2
2

Figure 6.7

BERNOULLIS EQUATION

Diploma in Civil Engineering

=
2
=
2

= per unit weight is known as pressure head

Diploma in Civil Engineering

States that the total amount of energy within an

isolated system is constant.
Although energy can be transformed from one form
into another, energy cannot be created or destroyed.

Where and are the total rate of energy transfer into

and out of the control volume, and is the rate of change

of energy within the control volume.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

A pipe is 50mm in diameter and

pressure is 200kN/m2 with an average
velocity of 2m/s. Plumbing is at level
of 9m from datum. Calculate the total
energy when water flows through pipe.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Figure 6.8

The diameter of a pipe changes from 200 mm at a section

5 meters above datum to 50 mm at section 3 meters
above datum (Figure 6.8). The pressure of water at first
section is 500kPa. If the velocity of flow at the first
section is 1 m/s, determine the intensity of pressure at
the second section.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Figure 6.9

A pipe 300 meters long has a slope 1 in 100 and

tapers from 1 meter diameter at the higher end to
0.5 meter at the lower end. The quantity of water
flowing is 900 liters/second. If the pressure the
higher end is 70kPa, find the pressure at the lower
end

EXERCISE
6.2
Diploma in Civil Engineering
CC303 Hydraulics I
1. A uniformly tapering pipe has a 120mm and 80mm
diameters at its ends. If the velocity of water at the larger
end is 2m/s, find the discharge at the larger end and the
velocity head at the smaller. [Ans. 22.62 liters/s ; 1.03m]
2. Find the total head of water flowing with the velocity of 8
m/s under a pressure 80kPa. The center line of the pipe is
5m above the datum line. [Ans. 16.41m]
3.

A horizontal pipe 100m long uniformly tapers from 300mm

diameter to 200mm diameter. What is the pressure at the
smaller end, if the pressure at the larger end is 100kPa and
the pipe is discharging 50 liters of water per second. [Ans.
99.1kPa]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

4. A pipe 5 meter long is inclined at angle of 15o with

the horizontal. The smaller section of the pipe,
which is at lower level, is of 80 mm diameter and
the larger section of the pipe is 240 mm diameter
as shown in Figure 6.10. Determine the difference
of pressure between the two sections, if the pipe is
uniformly tapering and the velocity of water at the
smaller section is 1m/s
[Ans. 12.2 kN/m2]

Figure 6.10

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

5. Water is flowing through a pipe at the rate 35

liters/s having diameters 200 mm and 100 mm at
section 1 and 2 respectively. The section 1 is 4m
above the datum and section 2 is 2m above the
datum. Find the pressure at section 2 if the
pressure at section 1 is 40kPa. [Ans. 50.3kPa]
6. A 200 m long pipe slope down at 1 in 100 and
tapers from 0.25m diameter to 0.15m diameter at
the lower end. If the pipe carries 100 liters of oil of
specific gravity 0.85, find the pressure at the lower
end. The upper end gauge reads 50kPa. [Ans. 45.1
kPa]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Figure 6.11

A venturimeter is an apparatus for finding out the

discharge of a liquid flowing in a pipe. Its consist of the
following three parts:
a) Convergent cone
b) Throat
c) Divergent cone

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

a) Convergent cone
It is a short pipe which converges from a
diameter 1 to a smaller diameter 2 . The
convergent cone is also known as inlet of
the venturimeter.
b) Throat
It is a small portion of circular pipe in which
the diameter 2 is kept constant.
c) Divergent cone
It is a pipe, which diverges from a diameter
2 to a large diameter 1 . The divergent cone
is also known as outlet of the venturimeter.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

The liquid, while flowing through the venturimeter, is

accelerated between the section 1 and 2.

As a result of acceleration, the velocity of the liquid at section

2 (the throat) become higher than that at section 1.

This increase in velocity results in considerably decreasing

the pressure at section 2.

The liquid, while flowing through the venturimeter, is

decelerated between the section 2 and 3.
As a result, the velocity of liquid decrease which consequently
increase the pressure.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

1 2
12 22
1 2
12 22

H=

=
=
= different of pressure at entrance and throat read by a manometer

Figure 6.12

One ventury meter has a diameter of 76mm and throat of

38mm as shown in Figure 6.12. The pressure difference is
measured by mercury manometer. The level of mercury
in two different arms of the manometer is 266mm. If the
2200 liters of water flow through the ventury meter in 4
minutes, determine the coefficient of discharge

Diploma in Civil Engineering

1 2
12 22

1 = 0.076
2 0.0762
1 =
=
= 4.536 103 2
4
4
2 = 0.038
2 0.0382
2 =
=
= 1.134 103 2
4
4

2.23
= =
= 9.17 103 3 /
4 60

Diploma in Civil Engineering

= 13600 /3 , = 1000 /3 , = 0.266

13600 1000 0.266
=
=
= 3.352

1000
=

1 2
12

22

9.17 103 =

9.17

103

= 0.96

2
(4.536 103 ) 1.134 103
4.536

103 2

4.171 105
=
4.392 103

1.134

103 2

2 9.81 3.352

Figure 6.13

One ventury meter has a diameter of 20cm and throat of

12.5cm as shown in Figure 6.13. The pressure difference
is measured by mercury manometer. The level of
mercury in two different arms of the manometer is
87.8cm. Calculate the discharge at the throat.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

An opening, in a vessel, through which the liquid

flow out is known as an orifice.
The usual purpose of an orifice is the measurement
of discharge,
An orifice may be provided in vertical side of a
vessel or in the base.
There are many types of orifice depending upon
their size; example: small orifice and large orifice

Diploma in Civil Engineering

orifice

orifice

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Consider a tank, fitted

with an orifice, as shown
in Figure 6.14
The liquid particles, in
order to flow out through
the orifice, move towards
the orifice from all
direction.
It may be noted, that the
liquid particles lose some
energy, while taking the
turn to enter into the
orifice.

