Perception and

Design

Copyright, 1998-2013 Qiming

GEOG1150.

Perception and Design

Cartographic design
Colour theory and models
Patterns
Typography and lettering the map

Perception and Design

Cartographic design
Design is creation.
Objectives of map design.

General reference map.

Thematic map.

Functional design.

There are almost unlimited options for

organising the visual character of the
display.
Most design choices are compromises.

Perception and Design

Design process
Draw heavily on imagination and
creativity - graphic ideation
Develop a specific graphic plan by
analysing various alternatives and
weigh them within the limits of the
general plan
Prepare detailed specifications for
map construction
Design prototypes

Perception and Design

Perceptual considerations

Graphic elements

Point marks - position

Line marks - direction and position: a
linear array of points
Area marks - extent, direction and
position: a 2-dimensional array of points

Perception and Design

Perceptual and cognitive

limitations

Symbol differences in a display must be

perceptible to be of use.
This is determined by two variables, namely
just noticeable difference (JND) and least
practical difference (LPD).
JND is the smallest difference that can be
reliably perceived between symbols, sizes,
colours, shapes, etc.
LPD is the smallest difference that can be
produced by the cartographic process.

Perception and Design

Perceptual and cognitive

limitations
(cont.)

In manual process of map-making, LPD

limits the use of symbols.
JND becomes more critical in computergenerated map products.
JND is largely determined by human eyes
sensitivity to various graphical objects. Some
graphical codes get through human eyes
better than the other.
Graphical perception is dependent upon
cognition - the knowledge or understanding
of phenomena.

Perception and Design

Visual variables

Primary visual variables

Shape
Size
Orientation
Hue (colour)
Value (colour)
chroma (colour)

Secondary visual variables

Arrangement (pattern)
Texture (pattern)
Orientation (pattern)

Perception and Design

Primary visual variables

The primary
visual variables
with some
examples of
their simple
application to
the classes of
symbols.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

Secondary visual variables

The secondary visual variables with some examples of their

simple application to the basic graphic elements.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

10

Classes of symbols
Point-emphasising symbols
Line-emphasising symbols
Area-emphasising symbols
Volume-emphasising symbols

Perception and Design

11

Classes of
symbols

(cont.)

Some examples of
the four classes of
symbols (point-,
line-, area-, and
volumeemphasising) and
how they might be
used for a few of
the kinds of
qualitative and
quantitative data.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

12

Examples of thematic
maps

A map is a two-dimensional scale model of a

part of the surface of the earth.
Common thematic maps.

Choropleth maps show relative magnitudes of

continuous variables as they occur within the
boundaries of unit areas.
Contour/Isarithmic maps represent quantities by
lines of equal value and emphasise gradients
among the values.

Perception and Design

13

Choropleth maps

Perception and Design

14

Contour/isarithmic maps

Perception and Design

15

Other kinds of maps

Dot maps (e.g. Population)
Symbol maps (e.g. Labour force)
Line maps (e.g. Transport)
3-dimensional maps (e.g. Landform)
Animation maps (e.g. Weather)

Perception and Design

16

Dot maps

Perception and Design

17

Symbol maps

Perception and Design

18

Line maps

Perception and Design

19

Animation maps

Perception and Design

20

Animation maps

Perception and Design

(cont.)

21

Other graphics output

1974
1984
1994

100

Bar chart
Pie chart
Scatter plot
Histogram

Rural
21%

Bar chart
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Pie chart
140

1974

Band 5

120

1984

100

1994

80
60
40
20
0

50

Scatter plot
Perception and Design

Urban
39%

Suburban
40%

Rural

Urban

50

1994

100

Histogram
22

Design principles

Legibility - graphic symbols must be easy to

read and understand

Visual contrast
Figure-ground organisation

e.g. Size

Differentiation, closed forms, familiarity, lightness,

good contour, detail, and size

Hierarchical organisation - visual layering

stereogrammic, extensional and subdivisional

Perception and Design

23

Legibility
Viewing
distance (m)
0.5

Approximate minimum
sizes for legibility of
point symbols.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

Size
(width, mm)
0.3

1.15

2.9

10

5.8

15

8.7

20

11.6

25

14.5

30

17.4
24

Visual contrast

Size contrast of lines.

Uniformity produces
unpleasant monotony.
The areas that are most
interesting are those
with with considerable
contrast.
After Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

25

Figure-ground organisation

Four simple sketch maps to illustrate various aspects

of the figure-ground relationship.
Perception and Design

From Robinson,
et al., 1995
26

Hierarchical organisation

An example of stereogrammic hierarchical graphic

organisation: (A): all elements lie in the same visual plane;
(B): the land seems to be above the water, and mordern
boundaries
rise
above the visual plane of the land.
Perception and
Design
27
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Stereogrammic organisation
Some examples of
depth cues that may
be useful in
stereogrammic
organisation. (A),
(B), (C) and (D)
illustrate various
kinds of
superimposition. (E)
illustrates a
progression of size,
and (F) illustrates a
progression of
value. (G) depth
cues may be used
additively.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

28

Extensional organisation
An example of
extensional
hierarchical
graphic
organisation in
which a set of
roads is graded
according to
relative
importance.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

29

Sub-divisional
organisation
An example of subdivisional
hierarchical
organisation in
which the primary
division is between
humid and dry
climates, with a
secondary subdivision based on
temperature, and a
tertiary subdivision based on
desert versus
steppe.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

30

Design planning
The graphic outline
Composition
Visual balance
Contextual items

Titles
Legends
Insets

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31

The graphic outline

The fundamental
organisational elements:
1. The place Europe.
2. The features the two
distributions.
3. The position of the
features with respect to
Europe.
4. The relative position of
the two distributions.
(A): 1-2-3-4, (B): 2-3-4-1,
(C): 3-1-4-2, (D): 4-2-3-1.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

32

Composition

Explanatory aids such as titles, legends, scales, insets and

direction indicators are also standard components of map
composition. They may be arranged in various ways in the
graphic organisation of a map.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

33

Visual balance
Visual
centre
Actual
centre

Left: The visual as opposed to the actual centre of a rectangle.