Figure 6.14

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Thus, observed that the

jet, after leaving the
orifice get contracted.
The maximum
contraction takes place
at a section slightly on
the downstream side of
the orifice, where the
jet is more or less
horizontal.
Such a section is known
as vena contracta as
shown by the section C-C
in Figure 6.14

Figure 6.14

Diploma in Civil Engineering

The ratio of area of the jet at vena contracta to the

area of the orifice
,
=
,

The ratio of actual velocity of the jet at vena

contracta to the theoretical velocity of the jet
,
=
,

Diploma in Civil Engineering

The ratio of actual discharge through an orifice to

the theoretical discharge

=


=



=

Diploma in Civil Engineering

, =

, = 2

, = 2

, = 2

Diploma in Civil Engineering

A jet of water issues from an orifice

of diameter 16mm under a constant
head 1.5m. Find the coefficient of
discharge for the orifice, when the
actual discharge is 0.65 litres/s

Diploma in Civil Engineering

= 2
= 0.016 , = 0.65 103 3 /
2 0.0162
=
=
= 2.01 104 2
4
4

= 2
0.65 103 = 2.01 104 2 9.81 1.5
=

0.65103
1.09103

= 0.60

Diploma in Civil Engineering

A 60 mm diameter orifice is
discharging water under a head of
9m. Calculate the real discharge
and the velocity at vena contracta, if
Cd = 0.625 and Cv = 0.98.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

2
4

2
2

Diploma in Civil Engineering

A jet of water issues from an

orifice under a head of 160mm.
Determine the coefficient of
velocity of the jet, if the horizontal
distance travelled by a point on
the jet is 320mm and vertical
distance is 170mm.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

= 0.16 , = 0.32 , = 0.17

2
4
0.322
40.320.17

= 0.69

Diploma in Civil Engineering

Water of discharge at the rate of 98.2

liters/s through a 120mm diameter
vertical sharp edged orifice under a
constant head of 10m. A point, on the
jet measured from the vena contracta
has co-ordinates of 4.5m horizontal and
0.54m vertical. Find the values of Cv, Cc
and Cd the orifice.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

3
2
2
(2
3

3
2
1 )

Diploma in Civil Engineering

A rectangular orifice of 1.5m wide and

0.5m deep is discharging water from a
tank. If the water level in the tank is 3m
above the top edge of the orifice, find
the discharge through the orifice. Take
the coefficient discharge for the orifice
as 0.6.

Diploma in Civil Engineering

EXERCISE 6.3
1. A flow passes through an orifice of
diameter 25mm under a head of water
1.22 is 1.53 x 10-3 m3/s. Calculate the
discharge coefficient. [Ans. 0.63]
2. Find the discharge through a small
orifice of 150mm deep and 400mm wide
under a constant head of 250mm. Take
Cd as 0.625. [Ans. 0.083 m3/s]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

3. A jet of water issues from an orifice

under a head of 160mm. Determine
the coefficient of velocity of the jet, if
the horizontal distance travelled by a
point on the jet is 320mm and vertical
distance is 170mm. [Ans. 0.63]
4. Find the discharge through a small
orifice of 150mm deep and 400mm wide
under a constant head of 250mm. Take
Cd as 0.625. [Ans. 0.083 m3/s]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

5. In laboratory, 53.5 litres of water per

second is collected through a small orifice
of 100 mm deep and 250mm wide under a
constant head of 600mm. Find the
coefficient of discharge. [Ans. 0.622]

6. A large rectangular orifice of 1.2m wide

and 0.6m deep is discharging water from a
tank, where the level is 0.6m above the
upper edge of orifice. Find the discharge
through the orifice, is the coefficient of
discharge as 0.6. [Ans. 1.83 m3/s]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

CC303 Hydraulics I

7.

A horizontal venturimeter of size 0.5m (inlet) and

0.25 (throat) is used to measured the flow of oil of
specific gravity 0.9. The discharge of oil through
venturimeter is 100 l/s. Find the reading of
mercury differential manometer. Take the
coefficient of dicharge as 0.98. [Ans. 0.0146m]

8.

A horizontal venturimeter 20 cm (inlet) and 10

cm (throat) is used to measure the flow of oil of
specific gravity 0.7. Determine the difference of
mercury manometer reading if the coefficient of
discharge as 1.0. [Ans. 2.829 m]

Diploma in Civil Engineering

9. A 40 mm diameter orifice is provided in a tank

containing water to a height of 1.2m above the
centre of the orifice. The values of Cv and Cc are 0.98
and 0.62. Find:
i.
Coefficient of discharge, Cd
ii.
Theoretical discharge
iii.
Actual discharge
[Ans: 0.608; 6.097 l/s ; 3.706 l/s]
10. Water discharge at the rate of 70 l/s through 10 cm
diameter vertical sharp-edged orifice placed under a
constant head of 9 m. A point on the jet measured
from vena contracta of the jet has coordinates 4.5m
horizontal and 0.6m vertical. Find the coefficients:
[Ans: Cd = 0.67; Cv = 0.968 ; Cc = 0.69]