Balancing is accomplished around the visual centre.
Right: Visual balance. (A), (B), (C) and (D) show different
degrees of balance. (A) and (B) are analogous to a child and an
adult on a seesaw. (C) and (D) introduce relative density or
visual weight,
masses being heavier.
Perceptiondarker
and Design
34
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Sketches of a map

Preliminary sketches of a map made in order to arrive at a

desirable layout and balance.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

35

Contextual items

Examples of variations in the prominence of map legends. Note

the operation of the principles of figure-ground relationships.
From Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

36

Colour
Light, or different colours, is a narrow
frequency band within the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Visible colours are electromagnetic
wave with the wavelength of
approximately 700nm (red) to 400nm
(violet).

Perception and Design

37

10-3 10-2 10-1

101

102

103

104

105

106

INVISIBLE

107

et
r
m

et
r

tim

108

109 1010 1011 nm

INVISIBLE

Gamma and X-rays

400

ce
n

ill

im

et
r

Electromagnetic spectrum

Infrared

500

UV

Radio Microwave - Television

600

700

Infrared

VISIBLE LIGHT

Perception and Design

nm

38

Colour theory and models

Using colour on maps is one of the
most interesting and challenging
aspects of cartography.
Colour is a perceptual phenomenon, a
product of our mental processing of
electromagnetic radiation detected by
our eyes.
A colour is measured by its hue,
brightness (value) and saturation
(chroma).

Perception and Design

39

P() energy density

Components of a colour
Dominant
wavelength (hue)
e2

e2 = e1:
saturation = 0
e2 > 0 and e1 0:
saturation 100%
Area brightness

e1

400
Violet
Perception and Design

Wavelength (nm)

700
Red
40

The additive colour system

Perception and Design

41

The RGB colour model

Blue = (0, 0, 1)

Magenta = (1, 0, 1)

Black = (0, 0, 0)

Cyan = (0, 1, 1)

White = (1, 1, 1)

Green = (0, 1, 0)

Red = (1, 0, 0)

Perception and Design

Yellow = (1, 1, 0)

42

The subtractive colour

system
BGR

G+R=Y
-B

BGR

B+R=M
-G

BGR

G
-B -R

Perception and Design

43

The CMY colour model

The Relation
between RGB
and CMY

C=1-R
M=1-G
Y=1-B
Perception and Design

44

YIQ colour model

Used in US commercial colour television

broadcasting.
The Y component of YIQ is not yellow but
luminance, and is defined to be the same as
the CIE Y primary.
The chromaticity is encoded in I and Q.
The RGB-to-YIQ mapping is defined as:

0.11
Y 0.30 0.59

I 0.60 0.28 0.32

Q 0.21 0.52 0.31

Perception and Design

R

G
B

45

The HSI colour model

Colour (hue).
Purity (saturation).
Brightness (intensity).
The HSI coordinates are derived using
the RGB colour cube with axes
redefined according to the shade of
colour, the purity of colour and the
brightness of colour.

Perception and Design

46

The HSI colour model

Perception and Design

47

(cont.)

HSV colour model

HSV System User-oriented
system, being
based on the
intuitive appeal
of the artists
tint, shade and
tone.

Perception and Design

48

HLS colour model

HLS System - is
defined in the
double-hexcone
subset of a
cylindrical
space.

Perception and Design

49

Patterns
Commonly used as a qualitative area
symbol for depicting area features.
Also used to add graphic
distinctiveness to uniformly coloured
areas, especially on maps with a large
number of classes.

Perception and Design

50

Categories of patterns
Coarse line patterns
Dot patterns
Pictographic patterns
Reversed patterns

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51

Categories of patterns

An assortment
of common
line, dot,
pictographic,
and reversed
patterns.
From Robinson, et al.,
1995

Perception and Design

52

Use of patterns

A simple monochrome map contrasting the use of

parallel line and dot patterns. Line patterns are
perceptually unstable, and all but the finest textures
should be used with caution.
Perception and Design

53

From Robinson, et al., 1995

Typography and lettering

the map

Elements of typographic design

Type style (typeface)

Type form (style)
Type size - measured by points (1 point =
1/72 0.35mm)
Type colour

Lettering the map

Positioning

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54

History of map lettering

A portion of one of the maps in Sir Robert Dudleys atlas, Dell

Arcano del Mare (1646-1647).
Cited in Robinson, et al., 1995

Perception and Design

55

Type style
Normal

Italic

Bold

Bold Italic

Times Roman

Times Roman

Times Roman

Times Roman

Helvetica

Helvetica

Helvetica

Helvetica

Courier

Courier

Courier

Courier

Bookman

Bookman

Bookman

Bookman

Century
Gothic

Century
Gothic

Sans Serif

Century Gothic Century Gothic

Comic Sans

Comic Sans

Comic Sans

Sans Serif

Sans Serif

Sans Serif

Perception and Design

Comic Sans

56

Type form
Arial

Arial Black

Arial Italic

Arial Black Italic

Arial Bold

Arial Narrow

Arial Bold Italic

Arial Narrow Italic

Arial Narrow Bold
Arial Narrow Bold Italic

Perception and Design

57

Lettering the map

Comparison between inappropriately positioning type

(left) and good design practice (right).
Perception and Design

From58
Robinson, et al., 1995